Chapter1

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING A

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
The present course-book is aimed at introducing students of English to the principles, methods and
procedures regulating the domain of English language teaching methodology.Commonly designated by
various acronymic names such as ELT (English Language Teaching, TEFL (Teaching English as a
Foreign Language), TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) or TESOL (Teaching English to
Speakers of Other Languages), the domain is concerned with the theory and practice of teaching
English to non-native speakers. Addressing students at the stage of initial ELT teacher-training, this
course of lectures proposes to acquaint students with the current methods and procedures which
represent the stock in trade of contemporary language teaching.
Learning foreign languages is a long-standing human endeavour and has been a cornerstone of
any system of education throughout history. Starting from the early Middle-Ages, foreign language
study was mainly concerned with offering a classical education, with an emphasis on Greek and Latin.
Later on, knowledge of modern languages came to be regarded as equally important for an
accomplished education. So, in the course of time, any new concept or system of education has
recognised the importance of foreign language learning and has contributed to the development of a
time-honoured tradition in the pedagogy of language learning and teaching. This tradition of language
pedagogy has grown and often changed with the times, according to new trends or systems of thought
in the study of linguistics, language learning psychology and pedagogy.
The major teaching approaches to language teaching and learning have always been based on
certain assumptions about language (linguistic theory) and concepts about ways of learning a language
(psycho-linguistics and pedagogy). Nowadays, the specific domain of linguistics concerned with
language learning and teaching is circumscribed to Applied Linguistics or Second Language
Acquisition (also known as SLA), which underlie most of the contemporary teaching approaches and
methodologies. The teaching approaches and methodspresented below closely illustrate the changes
and evolutions in linguistic and pedagogical assumptions about language learning.

1. GRAMMAR TRANSLATION

This is the oldest method used in language teaching. It was largely used for the study of both classical
and modern languages ever since the Middle-Ages. It remained popular throughout the 19th and early
20th century, being regarded as a standard method until as late as the 1940s.
Theoretical approach: The assumption about language underlying the grammar translation method
was that language was a finite body/system of knowledge to be learnt.
Aims: The main goal informing this concept of language learning was gaining a theoretical knowledge
of a finite linguistic system, which requited a certain mental discipline and helped develop the intellect.
Method: Teaching and learning dealt primarily with the written form of the language, with a focus on
mastering the grammatical and lexical system. Learning activities were based on prescriptive grammar,
which emphasised rote learning, i.e. the memorisation of grammar rules and word lists, as well as the
analysis of parts of speech and syntactical patterns.
Procedures: Written grammar practice consisted in translation exercises from and into the target
language. Classroom procedure was accuracy-oriented, requiring the learning and application of rules.
The teaching was of a deductive kind, based on prescribing rules to be followed in order to produce
grammatically accurate sentences or texts. The main procedure was the study and translation of
classical texts or outlandish sentences, with reading and translation as the central linguistic skills. The
target language was not used in class interaction. As the mother tongue was the customary medium of
instruction, neither the teacher nor the students were supposed to speak the language studied. The
teaching aims of the grammar translation method concerned the ability to read literature and gain
knowledge of the culture of the target language via literary texts and to translate texts through the
accurate application of rules. Teaching materials consisted in classical literary texts.
Teacher/learner roles and interaction: The teacher hasa dominant role in the classroom as the sole
knower and source of knowledge, the model to imitate and controller of the class, while students only
relate their learning to the teacher and the text.
2. THE AUDIO-LINGUAL APPROACH/AUDIO-LINGUALISM
Regarded as an informed, modern-day alternative to the classical methods of grammar translation, the
audio-lingual approach was derived from the theoretical tenets of behaviourism, a psychological trend
which largely influenced language pedagogy starting with the 1950s.
Theoretical approach:Behaviourists held that linguistic behaviour was based on automatic speech
habitsacquired through a process involving three interconnected steps: Stimulus -> Response ->
Reinforcement. The formation of such linguistic automatisms was the result of systematic exposure to

