Vikramaditya and Kalkacharya Suri (Jainism)

By: Bipin Shah

Introduction:
One of the three calendars that are used in India is Vikram Savant named after mysterious
king of India during first century BC. There are various legends attached to him in various
Indian texts but there are strong disagreements on his historical identity. Irrespective of his
real identity, the question begs an answer as to how and why this era came into existence
and accepted by most of India and the this tradition have continued for thousands of years.
In reality, India saw in its history numerous eras. Kali yoga savant was the first one that was
started after the end of Mahabharata War. Rajataragini, a Kashmir Chronicle, by Kalhanas
was still using it as a historical reference point and it was widely used with various Puranic
texts. The Saka calendar that coincided with (Shalivahana) Satavahana calendar have also
survived for centuries. This should pose us to rethink that why Indian chose to keep Saka
calendar in use for so long although they hated them as intruder. The Gregorian-common era
calendar was a new phenomenon and was brought in to India by colonial rulers of India,
namely British, French and Portuguese. The calendars with religious significance that were
used together with three main calendars were Vir savant (Jaina) and Chula Sarkara
(Buddhism) and Hizra (Moslem) calendar. They all used the death of their prophets as a
starting point of their calendars more as a mark of respect and identity distinction without
any astrological underpinning. Hindu Panchang that is based on lunar movement is also used
for astrological and to identify the time for performing the auspicious events like marriage
and other activities that are either social or religious in nature in conformity of their ancient
belief that the celestial objects position have some bearing on the outcome of human life
events that are about to come in the future, like shaping the destiny.
The Common Era and Vikram era calendar are still widely used for official purposes. It is
always a challenge for historian to figure out why so many different eras and calendars arose
in India. Since this is a rare phenomenon and probably very unique to India remains a
challenge in deciphering the coins and inscriptions for archeologist.
In early history, every time a ruler was changed by a military force, the new coins were
minted and along with it sometimes new era was born. Geographically speaking, India of
ancient history was a collection of kingdoms starting with Mahabharata age and this tradition
had continued throughout most of its history. Due to this unpredictability, the hording of gold
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have became the cultural tradition of India for centuries. Indian nation is a biggest collector
of Gold either in its raw form or in the form of the jewelry and all that yellow metal with high
purity contents of 24 carats. Less than 24 carats is not acceptable to India. This assured them
of their preservation of economic status and net worth regardless of the regime change as
Gold was and is considered the universal currency.
Many of the eras that are not mentioned here but can be found in WIKI or other Indian texts
are now extinct and some of them never made to history books such as Vallabhi era,
Kanishka era, Maurya era, Kashmir era, Azes eras other regional eras that have come and
gone with the rise and fall of their rulers. In order to make some sense out of all this messy
confusion, the use of Puranic and other canonical texts of Buddha and Jainas are not always
helpful and sometimes unfathomable with their sacred numerology and mythical tales.
Romila Thapar in her book early India makes the following observation that is very
pertinent and relevant.
Most of the early dynasties of India used their own system of reckoning that resulted into
various unconnected eras. But among the most widely used era was the Vikram era 58-57 BC.
The Vikram era was also known as Krita or Malwa era. Others include Gupta era of 319-320
AD, Saka era of 78 AD, Harsha era of 606 AD, Vikram Chalukya and variety of others.
Similar to this era confusion is the related identity and historicity of real Vikramaditya from
whom India owes its famous Vikram era calendar. Vikram era was established approximately
57 years ahead of common era, but came into nationwide use only after 11th century AD as
per Nepali history chronicle. There are various claims as to who were this true
Vikramaditya and various legends surrounding him with the story of Vampires and Ghost. I
hope to provide some clarity by process of elimination and retaining the most likely choice. I
know full well that even after writing this brief article I do not accept a consensus and the
issue will remain open for a debate. I believe that this is the most challenging issue of the
history therefore; it spiked my interest and efforts for research to this challenge.
Since I have had the opportunity of reviewing Jainas history for last fifteen years, I came
away with the strong impression how Jaina historians conducted themselves as history
recorder and writer. They always followed their monastic order under head teacher and
followed certain rules and discipline while following the historical events. Fortunately for us
they became an alternate source of verification like Buddhist writers for events recorded in
various Puranic texts.
Jaina historian followed the following rules in recording historical events of India.
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1. The rulers that did not patronize Jainism or became antagonist towards Jainism were never
ever mentioned in the Jaina history, as if they never existed. We cannot find any negative
references of any rulers even the bad one. They just omitted them. This belief was rooted
with their karmic theory and religious vows that mandated them to Speak no evil of
anyone. The karmic theory of non-violence and non-attachment foreclosed their other
options.
2. On the other hand, those rulers or power of authority that either patronized them or did
not take any adverse action were mentioned in Jaina history with various degree of
recognition. Some are put in high Pedestal as Jaina kings, even though they patronized all
other Indian religions. Kumarpala Solanki of Gujarat and Vikramaditya of Malwa both were
Shiva worshippers but also patronized Jainism, Buddhism and other sects but Jaina historian
still called them as Jaina kings. Those rulers from time to time will issue a decree for a week
or two so that no animals will go to the slaughter house. King Kharvela and King Samparati
along with certain other kings of south India who issued proclamation decreed similar
pronouncement or donated monies to promote Jaina activities were similarly earned the
special citations and mentions in Jaina history.
3. On the other hand Buddhist historians did similar things with one major difference that
invited hostilities of Brahminical leaning rulers of India. Asoka is mentioned as Buddhist king
by Buddhist canonical texts but when you analyze Asokas edict he supported and protected
all other religions of India and instructed all his officials to respect Jainism, shaivism and
Buddhism. Asoka emphasized the Dhamma or religion in general terms. He himself
practiced Buddhism and donated more monies in constructing stupas and Vihara for Buddhist
monks.
In spite of that, later Buddhist historians were more vocal in criticizing the rulers who showed
different preferences or were not very preferential to them the way Asoka was. That brought
about the eternal hostilities and ultimate extinction of Buddhism from India. The Shunga,
Gupta, Huna and Some Moslem rulers were particularly hostile to Buddhism while they
remain indifferent to Jainism. In both instances, they gave us some additional clues of those
personalities who were mentioned or not mentioned in Brahminical texts. In explaining the
real identity of Vikram, this understanding becomes more relevant as the early historians of
India came from priestly (Brahmin) and monks (Jaina and Buddhist) class.

