8/18/2015
Subject
Fading mechanisms
Frequency Dispersion
Time Dispersion
RSL Fluctuation
Frequency Dispersion
Time Dispersion
Time Domain
Interpretation
Channel variations
Fast Fading
Correlation Distance
Delay spread
InterSymbol Interference
Channel equalization
Frequency
Domain
Interpretation
Doppler spread
Intercarrier Interference
Effect of Fading
Spectral density
TX BW > Channel BW
Bs > Bc
Bs
Bc
Freq.
Spectral density
Freq.
Statistical Fluctuations
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Area-mean power
P (dB)
Local-mean power
Instantaneous power
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FMT: Diversity
Diversity exploits the random nature of radio propagation
by finding the independent signal paths. If one path
undergo a deep fade, another path may have a strong
signal.
Usually employed to reduce the depth and duration of fade
experienced by receiver in flat fading channel.
Types of diversity: spatial, frequency, time, and polarization
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Spatial Diversity
Use two or more receiving antenna
While one antenna sees a null signal, the others
may receive a peak signals.
The received signals are then combined and
processed by an algorithm to get best reception.
Can be implemented in both BS and MS receiver
Spatial Diversity
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ro(t)
wo
d
r1(t)
w
1
rK(t)
y(t)
wK
Processor
Switching/selection
Memilih sinyal terkuat dari dua sinyal sesaat (instantaneously):
~1 dB hysteresis saat pemilihan sinyal
Menyebabkan pergeseran fasa random (random phase shifts)
Akan menjadi problem bagi yang menggunakan modulasi fasa seperti
IS-136, IS-95, where switch times between antennas is restricted to the
boundaries of data bit fields
Struktur paling sederhana, dgn peningkatan C/(I+n) antara 1.5 sampai 4 dB
Equal gain
Adaptive phase shift hardware digunakan untuk menggeser fasa salah satu
kanal , disamakan fasanya dengan fasa kanal yang lain, untuk kemudian
dijumlahkan secara koheren
1.5 dB lebih baik dari switching diversity
Maximal ratio
Seperti equal gain, tetapi sinyal yang lemah dikuatkan pada level rata-rata
yang sama dengan sinyal yang kuat sebelum dijumlahkan
Paling kompleks , tetapi tipikalnya 2dB lebih baik dari switching diversity.
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Selective Combiner
Ant. 1
G1
Ant. 2
G2
Switching
Logic
or
Demodulator
Ant. m
Gm
Variable gain
output
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Selective Combining
Receiver only select one strongest signal to detect.
If average SNR of received signal in a branch = G, and threshold SNR
= g, then probability that M branches of antenna receive signals with
SNR below the threshold is:
In other word, probability that received signal SNR above the threshold
is :
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Selective Combining
Answer:
Threshold SNR = g = 10 dB, G = 20 dB, g/G = 0.1
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Selective Combining
Perbaikan SNR:
1
=
G k =1 k
Pada contoh di atas:
1
= = 1 0.5 .333 0.25 = 2.083
G k =1 k
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Ant. 1
G1
Ant. 2
G2
g1
g2
Co-phase
and
gM
output
Detector
Sum
Ant. m
Gm
gm
Adaptive control
Variable gain
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( k - 1)!
k -1
(
g
/
G
)
g ) = e -g / G
k =1 ( k - 1)!
M
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SNR improvement:
M
gM = G = M G
k =1
gM
G
=M
gM
G
= M = 4
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Frequency Diversity
Use two or more carrier frequency for transmission with spacing about
2 5 % f o.
Need to employ two or more Transmitter and Receiver
Improvement factor :
F1
F1
TX
TX
TX
F2
F2
RF
Branching
Network
RX
F3
TX
RF
Branching
Network
F3
RX
Combiner
Combiner
RX
F4
F4
RX
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Time Diversity
Interleaver
Read out bits to modulator one row at a time
Read in
Coded bits
from
encoder
m+1
m+2
m
r
o
w
s
2m
nm
n columns
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Channel Encoding
Channel encoding is done by encode the data into a special form, and
introduce redundancies in the transmitted data.
It protects data/information from error and distortion introduced by the
channel.
Redundant bits increase data rate hence the bandwidth, but improve
BER performance especially in fading channel.
Reduce BW efficiency of the link in high SNR condition, but provide
excellent performance in low SNR condition
Two types mostly used: Block Codes, Convolutional Codes and
Turbo Codes
Channel Coding meningkatkan kinerja hubungan small scale dengan
penambahkan bit data dalam pesan yang dikirimkan sehingga jika terjadi
suatu pelemahan seketika itu terjadi dalam saluran, data masih dapat
dipulihkan pada penerima
Channel coding digunakan oleh penerima untuk mendeteksi atau
memperbaiki beberapa (atau semua) dari kesalahan terdapat pada
saluran dalam urutan tertentu bit pesan
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Fading Margin
Fading margin depends upon target availability of the link/
coverage.
Greater availability requires larger fading margin.