this process of conditioning reflexes of correct language use. The approach was largely influenced by
the studies in behaviourist psychology of F. B. Skinner.
Aims: The approach aimed at establishing, developing and reinforcing the set of speech habits
necessary for accurate oral expression. Practice focused on spoken language for actual use.
Method: The main assumption underlying this method is that speech habits can be conditioned by
means of sustained oral drilling consisting of conversational or structural pattern drills. The emphasis
on correct form entailed the use of recorded materials with structural and syntactical patterns of
isolated, de-contextualised form and meaning, in which irregularities tended to be ignored.
Procedures: Teaching and learning was organised according to a strict sequence of skill training
listening -> speaking -> reading -> writing and based on controlled drill-work. Language lab classes
consisted of listening to and repeating after recorded dialogues, used both for structural presentation
and drilling. The practice of structural patterns was graded so as toprogressively follow a structurebased syllabus. Errors were not regarded as part of learning, so they were to be avoided through
immediate correction and through repetitive pattern drilling, which often led to over-learning. In
contrast with the grammar translation method, there is almost exclusive emphasis on the spoken
language and, obviously, on phonetic practice for correct pronunciation. The concern for accurate
structural patterning also precluded a preoccupation with vocabulary building, which tended to remain
limited. Inductiveteaching involved learning by doing, based on the use of the target language. The
teaching materials are simple dialogue drills on written support or on tape recordings.
Teacher/learner roles and interaction: Despite the limitation of teacher talking time (TTT) via
intensive learner drilling, the teacher still occupies a centre-stage position in his/her role as knower and
fountain of all knowledge. Studentsworked exclusively with the teacher,therefore they dependon the
teacher to organise their learning, in which their role remains limited. The approach, though highly
popular for a while, declined in popularity toward the end of the 60s, when its validity began to be
questions by such linguists as Noam Chomsky.

3. THE COGNITIVE CODE APPROACH

The cognitive approach developed round Chomskys theory of language universals and their role in
first language acquisition. Chomsky contradicts the tenets of behaviourism that linguistic abilities are
no more than learnt habits, arguing that people often produce language strings they have never heard
before.

Theoretical approach: His theory upholds the idea that our production of language is rule-governed
and creative at the same time, being based on our application of a grammatical code (deep structure) to
generate an infinite number of sentences (surface structure). This rule-based creativity is rooted in the
knowledge of a limited system of rules, a kind of linguistic matrix or language universals which, once
understood, enable us to produce original sentences.
Aims: Learning means the conscious acquisition of language as a coherent and meaningful system. The
students should be aware of these aims and work actively towards an understanding and control of the
structure of the language.
Method: Language learning is seen as a cognitive process, the emphasis is on studying the rules
governing the creation of meaning. On the basis or their innate ability to learn languages, learners
should be engaged in exploring language and forming hypotheses about its functioning. The cognition
of the system constitutes a learners linguistic competence. In their performance or productive
application of the rules, students are likely to make errors, which are regarded as fundamental to their
adjustments of their internalisation of the rule system.
Procedure: Classroom practice is centred on comprehension activities and the study of structural
meaning. Grammar is taught both deductively and inductively, with an emphasis on guided discovery
techniques, which engage students in the formulation and statement of rules. Errors are regarded as
inevitable and instrumental in the development of an internal grammar which students can rely on for
generating meaning through structure. Practice activities presuppose a much wider use of a variety of
materials, meant to keep students mentally engaged in working with the target language.
Teacher/learner roles and interaction: While the teacher still holds a prominent role as a guide to
knowledge, students are taught to be responsible for their own learning and to monitor their cognitive
process. Given the more liberal attitude towards learner errors, the teacher encourages peer correction
and interaction during language activities.

4. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

The communicative approach or communicative language teaching (CLT) gained prominence in the
70s and early 80s, as language theorists started questioning the validity of Chomskys model of
linguistic competence and focus on structure study and practice.
Theoretical approach: Applied linguists such as Henry Widdowson drew attention to the limitations of
structure-focused syllabi and de-contextualised structure practice, advocating the need for adapting
language teaching to communicational situations and for developing communicative abilities and skills.