Malla Janapada and Gardbhilla Tribe:

Mahesara Suri composed and wrote the story of Kalkacharya Suri during 12th century AD. The
Kathanaka (meaning "an account") tells the story of a famed Jain monk Kalakacharya.
The Kalkacharya Kathanaka tells us the story of a Prince Kalka who became a monk and his
fight with Gardbhilla chief who was a ruler of Ujjiyani (Avanti-Malwa) around 1st century BC.
The ethnic identity of Gardhsena, the tribal chief becomes a confusing point among various
historians. The ethnic identity of Kalkacharya is also not mentioned by Jaina but it is of some
importance to consider and evaluate the entire episode involving Vikramaditya. So, I do not
believe that the existence of Vikramaditya or his era can be easily explained without
explaining the political situation prevailing in India from 2nd century BC to Common Era and
the probable ethnic identity of Kalkacharya and Gardhsena, the chief of Gardbhilla tribe.
Ethnic identity of Gardbhilla tribe:
An eminent Jaina historian K.C. Jain identifies Gardbhilla, Trigarta, Aulikaras, Kshudrakas and
Mukhari as the tribal confederacy of Ancient Malla republic. Malla was an ancient Janapadas
like Lichhavi and worked with republican like structure. The certain warrior tribes of Malla
featured in Mahabharata Book 6, chapter 5. The tribes of Mallas were described with were
described as Trigarta, Sibis and Ambashthas. They were described as fierce warrior tribes.
They were scattered around Indian subcontinent from Afghanistan, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. The Mallas was mentioned as a nation in Mahabharata,
Harivamsa, and other Puranic texts. Other references describing Mallas were Mallabhumi
and Mallarastra that referred to the northern parts of India. The Siddhantakaumudi
mentions in a passage that refers to Panini, V. 3, 114, and mentions them as Bhallah instead
of Mallah, this expression is found in the commentary by Dr. Bohtlingks edition of Panini.
This quotation is significant as the Brhatsamhita also mentions Mallas as the Bhallas,
representing the modern Bhillas or Bhils, one of the aboriginal communities of India. As per
Dr. Bohtlingks opinion, Bhalla and Bhilla are identical with Malla and are only different with
pronunciations or formations of the same word. It was also believed that they were related
to Madrasa tribe of Mahabharata. Mahabharata describes them as the different non-Vedic
tribes perhaps of Mediterranean Tamil speaking origin or local group organized the same way
as Vedic society where Kshudrakas as name implies formed the lower cadres of the Malla
society. The Malla ultimately may have moved to south India from their home land of
Baluchistan- Punjab. They arrived in India prior to Vedic people as per the current
understanding of Indian genome and the distribution. Gardhsena was the ruler of the
Gardbhilla tribe that moved to Malwa area from Rajasthan and Punjab in early 2nd century
BC. Mauryan Empire started disintegrating after Pushiyamitras assassination of last Mauryan
ruler Bridhrath. This invited Indo-Greeks invasion that included various elements of central
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Asia such as Parasikas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas and other tribes. Malla tribes residing in
Punjab and south of Afghanistan were being dislodged and started migration into South east
Rajasthan than subsequent Yueh-Chinh related displacement may have relocated them to
Malwa region. We cannot precisely estimate which tribes moved first and from what area.
We find Gardbhilla tribe moved near Ujjiyani-Avanti region. Gardhsena, the chief of
Gardbhilla tribe captured Avanti, the regional capital of Mauryan Empire and center of major
culture.
Some of the ancient writers furnish important details about Malla tribes physiognomy,
Mallas were of greatest stature and were tallest men in Asia. Their complexion was black
and they were simple in their habits. They were great as wrestlers and fierce warriors.
Another Jaina work by Vichara Suri composed under famous Merutunga Acharya of the 14th
century AD from Malwa region records that Gardbhilla tribe ruled Avanti (Ujjain) area of
ancient Malwa region for 135 years.
Adding further to the information of Malla tribe, another branch of the Mallas came into
collision with Alexander the Great, while he was progressing towards the South along the
valley of the Indus. In the fight that ensued during Alexanders attack on Mallas city,
Alexander was severely wounded and may have ultimately taken his life in Babylon.
Malayaketu, the son of the mountain king Parvataka, who figures in the drama
Mudraraksasa, represents the northern branch of the Mallas, settled in Malayabhumi, near
the Himalaya while the Pandya kings Malayadhvaja, Malayanarapati, Malayaprabha,
Malayasimha and others are representatives of the south. Even to this day the name of the
Mallas is preserved among the population all over India, for the Malas (Mals), Mala Arayar or
Malai Arasar, Malacar, Malayalis, Malavas (Malvas), Malair (Maler or Paharias), Mallar, Mars
(Maras, Mhars, Mahars, Maharas), Maris, Maravar, & as they are named in different places,
are found scattered all over the country.
The Mallas were considered very special to Buddha, the great reformer of India who
preferred to die among the Mallas in Kusinagara. The citizens, when they heard of the arrival
of the dying saint, met him sorrowfully, and among the last acts of Buddha was that he
appointed the Malla Subhadda as an Arhat. One branch of Mallas called Gardbhilla moved
into Avanti-Malwa region, headed by his chief Gardhsena and conquered it around 75-72 BC
thus displacing last ruler of Shunga dynasty.

Jaina Story Of Kalkacharya:

Ethnic origin of Kalkacharya Family:
Haihaya, the branch of Yadu clan of Kshatriyas settled in Andhra Pradesh and intermixed with
local habitants around 800 BC. During the height of the Mauryan Empire (Chandra Gupta to
Asokas time), the grand strategist Chanakya had designed the most efficient empire of
ancient times with its own military might, cemented with cross matrimonial relationship and
extended administrative reach with spying, tax collection system and other measures as
outlined in his classic Arathshastra to consolidate the empire. Satavahana (Shalivahana)
were tributary to Mauryan Empire and were ruling from Pratisthana. Satavahana proclaimed
independence when Asoka died in 231 -232 BC. Satavahana were considered of the mixed
origin of Indo-Vedic people from Haihaya and Rathika branch of Vedic Kshatriyas. Kalchuri
clan that emerged under satavahana was also of mixed origin people of Vedic-Tamilaboriginal stock. There are some claim that Kalchuri were descended from Abhiras and
Trigarta. Trigarta again will be one of the Malla Tribe as per Mahabharata. Kalkachuri may
have originated from kalchuri-Chedi clan who Jaina King Kharvela belonged to.
As stated in the beginning of this article, Kalkacharya was an ordained Jaina monk and prior
to his joining the Sangha was a prince of a kalchuri tribe as suggested by his name. We cannot
be absolutely sure of his ethnic origin as Jaina historian does not clarify. However,
interpolation and extrapolation can be made as the following map may help clarify that
Kalchuri tribe have resided in Dhara and Avanti region of for several centuries. Kalchuri
Empire once reached its height of the power in early 10th century AD. After 1000 years of
ending Mahabharata war, Indian gene poll was getting more diversified with other ethnicities
and Bharata was emerging as multi-ethnic multi-language society. The Indian system of
marriage allowed higher caste to marry into lower caste but the reverse was not permitted.
Kalkacharya was well known among the Acharya of Jain school of learning (used to be called
vachan Sangh responsible for the accuracy of canonical Jaina Texts). He learned the Jaina
Metaphysics and Cosmic Astrology. Kalkacharya was the son of King Vayara singh of kalchuriChedi origin and fiduciary of satavahana rulers of Pratisthana. King Vayara was the king of
Dhara (Dharavas). The ancient Dharavas was located in close vicinity of Ujjain (Avanti). His
mothers name was Surasundari and sister's name was `Saraswati'. He was the student of Jain
Muni Gunakar suri of Malwa. Gardhsena kidnapped and held Kalkacharyas sister against her
will.
Kalkacharya tried his level best to get his sister freed from the clutches of Gardhsena by
approaching the people of influence but to no avail. He felt strongly that the act of
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kidnapping of his sister who was ordained Jaina Nun (Sadhvi) cannot be tolerated. Jaina story
suggests that Kalkacharya was trained at the University of Taxila where he befriended many
Saka satraps and they were influenced by his knowledge of astrology and skills. He set out to
seek revenge and went to meet them. Jaina Text states that Kalkacharya went and had
meeting with Shahanshahi (King of the King) and convinced them that Mlechha (Sudra of
mixed race) had taken over and all religions are in danger including Buddhism he needed
their help to free the country from these Mlechha.