Kuat sinyal (dB) setelah
ditambah fading margin (FM)
Theshold
FM
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Fading Margin
FM
1 1
2
2
2
Th
m
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Power Control
d1
Pt1
Pr1
Basestation
User 1
Pt2
User 2
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gt
Power Control
e(i)
Base station
gest
Channel
variation
(i)
PCC bit
error
Loop
delay
DTp
channel
Transmit
power p(i)
+
Tp
_
p
Mobile station
Integrator
Step size
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Power Control
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Rayleigh fading
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Received signal amplitude
Controlled transmit power
Controlled SIR (target = 10 dB)
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10
Channel is estimated at
the receiver, then Tx is
instructed to adjust Tx
power according to the
estimated channel (e.g.
SNR).
Problem:
0
-10
-20
-30
50
100
150
200
Time slot (0.67 ms)
250
300
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Power Control
Example for fading rate fd= 5o Hz ( vehiche speed 30 km/hr at 1.8 GHz).
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Fading channel
Pe = BER
E b / I0
1
= 1 2
1 E b / I0
-5
-10
AWGN channel
-15
-20
1
g / 2
= 12
1 g / 2
Pe = BER
0
50
100
150
350
400
450
500
Eb
= Q 2
N0
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Power Control
Example
To achieve a satisfactory power control performance
when a vehicle moving at 30 km/h (carrier freq = 1.8
GHz) the rate of power control is at least 30 times
higher than the fading rates.
Compute the minimum signalling rate required for power
control.
If the voice channel is transmitted at 9.6 kbps, what
percentage of band width is lost due to power control with (a)
fixed step algorithm (b) variable step with 3 bit algorithm
If the deepest fading is 30 dB below its average level, what is
the incremental power ajustment (step size) if fixed step
adjustment is employed to equalize the deepest fading.
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Back of
blue sector
Front of
blue sector
6 sectors
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Real
Sector
3 sectors
Real sectored cells are non-ideal in several ways. One important difference:
There is non-negligible power radiated in the back and side regions, and
the amount of such back and side lobe power is greater for narrow sectors
than for wide angle sectors.
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Power
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multi-path propagation
path-1
path-2
path-3
path-2
Path Delay
path-1
path-3
Mobile Station (MS)
Base Station (BS)
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Transmitted signal:
Received Signals:
Line-of-sight:
Reflected:
Delays
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Types of Equalizer
Linear:
Transversal filter (Zero forcing, LMS, RLS,
fast RLS, Sq. root RLS)
Lattice Filter (Gradient RLS)
Non Linear:
DFE (LMS, RLS, Fast RLS, Sq. root RLS)
ML Symbol Detection
MLSE
Channel Equalizer
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(i-D)
z-1
(i-D-v)
z-1
z-1
b0
(i-D-V+1)
bV-1
bD+
i index waktu
V orde equalizer
D index delay
Adaptive
algorithm
(i)
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(i)out
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Beamforming
user yang
diinginkan
pengganggu-2
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x1(n)
w1*(n)
e( n ) = d ( n ) - w . x ( n )
y(n)=wH(n).x(n)
x2(n)
d (n)
w2*(n)
Algoritma
Adaptif
e(n)
R xx = E x ( n) x ( n)
r xd = E x(n)d * ( n)
- + d(n)
MSE, E{|e(n)|2}
diminimumkan. Disini e(n)
adalah
-1
xx
w opt = R .r xd
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Correlator 1
r(t)
IF or base band
CDMA signal
with multipath
components
Correlator 2
.
.
Correlator m
Z1
Z2
Zm
a1
a.2
.
Int.
DC
m(t)
am
Since chip rate of CDMA much greater than coherence BW, delay spread
merely provide a multiple delayed version of signals at receiver. Instead of
causing ISI, RAKE receiver attempts to collect multipath signals, process it by
separate correlator receiver, and combine the signals to have a better detection.
C(t)
C(t-2)
delay adj.
korelator
BTS
C(t-n)
Multicarrier CDMA:
Gabungan OFDM dan CDMA
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OFDM
1
0.8
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Normalized Amplitude
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
Normalized Frequency(FT)
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DECT
Intended to pedestrian use:
only small Doppler spreads are to be anticipated for
Original DECT concept did not standardize an equalizer
IS95
Downlink: Pilot signal for synchronization and channel estimation
Uplink: Continuous tracking of each signal
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Microcells
Picocells
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GSM
Error
burst
Error
Fade
DECT
Diversity reception at base station
IS95
W ideband transmission averages channel
behaviour
This avoids burst errors and deep fades
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Uplink
Power control
Tidak dominan
memperbesar
daya kirim Tx
Downlink
Link budget calculation
Mengatasi
Large Scale
Fading
Fading
Margin
Uplink
memperbaiki
kualitas
penerima Rx
Sectoral &Smart
antena
Downlink
Catatan:
dapat dikerjakan engineer
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Diversitas
Perbaikan
sensitivitas
handset
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Mengatasi
Flat Fading
Slow Fading
Masalah
penurunan
sinyal diatas
dengan
Diversitas
Modulator yg
robust yg tidak
perlu carrier
tracking
Atau, melalui
desain Fading
Margin
error correction
coding dan
interleaving
Karena Eb/No
requirement lebih
kecil
What next ?
Power control
Catatan:
dapat dikerjakan engineer
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Masalah
multipath
Frequency
selective
fading
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Kompleksitas
equalizer
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