The American linguist Del Hymesdeveloped the concept of communicative competence as the main
aim of language teaching. Language learning is supposed to mean not only the mastery of the
grammatical, lexical and phonological system, but also the learning of social rules governing
contextualised communication. In other words, language should be appropriate to the social context.
The rules of appropriacy are also conjoined with rules of social interaction. The approach focuses on
activities concerned with language as discourse, language in action rather thanas isolated specimens.
Aims: The rationale behind communicative language teaching is modifying classroom procedures so as
to promote realistic and socially contextualised communication rather than artificial language practice.
Developing communicative competence is bound up with creating realistic communicative contexts
and developing strategies of communication through student-student interaction.
Method: The methodological framework CLT relates to the theory of second language acquisition
advanced by Stephen Krashen, who argues that students acquire language when they focus on meaning
rather than on form. What distinguishes acquisition from learning is the notion that learners can always
encounter and absorb new language in real communicative contexts. The underlying principle is the
balance between the study of language areas (grammar and vocabulary) and skills development, as well
as the practice of language functions.
Procedures: As the focus is on communicative functions in real life-interaction, learning is organised
on the basis of notional/functional syllabusrather than structure-based programmes. Lessons are
sequenced not in terms of grammatical content but rather on topic based areas of communication and
self-expression. The teaching has a wider scope, which envisages the students needs, regarded as allimportant. Language learning is part of the wider framework of language education, meant to train
students in learning strategies and thus encourage learner autonomy and independence.
Language and skills practice is based on the use of authentic materials (samples of real
discourse and different reading/listening text types)and authentic tasks (replicating real communication
situations). In communicative teaching, there is a greater emphasis on fluency-building activities and
skills practice relevant to the students needs and concern. During fluency-oriented activities, errors are
regarded as less important, since the focus is on communicative efficiency. Errors are used to gauge the
need for remedial work or re-teaching. The use of interactive communicative activities is aimed at
creating and developing a clear sense of context and communicative purpose, which leads to informed
choices about relevant content and appropriate language (structure and lexis). The key distinctive
principles and features of communicative teaching are the following:

Task-based learning: The simulation of communicative contexts is realised by means of tasks

which require students to exchange information or opinions and interact in a realistic way. In

order to complete their task with the information they need, the students have to ask and answer
questions, to speak and listen to each other. In other words, the task provides them with a

purpose for communication.

Communicative tasks: So as to promote meaningful communication, the tasks have to
replicate real-life contexts of purposeful communication, with a focus on language functions:
enquiring, inviting, refusing, giving directions, asking for and giving personal information, etc.
These contexts can be simulated through such interactive activities as information gap
(students have to exchange information so as to carry out a common task), role-

play,interviews,problem-solving, priority ranking, discussion and debates, surveys, games.

Task inter-dependency: The underlying principle of communicative activities such as info-gap
is that students will be unable to complete the task without sharing information between

themselves, which means they depend on each other and have to cooperate on the task.
Pair-work and group-work: Organising communicative tasks requires a different kind of class
organisation, layout and seating arrangements. Most communicative tasks require students to
work in pairs or small groups of three or four, which creates the proper conditions for working

together on a task.
Collaborative learning: Task-based learning creates the premises for cooperation among
students, who have to work together to achieve a certain outcome. This allows for working and
learning collaboratively, which helps promote a positive, purposeful and productive class
atmosphere and the proper conditions for learning to take place. Communicative learning has
also inspired the affective-humanistic approach, which attaches great importance to a
motivating and friendly class atmosphere and to building a good rapport between teacher and
students.

Teacher/learner roles and interaction: Incontrast with theapproacheswhich preceded it,

communicative language teachingradically redefines and changes the roles of both teacher and
students. To begin with the traditional teacher-centredclassroom is replaced by a learner-centred
classroom, with the students occupying the centre-stage of classroom activity and acting not as passive
recipients, but as active agents fully engaged in their own learning. In this context, the teacher
relinquishes the age-old dominant position as sole source of language and class controller, assuming
more flexible and motivational roles as class organiser/instigator of language
activity/motivator/informant to the learners/provider of resources/guide for the students own
learning. As for the students, they are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning, to study
independently and act as autonomous learners, less dependent on the teacher in organising their
learning.

***
The present course-book in ELT methodology is draws largely upon the communicative approach,
being focused on illustrating the principles and general methodology underlying communicative
teaching and language learning practice. Of course, as the methodologist Phillip Prowse contends, one
of the most widespread myths in the field of language teaching and learning is the myth of the ideal
methodology. He warns that no methodology should be adopted uncritically, as the teacher should
constantly test and refine his/her methods in terms of what works best in a particular educational
culture, teaching situation and kind of learners or learner needs. However, since communicative
teaching comes closest to training the kind of communicative competence and skills necessary in the
contemporary context of globalisation, this approach imposes itself as an informed choice. In an
increasingly globalised world of education and work, training our students for efficient, meaningful
communication and cross-cultural understandingconstitutes a goal worth pursuing.