Kalachuri Empire at the height of its glory-showing the green shaded region ruled by Kalachuri Tribe.

The Jaina suggestion of Shahanshahi can mean either Kushan king, Saka king or the IndoGreeks king. Maues was an Indo-Parthian-Saka king and was ruling and controlling Gandhara

and Punjab area. The Indo-Greek, Parthian and Kambojas were offering some resistance to
Kushan domination. The border area was in flux and the rulers were frequently changing.

Savaga-Padikkamana-Sutta-Cunni representation in cloth painting

Jaina stories were often told and read by Jain monks to the congregation on the occasion of
Paryusana. Several such illustrations then become a part of Jain libraries. These Jain
illustrations employed vibrant inks and dyes in red, blue, gold and silver. SavagaPadikkamana-Sutta-Cunni from the 13th century is one of the other earliest surviving
examples of illustrated manuscripts. Its written by Pandit Ramachandra and its a palm leaf
manuscript shown below.
Kalkacharya was first guru of Jain school of astrology who mixed the Indian astrology with the
Greek and Persian knowledge of astrology. He called his astrology as `Ramala vidya' or
`Ramala Jyotish'. The Ramala system of astrology may have originated from the Persian and
modified with the inputs from other cultures. He wrote this before, Varaha Mihiras work.
Varaha Mihira mentions `Kalakacharya Samhita' in Brihat Samhita Mahaveeracharya.
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Ancient Avanti (Ujjiyani), however, was the scene of an important event which is said to
have occurred in the first century BC. This legend is connected with the Saka conquest of
Ujjiyani and their expulsion by Indian king and nephew of Kalkacharya who may have
founded the Vikram era of 57 BC.

Kalkacharya Kathanaka in Jain Illustration of Palm Leaf and his meeting with Shahanshahi

The legend embedded in palm leaf manuscript mentions Gardhsena, a tribal chief of
Gardbhilla tribe who conquered Ujjiyani. Kalakacharya approached Shahanshahi of the IndoScythian kings for help. He trained himself as a military commander and persuaded the Saka
king (Indo-Greek) to raise an army to march against Ujjiyani. He first landed at the western
coast of Saurashtra and with the help of local chief of Bhriggu-kachha entered Malwa from
south thus springing a surprise on Gardhsena. The encounter was ensued and the Gardhsena
was easily made captive and Kalaka's sister was recovered. During kalkacharyas long
absence, Saraswati, sister of Kalkacharya bore the son to Gardhsena. Learning this new fact,
Kalkacharya forgave and released him at the request of his sister. Gardhsena retired to a
forest where he was devoured by a tiger. Some years afterwards, the son of Gardhsena and
nephew of Kalkacharya whose name was Baladitya (Bahu Mitra) became the glorious
Vikramaditya of the history. After receiving the necessary knowledge from Kalkacharya and
military training from Saka Invader, he decided to stage a revolt with the help of his tribes
against the Indo-Greek-Saka ruler and claimed his fathers throne and threw out the invaders
from Ujjiyani, earned himself the title of Sakahari (Defeater of Saka) and ruled there for many
years in great splendor and established the era that goes by his name (58-57 BC). This is what
Kalkacharya kathanaka states, written around 1150 AD by Mahesara Suri.
Though the exact historical foundation for this legend cannot easily be ascertained, its setting
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fits the first century BC very well, as it was clearly a period of Indo-Greek, Saka and Kushans
inroads into India and of the attempts by various Indian rulers, particularly the Satavahana to
resists them. The Hindu Puranas describe the Satavahana as Andhra (meaning Haihaya), and
describes Gardhsena among the feudatories of the Andhra. Thus the Jain story is partly
corroborated by Purana.
There might thus be some historical truth in this legend of Kalakacharya belonging to
Kalachuri-Chedi tribes of Jaina king Kharvela. These events occurred sometimes after 2nd
century BC when Indian history went though the black hole when series of dynasty arose
with various invasions along with massive movements of people from central Asia combined
with local uprising of the native tribes of India. The record keeper of the history had no time
of luxury to record the history but to relocate to the safety. It is therefore possible that the
legend existed in some form since the first century BC but its first recorded form is found in
Kalakacharya Kathanaka, a work by Mahesara Suri. Thus the legend or history of
Kalakacharya was put down in writing about 1200 years after the alleged event.
The map below shows Indo Saka kingdom of 35-405 of Common Era after Vikram death.
It is used to illustrate the route the Indo-Greek-Saka may have taken to reach Malwa
through Lata to remove Gardhsena around 88-90 BC periods.

Early Indo-Scythian and Indo-Greek Empire of India.

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The 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea verifies the Scythian territories shown
above:
"Beyond this region of Gedrosia, the continent making a wide curve from the east across
the depths of the bays, there follows the coast district of Scythia, which lies above toward
the north; the whole marshy; from which flows down the river Sinthus, the greatest of all
the rivers that flow into the Erythraean Sea, bringing down an enormous volume of water
rivers. This river has seven mouths, very shallow and marshy, so that they are not
navigable, except the one in the middle; at which by the shore, is the market-town,
Barbaricum (Bhanbhore near Karachi, Pakistan). Before it there lies a small island, and
inland behind it is the metropolis of Scythia called Minnanagara (Same as Uddiyana or
Rajgriha of Jarasangh that existed in Swat valley).

Periplus of Erythraean Sea Journey to India from Bernice to Barbaricum (1 BC)

Please note the Sindhu (Indus) river have changed course several times from extreme west
to southwest from its root in Himalaya to Arabian Ocean. In earlier history it emptied
closer to middle of Sindh and currently more near south at sir creek. Western India is
seismological active area and has recorded many earth quacks.

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The geopolitical flux that existed in India is well illustrated in the following maps where
how the geography of the empires kept shifting.

This map shows reintroduction of Indo-Saka almost at the beginning of common era after the death of
Vikramaditya when Western Satrap led by Chasthana reasserted himself over western India by
reestablishing western satrap dynasty over Gujarat and Malwa and frequently clashed with Satavahana.

The Saka satrap who assisted Kalkacharya is not clearly identified by Jaina historian as there
was a state of flux that was created after the decline of the Mauryan Empire combined with
Yueh-chih thrust towards borderland displacing large number of communities residing in
Indias immediate North West. Maues was then ruling Gandhara and Punjab area and IndoGreek Menander (Milinda) had defeated Mallas of Punjab several decades earlier and now
Indo-Saka were at odds with predecessor Indo-Greeks who were quarreling over the areas
that was previously under Indo-Greek control. Indo-Greeks had suffered a humiliating defeat
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to Yueh-Chinh (Tocharians) in Bactria. Kalkacharya himself had lived until 5-10 BC and
established many Ganas of Jaina.
Maues (Moga) was one of the most likely candidates to collaborate with Kalkacharya during
8560 BCE for the following reasons:
1. He fits the time line of Gardhsena and Kalkacharya (85-60 BCE).
2. He was at odd with Indo-Greeks of Bactria who threatened him, so he invaded the
territories that was controlled by them in Western India. Indo-Greeks were under military
pressure from invading Tocharians.
3. He was based in Taxila where Kalkacharya met him or probably went to school with him at
Taxila in their early age.
4. Maues was a Buddhist and sympathetic to kindred Jaina monks and held anti-Brahmin
views.
5. It has been suggested that Maues may have been a Scythian general hired by the IndoGreeks in their earlier alliance but the differences arose. He briefly seized power based on his
military capabilities but kept friendly relation with Local Greek and Indian communities.
6. Maues also took the title of king of King as implied by Jaina historians and it resembled
the Shahanshahi title of the Persian.
7. His coin represented Greek and Indian deities.
8. One of the Maues inscriptions reads:
In the seventy eighth, 78, year the Great King, the Great Moga, on the fifth, 5, day of the
month Panemos, on this first, of the Kshaharatas and Kshatrapa of Chukhsa (Chasthana)
Liaka, Kusuluka , his son Patika - in the town of Takshasila."
9. Maues also married a Greek woman called queen Machene who was the daughter of the
royal house of an Indo-Greek. His coin indicated a rejoicing elephants holding the symbol of
victory and other side a seated Buddhist king with Kharoshthi legend:
RAJATIRAJASA MAHATASA MOASA (Great King of Kings Maues).
An Indo-Greek- Saka king, Artemidoros also issued coins where he describes himself as "Son
of Maues". Other Indo Greek Kings who may be also the likely candidates who participated in
defeating Gardhsena are: Archebios, Hermaeus, Artemidorous (Son), Apollodotus II and
Vonones, who appeared in same historical time frame.
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Kalkacharya led invasion came via sea route via Saurashtra against Gardhsena and landed at
Bhriggu-Kachha either with the help of his young nephew (Vikramaditya) or local Saka
chieftain posted by Indo-Greeks known to Maues. Other mercenaries under sponsorship of
Maues also joined. They entered Malwa-Ujjiyani area from south as shown in the map.
Gardhsena was overthrown and fled to the forest where he died.
There is confusion and a question as to why dislodge the friends who helped you to get rid of
tyrannical Gardhsena? However, Jaina stories assert that the foreign helpers turned out to be
not trust worthy and behaved like another tyrannical bunch after Maues death. There is also
another twist to the story that mention that Kalkacharya travelled to Pratisthana to meet
Satavahana King but the details are not divulged, if the purpose was religious in nature or
political in nature. Then young nephew Baladitya Vikramaditya frees the Malwa and Western
India from the clutches of Saka. The victorious nephew assumed the title of Vikramaditya.
The prevailing Krita or Malwa era was renamed after Vikram following his expulsion of the
invader. Jainas account stops there but the history continues. However, after several
decades, another group of Indo-Saka calling themselves Kshatrapa reasserted themselves
after Vikramdityas death and reestablished themselves in Malwa and Western India thereby
displacing the Vikram era with Saka era by reasserting themselves. The displaced Vikram era t
was reintroduced in 10th or 11th century AD again and Jaina historians recorded the story that
was from Ujjain when Parmara dynasty was ruling Malwa. The Western satrap dynasty then
stayed on for 375 years until their final defeat at the hands of Chandra Gupta II. The western
Satrap ruled from 35 CE to 405 CE. They were contemporary and tributaries of Kushans and
were different than Northern Satrap of Rajuvula clans. They were also different than Mauess
clan who were disliked by Indians. Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap
rulers during a period of about 350 years. The word Kshatrapa stands for satrap, and its
equivalent in Persian Ksatrapavan, which means viceroy or governor of a province. Taking
everything into account, they were Indianized Kamboja, Saka and Pahlva familiar with the
Indian language and culture and the followers of Buddhism.

Maues coin with elephant and sitting Buddha and other coin of showing Balrama

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Why Confusion Now?

1. There are various candidates, who have claimed the title of Vikramaditya or Saka Hari,
in the history of India. This is partly the result of the black hole in the history created by
various invasion and collapse of the Mauryan empire and introduction and reintroduction of
various other eras and coinage.
2. Saka and allied tribes were defeated by Satavahana and Gupta rulers also. There are
inscriptions that supports these claims. There are always contention between Puranic
Scholars and western scholars on Indian chronological dates and the identification of the
Chandragupta of Alexanders time as to if he belonged to Gupta or Mauryan dynasty.
The Indian history defines Saka as a collective group of various invading groups that
included Kambojas, Pahlva, Yavanas, Huna, Parasikas, Khorasani and others that precludes
the specificity of the event on which the first Vikram era of 57 BC was based why and who
created it.
3. It is also possible that this era may have been created by an invading king and later on it
was renamed and adopted as Vikram era. Two candidate of that period that matches the
time period are Azes (known as Ayes by Indian) and Kanishka. Azes era claim is now
discredited and withdrawn as a fake and Kanishka had its own era and ruled from
Peshawar with the help of satraps. Considering the Jaina record of 10th century AD, both
of the above are unlikely as an established Indian tradition.
4. In order to narrow our choices, we need to evaluate all these claims on its merits. The
available inscription and numismatics then becomes the crucial and clinching evidence.