Chapter 2
TEACHING GRAMMAR
INTRODUCTION
The importance of grammar in foreign language teaching and learning need hardly be argued for. To
begin with, grammar provides the only systematic framework for organizing the teaching and learning
of the language, since a knowledge of grammatical structures and rules provides useful generalisations
which enable learners to formulate and generate correct sentences. It also represents the basis for
syllabus and course design, as it helps teachers and course-book writers to organize content and plan
what structures to present at the various stages of language learning. The ruling organizing principle
should be that of structural complexity, that is we should proceed from simple to more complex
structures, progressing according to the learners age and language level. As far as learners are
concerned, grammar rules are reliable milestones guiding their learning and providing them with a
sense of security.

Of course, in a balanced teaching approach, aimed at both linguistic competence and

proficiency such as the communicative approach grammar teaching only represents a means to an
end, that is an indispensable starting point, a foundation or groundwork to build for language
acquisition and skills practice, rather than an end in itself. That is why, while granting grammar its
proper place in our teaching, we should not overemphasize the importance of grammar work and
grammatical accuracy. Exclusive focus on accuracy has its downside, too, as it may inhibit the students
progress towards communicative fluency.
Overcorrection may affect the learners confidence in their performance and ability for free
communication and self-expression. In this case, the teacher runs the risk of ignoring the students
preferred style of learning. We should not forget that, in our mother tongue, we learn to communicate
effectively even if our grammar is not entirely accurate.
At the same time, devoting too much time to accuracy-based grammar exercises entails an
artificial limitation of the exposure to the language, which can only be monotonous and thus demotivating, as it deprives the learner of valuable stimulus to use the language in a variety of contexts. If
we overemphasise the primacy of rules, our students will be psychologically ill-prepared to
accommodate the inevitable exceptions to grammatical rules.

1. PRINCIPLES IN GRAMMAR TEACHING

a) Planning and organization
In devising a grammar syllabus, the teacher or materials writer should order the structural items to be
taught in terms of the following principles and criteria:

Complexity of form

This criterion has already been enounced above and is based on the commonsensical idea that with
young learners or at beginner level, structural items are ordered according to their degree of
complexity. For instance, Simple Tenses are taught before Continuous/Progressive Tense forms, or the
Past Simple is presented before the Present Perfect, because they are more complex in form.

Teachability

The question of teachability derives from the complexity of form criterion mentioned above, but also
refers to the complexity of meaning. Again, the problem in question relates to adapting structural
content to the learners age and level. Needless to say, simpler forms, expressing basic or everyday

meanings and functions are more easily understood and thus more teachable than more complex
structure, such as the Subjunctive.

Communicative usefulness

An important question related to the ordering structural items for teaching and learning purposes should
be: Is the structure useful/necessary/indispensible for everyday communication? The answer to this
will tell us which structures should be given priority in our grammar course planning.

Linear or cyclical framework

This criterion is related to the teaching of a structure in all its aspects (range of meanings or functions),
or to the teaching of structural synonymy, i.e. presenting all the structures with a similar meaning. For
example, there are several structures whose meaning and communicative function is making a
suggestion: Lets + infinitive, Shall we + infinitive?, How/What about + ing-form?, Why dont we +
infinitive? We could + verb. In a linear framework, all these structures will be presented at the same
time. Or, if we think of structures with multiple meanings, such as various tenses, all the meanings will
be given from the beginning. A cyclical approach would mean that a particular structure or function is
revised cyclically and taught gradually, focusing on one meaning, form or function at a time. Our
approach is likely to depend on the learning context, age and level of students. However, for the sake of
clarity and effectiveness, the golden rule would be to teach one thing at a time.
b) Metalanguage
Metalanguage is the specialised grammatical terminology used to define/describe language structures.
How much or how little metalanguage we use in the classroom depends on the learners age and
previous experience of grammar in L 1 or foreign language learning. It goes without saying that with
(very) young learners, using metalanguage is irrelevant and counterproductive, while with mature,
advanced students, metalanguage can be used as an aid to organizing learning, to clarifying and
distinguishing between grammatical categories, meanings and functions. Even in the latter case, it
should be used with moderation, as overusing metalanguage and rules can distract attention from the
meaningful practice of language in use.
c) Staging
The main stages of a grammar lesson or sequence are: PRESENTATION PRACTICE
PRODUCTION. The PRESENTATION stage comprises activities aimed at introducing/presenting the
new structure. The PRACTICE stage includes accuracy-oriented, teacher-controlled exercises, focused
on the students correct usage of the new structure. The PRODUCTION or FREE PRACTICE stage
contains fluency-oriented, communicative activities, such as pair-work or group-work tasks, in which