Claim # 1-Satvahana Dynasty

Satavahana dynasty started as an Andhra Bharatiya dynasty from 230 BCE to 225 CE and the
rulers called them as Shalivahana (Sanskrit) but were clearly of the mixed origin. These
Kshatriyas clans of south India descended from Haihaya, Chedi, Madras and other native
clans. They were tributaries to Maurya but remain the followers of Jainism like their Chedi
kalchuri neighbor King Kharvela (See Hathi Gampa Inscription). They also respected shaivism
and the Buddhism consistent with Asokas edicts.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hathigumpha_inscription).
Satavahana native name was Satakarni. After proclaiming independence after the death of
Asoka around 230 BC, Simuka Satakarni witnessed the state of flux and turmoil in the North
India starting with the rise and fall of Shunga, Kanva and Chedi dynasty and occupation of
Greeks, Sakas and Tocharians.
15

Gautamiputra Satakarni (78102 CE)

Gautamiputra Satakarni assumed the power around 78 CE and defeated western satrap
Nahapana by re conquering a large part of the former dominions of the Satavahana kingdom.
Nasik inscription installed by his mother Gautami Balasari states that:
He is the one, who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas (Kshatriyas here means the
native Indian princes of western and Central India); who destroyed the Sakas (Western Kshatrapa),
Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) and Pahlavas (Indo-Parthian),... who rooted the Kshaharatas family (The
Kshaharatas family of Nahapana); and who restored the glory of the Satavahana race.

Gautamiputra Satakarni may have defeated Sakas in 78 CE in round 1 and may have initiated
the calendar known as Shalivahana era and over struck his coins but in round 2 he lost and
ended up marrying his son Vashisti Putra to the daughter of Rudrasimha Saka of Gujarat . It is
not clear that he was able to physically conquer Malwa although the Malwa coins were over
struck by him as well but Malwa coins were abundantly used in all Western Kshatrapa regions
that he conquered including Lata region. So, numismatic evidence is not convincing proof. He
also concluded a peace treaty between him and Rudrasimha. He did not chase Saka out of
India. It was his mother who was claiming the credit through this inscription and not him.
Therefore, he is unlikely to be the real Vikramaditya as he already had his own era in his
domain. His era did not survive beyond his rule it appears from numismatic evidence that the
same date was used by Rudrasimha in his silver coin that called that as Saka era and that is
still in use by Indians.
Since his era may have become Saka era that is not an indication of his claim of removing
Saka. The Western Kshatrapa, were not detested by Indians, because they were thoroughly
Indianized and spoke Sanskrit and worship all the Indian Gods and respected all religious
tradition of India. They ruled the western and central India for more than three centuries.
They were very familiar with India and its culture.

16

Over struck coins of Gaumtiputra Satavahana of Saka Rudrasimha and Chasthana

The reversal of his victory is depicted below by new coins of Western Satraps who maintained the rule in India
for over 250 years.

A silver coin of the Western Satrap ruler Rudrasimha I (200-222). This coin bears a date of the Saka era in the
Brahmi script on the reverse: 131 Saka era, corresponding to 209 CE, 16mm, 2.2 grams.

Although this contradiction become a teaser to some Indians, you cannot deny the fact that
Saka era by its name is still in existence in India and Rudrasenas coin of 200 AD proudly
refers that to Saka era and not Shalivahana Era so Shalivahana claim is limited to one
skirmish or battle but he lost the other one and had not succeeded in chasing the Saka out
of India.
Claim # 2- Chandra Gupta II (380-414CE)
Chandra Gupta II is another candidate holding the title of Vikramaditya. His story of the
encounter with Western satrap is more intriguing. His brother Rama Gupta had a run in with
Rudrasimha III of Malwa and Rama Gupta was defeated and forced to conclude the peace by
offering. Rama Gupta forced Dhruvaswamini, his younger brother Chandra Guptas fiance to
marry him first and then offered to Rudrasimha III in the marriage to conclude the peace
treaty. This was a common practice in India between Victors and vanquished. This certainly
infuriated Chandra Gupta II. So he devised the plan and dressed him up as a woman and went
to the enemy and managed to assassinate the Western Kshatrapa ruler of Malwa and
ultimately manages to take away his entire empire including Malwa, Saurashtra and Lata. He
also killed his older brother Rama Gupta and took over his reign. He finally married
Dhruvaswamini, the queen. Vishakhadattas, a Gupta historian describes these events in
17

some details and even calls Chandra Gupta II with the epithet of Devi reserved for a
woman. Chandragupta II controlled a vast empire, from the mouth of the Ganges to the
mouth of the Indus River and from what is now North Pakistan down to the mouth of the
Narmada. Patliputra continued to be the capital of his huge empire but Ujjain too became a
second capital. The large numbers of beautiful gold coins issued by the Gupta are a testament
to the imperial grandeur of that age. Chandragupta II also started producing silver coins in the
Saka tradition but exclusively used for conquered territory of Western Satraps. He re minted
the opposite side of western satrap coin without changing the front side but carried his name
as Vikramaditya or more appropriately King of King. He is mentioned in Rajtarangni as
Vikramaditya and once had the largest collection of intellectuals in his court famously called
Nine Jewels in his court. Kalidasa, one of the nine jewels who wrote Sanskrit dramas credits
Chandragupta Vikramaditya with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and
outside India. After finishing his campaign in the East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandra
Gupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunas and the
Kambojas tribes located in the west and east of Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the
king proceeded towards the Himalaya and reduced the Kinnaras, Kirata etc. and recaptured
the lands of India proper. The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Ksemendra states,
king Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) had:
"Unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas,
Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas.
He used and re minted the coins of Saka style for western India as well as his traditional
Chhatra type for the north. He ruled India from 318 AD to 414 AD. He already established
his stature as a true Vikramaditya for truly purging Saka out of India proper but he did not
establish the era for 57 BC nor did he base his era on 57 BC time frame. He used Gupta era of
319-320 AD. Judging from his coinage and the erection of the iron pillar at Delhis Kutub
Minar complex, he was not the one who either started or assumed the era that carries the
name of Vikram.
Chandra Gupta II meets the criterion of driving Saka completely out of India after almost over
300 years but the Vikram era was not assumed by him or was being used. The true title of
Vikramaditya may belong to him but not the era that began with 57 BC.

18

Gold Coin-"Chhatra" type of Chandragupta II used in North, and Silver coin used for western territory with
Legend in Brahmi, "Chandragupta Mahadhiraj, King of Kings, and a devotee of Vishnu", around Garuda, a
symbol of Gupta Kingdom, (see below).

. .

Iron Pillar- Chandra Gupta II at Kutub

Chandra Gupta-Archer

Chandra Gupta-Horseman Gold

Guptas western coin shy away from using his northern coins and that makes you wonder if
the people in west were using different era while he was using Gupta era in the north that
finally coincided with Vallabhi era of the western India, after the fall of Gupta empire. Gupta
calendar began in 318 AD and Vallabhi calendar was also started in 318 AD. Gupta era was
widely used in North and Nepal due to their Lichhavi connection all the way up to 13th
century and then Nepal started using Vikram savant of India, (Nepali called it Bikram era.
The pillar itself was relocated from its original site at Vishnupadagiri (meaning Vishnufootprint-hill), identified as modern Udayagiri, situated in the close vicinity of Besnagar,
Vidisha and Sanchi, towns located about 50 kilometers east of Bhopal, in central India. Kutub
Minar used to be a Jain temple that was razed to the ground by Qutb-Ud-din Aibak to build
19

Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. The stone used to build the structure still shows the making of
Jaina temple. The Gupta pillar bears an inscription which states that it was erected as a
flagstaff in honor of the Hindu god, Vishnu, and in the memory of the Gupta King
Chandragupta II (375413 AD). It is made up of 98% wrought iron of pure quality; it is 23 feet
8 inches (7.21 m) high and has a diameter of 16 inches (0.41 m). Also, it was confirmed that
the temperatures required to form such kind of pillars cannot be achieved by combustion of
coal used in iron making. The pillar is a testament to the high level of skill achieved by ancient
Indian iron smiths in the extraction and processing of iron. It has attracted the attention of
archaeologists and metallurgists as it has withstood corrosion for the last 1600 years, despite
harsh weather. Its unusually good corrosion resistance construction appears to be due to a
high phosphorus content, which together with favorable local weather conditions where it
was originally erected promotes the formation of a solid protective preservation layer of iron
oxides and phosphates, rather than the non-protective, cracked rust layer that develops on
most ironwork found of earlier age.
The carved stones stolen from the destroyed Jain Temple by Muslim Aibak were reused in the
construction of the mosque that shows Indian Kumbh, Dharam Chakra, Temple Bell and
Indian Toran. Enlarge the pictures below to see the clear markings that are pinned on these
photographs taken by the author.

Indian Kumbh from Jain temple

Chandra Guptas Pillar-Indian Bell, Toran and Dharam Chakra

20

Claim # 3 Vikramaditya Hemu

Vikramaditya Hemu (15011556) was a Hindu ruler of north India during the sixteenth
century AD, a period when Mughal and Turks were spoiling for the loots and power in India.
He was a follower of Jainism but was born in a Brahmin family. He was employed by Adil
Shah Suri when he ruled India as a minister and then he became chief of the army. He helped
Suri suppress rebellious Afghan feudal lords and faced the Mughal forces of Humayun. He
ejected Humayun from the throne of Delhi and made him to flee. He won many pitched
battles against the Mogul forces.
Hemu acceded to the throne of Delhi on 7 October 1556, assuming the title of "Vikramaditya"
that had been adopted by many Hindu kings prior to his time. His rule lasted for short
duration. Hemu struck coins bearing this title. Hemu lost the second round of battle with
Mughal Akbar and died at second Panipat war at the hands of Akbar. By logic, he cannot be
the initiator of the original Vikram era, as he lived during Akbars time and he was not from
Malwa, he may have used the era but Nepali record suggest the a switch to Vikram era took
place around 11th century that roughly coincide with arrival of and establishment of Turkish
slave dynasty after Ghuri period.
It is quite possible that perhaps the introduction of Hizra calendar made everyone to rally
behind the Vikram or Malwa calendar for no other reasons than keeping Indian Jyotish
and other rituals based Hindu calendar alive as it was lunar/solar based Tithi oriented
calendar used by Brahmins-Jyotish. Any extinction of that calendar would have placed
many Brahmin communities out of their profession and put a big dents on Hindu culture
that believed in processing all auspicious occasion under the guidance of Tithi based
Jyotish events.
Claim # 4 Inventions by Astronomer of Ujjain- Kalkacharya or Brahmagupta
The Vikram era supposed to have begun close to 58 BC. We know this because a very late
Jaina Text of Merutunga gives a story of Kalkacharya and Gardhsena and how his nephew
Baladitya or Bahumitra expelled the Sakas from Ujjain and established the Vikram era, and
gives a formula for calculating the Vikram era from the Saka (Majumdar, 1951).
According to Majumdar, the term Vikram era is fairly late, and was not the original
appellation of the era that was already established by Mallas. Prior to eleventh century the
Vikram era was known as the Malwa era or Krita era. This Malwa era can be traced to a group
of inscriptions of the fifth century AD found to the south of Mathura in Rajasthan. These
inscriptions include the word 'Krita' and this allows them to be linked to a group of
inscriptions dated 295, 284, and 282 (i.e. the first half of the third century) from the same
region. This is where the trail stops. These are the oldest inscriptions known with certainty to
be dated in the era of 58 BC by Malla tribes In Rajasthan. So, it is clear that some astronomer
who lived in Vikram era may have come up with this idea for astronomical reason and who
21

else could be other than Jaina Acharya Kalkacharya who had the expertise in this area and he
probably improved the old calendar that did not have the ways of reconciling the differences
between lunar and solar movement in relation to earth. His new learning from Taxila may
give him the insight to Persian calendar that was solar based. Vikram calendar is Lunar-solar
calendar that bridges the differences periodically to keep the basic framework of sunrise and
sunset in alignment while keeping Indian Jyotish system unchanged. There is already an
indirect reference of Ramala Jyotish This remains the possibility but it is not corroborated
by any other literary, inscription or numismatic evidence. The presence of Malwa era and
Malwa people in Rajasthan can be proved by coinage and artifacts below in addition to the
above mentioned inscription found in Rajasthan.

Malwa Goblet -300 BC

Malwa Coin 150-75 BC with kartikiya-Laxmi

An earlier Hindustan Times article regarding the coin of Vikramaditya of Ujjain of 58 BC was
discovered should be treated with a grain of salt. The face on the picture below resembles a
Hindu king but other side of the coin was never displayed with any marking and there was no
follow-up to this original article. Looking at the finish of the coin that is displayed below the
following observation can be made:
At the time of Vikram era, the coin minting technology used in India proper was confined to
square, punched marked or incomplete round coins of bronze and nickel alloys. The better
finish silver Drachma appeared with the arrival of Indo-Greeks first in Gandhara and several
decades later in India proper. The Malwa coins depicted above along with satavahana
Gaumtiputra coin probably were the norm during Vikrams period. The Indians always
believed that Gold and Silver should be used more for jewelries than coin minting. Later
Gupta and other rulers did have the Gold coins. The coin shown below of Vikramaditya
appears to have a middle age portrait of Rajput King. When compared with the portrait of
Hemu Vikramaditya of Akbars age, it has a similar resemblance. Considering the fine finish
and other feature of the coin and other side of the inscription of the coin was never
22

published, it appears to be the work of an antique coin dealer who is trying to make a buck by
generating the publicity. We never heard directly from Vikramaditya Shodhpeeth institute of
their findings. The Hindustan Times article is printed below with coin image as it appeared in
their publication. This is not a creditable story and falls in to same category of Dwarka
discovery.
According to researchers of the Maharaja Vikramaditya Shodhpeeth in Ujjain, this coin is the first definitive
archaeological evidence of the monarch. There is a mention of Vikramaditya in the ancient text Bhavishya
Purana that chronicles the names of Hindu dynasties. It says he ruled Malwa which includes parts of present
day western Madhya Pradesh and southeastern Rajasthan from 57BC and Ujjain was his capital. But while
stories about him abound, as the German philologist Max Mueller once said, there is no documentary evidence
of his existence. In December, a private collector brought this coin, found on the banks of the Kshipra in Ujjain,
to Shodhpeeth for authentication. Shodhpeeth researchers claim that while terracotta and copper seals and
coins with references to Vikramaditya have been found, this coin with a portrait of the king on one side and
typical first century BC symbolisms on the other hand are nailing evidence.