students use the new structure for free communication so as to accomplish the task or express their own
ideas and opinions on a given topic.
Reflection task:
At each stage consider

the Teachers role

the students role
control over language
error correction
the aims of each stage
d) Teaching strategy
Grammar teaching strategies relate to our approach to presenting/introducing a new structural item or
rule. According to how directly or indirectly we present the new grammar structure or rule,
presentations can be overt/explicit/deductive or covert/implicit/inductive.
e) Grammatical structure and communicative function
Grammatical structures are linguistic forms conveying a certain meaning, used to fulfil a
communicative function. A grammar syllabus can be based either on the teaching of structural items
proper or on communicative functions such as Suggesting, Inviting, Refusing, etc. The aspects to be
considered when teaching a structure are listed and defined below:
Form: the actual words (written) or sounds (spoken) used to express something in language, as
opposed to meaning or use. Form is often synonymous with structure.
Meaning: The conventional or literal meaning of a particular form: for example, that past tense form
means past time. The purpose of traditional grammar books is to explain form and meaning.
Usage: Refers to examples of the generally accepted way of using the language in context, especially in
order to show the differences between quasi-synonymous structures, which are related in terms of
meaning but are used in different ways and contexts.
Use: The way in which a speaker uses a particular language form to communicate on a particular
occasion. The use of a form may be described in terms of its function or communicative purpose.
Function: The function of a structure is the communicative purpose of that structure on a particular
occasion what the speaker is trying to do through language. For example, Have you read this book?
is present perfect interrogative in form but the speaker may be using it to make a suggestion, to suggest
that the listener read the book suggesting is the function of the structure here. The use of a form can
often be expressed in terms of functions.
Reflection task: Grammatical structure or function? What are the differences? Provide examples.
Should we teach both? Why?

f) Attitude to errors
Considering what we know about how language learning takes place, we should treat errors as steps to
learning or partial learning rather than frustrating indications of non-learning. In this light, errors
provide information about the learners progress and our teaching priorities, as they signal areas that
need re-teaching or remedial teaching. Students should be made aware of the areas of difficulty in
English grammar and frequently provided with opportunities of self-correction, peer-correction and
error correction exercises in general.
2. PRESENTATION STAGE
A good grammar presentation is supposed to introduce the new structure in a context which clearly
illustrates its meaning (and communicative function). Here is a checklist for effective, memorable
presentations:
Presentations

need to contextualize the new language in a situation

need to have visuals for maximum impact (blackboard drawings, realia (i.e. real objects),

pictures, actions/mime
need to use language which is appropriate for the students age and level
need to make sure there is no new vocabulary, which can be distracting if necessary, we

can pre-teach any new lexical items

need to be generative, i.e. able to generate many examples of the structure
need to be short no longer than 5 minutes

As already stated above, grammar presentations can be overt/explicit/deductive or

covert/implicit/inductive. Other terms used for these two approaches are giving and guiding. Giving
describes the process whereby the meaning of a structure is transmitted to the students in an overt
way, and they are relatively passive recipients of new content. Guiding describes the process whereby
students are involved in working out the meaning for themselves or in deriving a rule from
contextualised instances of the use of a particular language item.
Deductive presentations first formulate the rule and then give the example. The
presentation starts from the form to the meaning and use of the structure. Such a presentation would go
as follows: the Present Perfect Continuous (have/has been + Present Participle) is used to express an
activity/state which starts in the past and last up to/beyond the moment of speaking. E.g.: She has been
baking cakes for two hours.