Unverified coin of original Vikram 57 BC

Hemu Vikramaditya of Delhi 16th Century AD

Vikramaditya era and Vikram Calendar Are Two Different Issues But
coincidental:
The conclusion of this article can be thus summarized over here:
1. Vikramaditya is the title or epithet assumed by a king and it should be considered as a
separate issue as far as 57 BC is event is concerned. Vikramaditya means the conqueror of
world similar to the title of Kings of Kings or Maharajadhiraj as used frequently in
ancient Indian history as well as epic age by many kings. There are at least 10 kings who
have claimed that title during common eras so there was no person whose personal name
was Vikram as some of you believe. There are many kings who fought against the invader
23

Saka ruler starting with Baladitya (57 BC), Satavahana, and Chandra Gupta 11. Due to
unique situation prevailing in Asia, Chandra Gupta II was responsible for dislodging the
Saka after 300 years of rule but he did not claim the era of 57 BC. Gupta empire was
dislodge by Huna who attacked afterwards finally to be driven out by Yashodharman of
Malwa around 7th century. Harsha came after him.
1. Jaina historian have correctly identified him with his real name as Bahumitra or
Baladitya, his nephew but there are no inscriptional evidence or monuments as he was
later dislodged by western Kshatrapa who were different than first group of sakas. It may
be coincidental that astronomical reason of correction may have been timed with the event
of Vikramaditya as a reason for initiating or rebranding an existing Malwa era. The use of
Vikram era may have continued and used by Jyotish or astrologer priest of Indian to
identify auspicious time for staging ritual or occasion but the calendar was changed from
time to time such as Saka era, Gupta era, Vallabhi era and countless other eras until the
system was standardized after 11th century AD with Vikram era when everything may have
standardized. 1. It appears the Vikram Era was up for grab until 10th or 11th century when
Muslim rulers tried to introduce the Hizra calendar up on assumption of power and that
would have thrown all the Jyotish driven events, rituals and profession out of the window.
2. It is more likely than not that in early century, Vikram era was specific to Malwa area
but not used as a calendar during western Satraps and Vallabhi-Guptas rule. The
astrologer still may have used that continuously for social purposes. The Luni-solar feature
of the calendar was spread throughout India after 10th or 11th century AD. Some regions
started adopting them as a calendar too. The Jaina historians who first recorded the story
of Kalkacharya and Vikram were from Malwa. Vikram story probably stayed in obscurity
for several centuries.
3. The kings during the Common Era continue to use either their own or other established
era for inscription and copper grant issue and proclamation. Jaina used Vir savant as a
calendar for religious purpose while Hindu may have used either Kaliyuga or Saka
calendar. Buddhist similarly may have used the Buddhist calendar and Muslims could have
used the Hizra calendar and Parsee may have used Zoroasters calendar.
4. That brings up to the final conclusion and that original purpose of Vikram eras
intended use may be for astronomical and ritual purposes that either Kalkacharya
organized before common era or Brahmagupta organized during 10th century AD.
Brahmagupta was a mathematician and astronomer in Paramara king Bhojas court at
Dhara-Ujjiyani and he may have recovered kalkacharyas work and resurrected that.
Brahmagupta was an inventor of Zero, a mathematician and astronomer. He also wrote on
Kalkacharya in Brihat Katha Maviracharya. It was through the Brahmasphutasiddhanta
that the Arabs learned of Indian astronomy. Edward Saxhau stated that "Brahmagupta was
the one who taught Arabs the Indian astronomy". The caliph invited a scholar of Ujjain by the
name of Kankah in 770 A.D. Kankah used the Brahmasphutasiddhanta to explain the Hindu
system of arithmetic astronomy. Muhammad al-Fazari translated Brahmugupta's work into
Arabic upon the request of the caliph. Some of the important contributions made by
24

Brahmagupta in astronomy are: methods for calculating the position of heavenly bodies over
time (ephemerides), their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of solar and
lunar eclipses. Brahmagupta criticized the Puranic view that the Earth was flat or hollow.
Instead, he observed that the Earth and heaven were spherical and that the Earth is moving.
In 1030 AD, the Muslim astronomer Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni, in his Ta'rikh al-Hind, later
translated into Latin as Indica, commented on Brahmuguptas work and wrote that critics.

Brahmagupta at the site of observatory

Hemu Vikramaditya statue for fake Gold Coin Comparison

5. The last but not the least are the stories of Vikramaditya with a Ghost, or vampire or
Vetal is all legend. The nine scholars referred (Gems) in his court probably belonged to
Gupta era than 57 BC era.

The Current Indian Calendar:

The current national calendar of India was set up in 1957 by the Calendar Reform Committee
that formalized a lunar solar calendar in which leap years coincide with those of the
Gregorian calendar, and the months are named after the traditional Indian months. This
reformed Indian calendar began with Saka Era, Chaitra 1, 1879, which corresponds to March
22, 1957. The Correlation of current official Indian calendar with Gregorian calendar and
name of the corresponding months are given below:.
1. Chaitra

(30 / 31* Days)

Begins March 22 / 21*

2. Vaisakha

(31 Days)

Begins April 21

3. Jyaistha

(31 Days)

Begins May 22

4. Asadha

(31 Days)

Begins June 22

5. Shravana

(31 Days)

Begins July 23

6. Bhadra

(31 Days)

Begins August 23
25

7. Asvina

(30 Days)

Begins September 23

8. Kartika

(30 Days)

Begins October 23

9. Agrahayana

(30 Days)

Begins November 22

10. Pausa

(30 Days)

Begins December 22

11. Magha

(30 Days)

Begins January 21

12. Phalguna

(30 Days)

Begins February 20

365/ 366 days

*Applies to leap year adjustment where Chaitrya will have additional days like February.