Inductive presentations introduce the structure in a context or situation which clearly

illustrates its meaning and function. The teacher uses guiding questions, prompting students to
comment on the meaning of the new structure and infer the rule by themselves.
Demonstration: picture of a boy waiting at the bus stop
Situation: This is Tom. Where is he? What is he doing? When did he arrive at the bus stop? He arrived
at the bus stop at 10.00. What time is it now? Its 11.00.
At this point, the students are likely to have inferred the meaning of the structure (i.e. an activity or
state which starts in the past and lasts till the moment of speech). The form of the target structure (i.e.
the structure to be taught) is then presented by the teacher in both spoken and written form in an
example sentence, called MARKER SENTENCE (MS), which normally comes at the end of the
presentation.
MS: Tom has been waiting at the bus stop for an hour.
The MARKER SENTENCE is also used after the presentation, for the repetition practice meant to
reinforce the form of the structure in terms of pronunciation/word order/contractions.
Guided discovery presentations combine elements of the deductive and inductive strategies.
Students are elicited to formulate the meaning of a structure or a grammatical rule, which they are
helped to reach by means of relevant guiding questions.
E.g.:
Teacher: In the dialogue on the board, both the verbs underlined refer to the future. However,
there is a difference in meaning between the two future forms. Think of the moment when the
decision was made:
A: Why do you want the corkscrew?
B: Im going to open that bottle of wine I bought yesterday.
A: We drank it last night.
B: Oh. Then Ill open a beer.
Reflection task:
Deductive or inductive? Which is better? Why?
Can we use both of them?
What are the advantages/disadvantages in either case?
To sum up, the presentation of a new language structure has to cover the following aspects:
PRESENTATION = MEANING, FORM(S), PRONUNCIATION, FUNCTION (SOCIAL CONTEXT
COMMUNICATION). For example, the meaning of the Present Perfect Simple in the question Have

you read this book? is asking if an action has been performed at any time up to the moment of
speaking, while its function can be to suggest that the subject read the respective book.

2. 1. PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES
a) Situations
This has already been illustrated above. The situation and context chosen should be relevant to
everyday life, and, as already stated, appropriate for the students age, level, interests and life
experience. First and foremost, it should provide a meaningful context that will make the meaning (and
function) of the structure clear and easily understandable to the students.
Task:
What situation can you think of to introduce the following language items?
going to; used to; 1st 3rd Conditionals; counts &uncounts; offers & acceptances; invitations &
refusals
b) Compare and contrast
This technique was illustrated above in the guided discovery presentation based on comparing and
contrasting the meaning of two future forms the going to + Infinitive vs. the Future Simple. It is very
useful in teaching tenses with the same time reference, but with certain differences in meaning and use
past time forms, future time forms; aspect simple and continuous/progressive forms, conditionals,
unreal past forms, subjunctives, etc. It lends itself to guided discovery presentations, in which the
students are involved in the compare and contrast exercise. Here are some examples of structures
whose meaning can be illustrated by comparison and contrast:
I remembered locking the door. / I remembered to lock the door.
She lived in London for 10 years. / She has lived in London for 10 years.
She didnt need to cook the meet. / She neednt have cooked the meat.
They have been picking apples for several hours. They have picked ten basketfuls.
c) Stories
Even a briefly outlined situationmay be a story in itself, but sometimes we can make up a very short
story to introduce a structure. Here is a story introducing the 3rd Conditional:
Yesterday afternoon, Mary went to the library to borrow books for an essay she had to write for her
history class. She consulted the catalogue and found a very good book on the subject, but when she
asked for it, the librarian told her that someone else had lend the book half an hour before. Mary
thought:
MS: If I had come a little earlier, I would have got the book.

Stories add an element of fun and make memorable presentations, especially if they are accompanied
by visuals: flashcards, drawings, pictures, cartoon strips, etc.
d) Examples giving a model sentence or model dialogue
Of course, these are an essential part of any presentation. The model sentence/dialogue can come to the
end, as Marker Sentences, but they may also be given at the beginning, as support for an
inductive/guided discovery presentation.
e) Time-lines
Time-lines represent a very effective way of illustrating meaning visually in the case of tense,
aspect,the sequence of tense. E.g.:

She left

I arrived

Past____x________x____________Now____________Future
10.30

10.45

She had left when I arrived.

Past____^^^^

^^^^^^_X_________Now______________Future

I was reading when the lights went out.

he gave up
Past_xxxxxxxxx[]______________Now_____________Future
He used to smoke.