Vikram Calendar that is Still used in Nepal as Bikram calendar (Lunar-Solar

Calendar)
Understanding Phase of Lunation:
A lunar phase alternates between illuminated (sunlit) as seen from the earth and
unilluminated (not sunlit) phase when moon is not visible on the earth. The lunar phases
change cyclically as the Moon orbits the Earth that has a tilted rotational axis and elliptical
orbit around the sun. Since each celestial objects rotates in its own orbit in a constantly
changing relative positions with each others, The half of the lunar surface facing the Sun is
always sunlit, but the portion of this illuminated hemisphere that is visible to an observer on
Earth can vary from 0 % (polar region) to about 100% at equator. The Lunar terminator is the
boundary between the illuminated and unilluminated hemispheres of the earth. All parts of
the Moon see around 14.77 days of sunlight followed by 14.77 days of "night" except some
portion of moon polar region. On earth varies depending on observers earths location. See
the Utube links as follows for further understanding. Two video files are also uploaded
separately.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgoIP90apEs
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/2013-moon-phases.html#.UegxEKy8NJs
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y3Y7CXjnSvQ
The time between two full moons (a Lunar month) is about 29.53 days. When a new moon
occurs before sunrise on a day, that day is said to be the first day of the lunar month. So it is
26

evident that the end of the lunar month will coincide with a new moon. A lunar month has 29
or 30 days on average. Every month is divided in:
Krishna Paksha "dark fortnight", the approximate 15 days between the full moon and the
new moon, and Shukla Paksha "bright fortnight", the 15 days between the new moon and the
full moon. This time period also varies when seen from the earth due to earths tilted axis
and elliptical orbit around the sun. Ancient Indian astrologer compensated this by adding
either extra day in the month or extra month every 4th year to make a course correction so
time between two full moon and relation to suns position on solstice that all have to be
correctly realigned for calendar purpose. The Indian astrologer also uses a Panchang
created from these calculated variation. The whole purpose is to earmark the time period
in a day or night when auspicious events can take place either marriage, engagement,
adulthood and other religious and social ceremonies. This has been rooted in Indian belief
system from Vedic times. The Indian Jyotish is entirely based on that in determining the
Tithi when the auspicious events must be completed. The Tithi at sunrise of a day is the
only label of the day. There is no running day number from the first day to the last day of the
month. This has some unique results, as explained below: Sometimes two successive days
have the same Tithi. In such a case, the latter is called an Adhika Tithi where Adhika means
"extra". Sometimes, one Tithi may never touch a sunrise, and hence no day will be labeled by
that Tithi. It is then said to be a Tithi Kaya where Kaya means "loss".
The illustration below shows how Vikram calendar was modified over the ancient calendar of
India that was entirely lunar based. Vikram calendar was designed to create a lunar-solar or
hybrid calendar that allowed Indians to keep their Jyotish features of Tithi and Nakshatra
while compensating features of Sun based calendar. The second calendar shown below is a
Saka calendar that was based entirely on solar movement but does not have Jyotish
features considered important to Indian belief system. So, Saka calendar will not be useful for
Indian Jyotish system. The Saka calendar was the same as Persian calendar and observed by
Indian Saka-Greeks and other tribes of the North.

Vikram Calendar Arrangement

Bikram-Nepal

No. Name
1
Baisakh

Month

Vikram-Malwa

Days
30 / 31

Days
30/31

Jetha

or

31 / 32

31/32

Asar

or

31 / 32

31/32

Saaun

or

31 / 32

31/32

Bhadau

or

31 / 32

31/32

Asoi

or

30 / 31

30/31
27

Kartik

29/30

Mangsir

or !" 29 / 30
29 / 30
% or "

8
9

Poush

or

29 / 30

29/30

10

Magh

29 / 30

29/30

11

Falgun

or ,

29 / 30

29/30

12

Chaitra

or .

30 / 31

30/31

Total

29/30

359/ 371 351/371

If Kalkacharya had anything to do with the Vikram era then he would have picked this idea
from his visit to Taxila with Saka satrap. Early Persian calendar was based on solar
movement. Since Indians always used lunar calendar like the rest of the east Asians. A
lunisolar calendar is a good compromise to maintain the traditions based on the moon's
celestial motion, while making a periodic correction to stay close to a solar calendar based on
the sun's (apparent) celestial motion. The lunisolar calendar's purpose was to keep the New
Year is as close (within certain limits) to a solar calendar's new year.
Since the Hindu lunar month names are based on solar transits, and the month of Caitra will,
as defined above, always be close to the solar month of Mesa (Aries), the Hindu lunisolar
calendar will always keep in track with the Hindu solar calendar.
The Hindu solar calendar by contrast starts on April 1415 each year. This signifies the sun's
"entry" into Mesha rashi and is celebrated as the New Year in Certain States. This solar New
Year is celebrated on the same day in Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal and Thailand due to
Buddhist influence on those countries. Under this approach every alternate year will have
either 359 days or 371 days thus averaging 365 days, as shown above.

Saka calendar:
The Saka calendar is based on Persian calendar and always stays in tune with solar
movement. In solar calendar, Chaitra has 31 days and starts on March 21 instead during the
leap year. The months in the first half of the year all have 31 days, to take into account the
slower movement of the sun across the ecliptic at this time.
The names of the months are derived from older, Hindu lunisolar calendars of Vikram to
replace the Persian names. There is a possible source of confusion as to what calendar a date
to begin the calendar. The Years are counted in the Saka Era, which starts its year 0 in the
year 78 of the Common Era. To determine leap years, add 78 to the Saka year - if the result is
a leap year in the Gregorian calendar, then the Saka year is a leap year as well. Its structure is
exactly similar to Persian calendar.
28

No. Name Saka calendar Days

1 Cahitra

30 / 31

2 Vaisakha

31

3 Jyestha

31

4 Assadhaa

31

or

31

6 Bhadrapad or

31

5 Shraawan

7 Ashwin

8 Kartik

!" or ! 30

30

9 Aghravaan 0 or 30
10 Paush

30

11 Magh

30

12 Phelgun

, 30

Total

365/366

The leap year is every five years.

Vikram in Kaaba-Inscription:
There have been claims that Vikramaditya inscription was found in Kaaba in Mecca on a gold
disk near the shrine of prophet. The further evaluation resulted this to be not a creditable
story. See WIKI link for that explanation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3AVikram%C4%81ditya

References:
1. Kalpasutra by Bhadrabahu, Basantakumara Chattopadhya, Calcutta University, 1957
2. kalkacharya Kathanaka-Jaina Illustration,
http://indianartinfo.wordpress.com/2008/11/03/jain-illustrations/
3. Malwa through Ages, Kailash Chand Jain, Motilal Banarasi Das, Delhi, Varanasi.
4. Kalkacharya-Katha manuscript 15th c. Abhisarika Princely States Court Documents,
Udaipur, Indragarh, Bundi. Pancharaksa, AD 1289.
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5. Kalchuri Historyhttp://www.bizzula.com/html/documents/Bijjala%20Kalachuris%20History%20Final.pdf
6. Bhavishya Purana by B. K. Chaturvedi (Jan 1, 2009).
7. Mysterious Original king Vikramaditya
http://creative.sulekha.com/the-mysterious-original-king-vikramaditya_541539_blog
8. Jain Parampara Itihas, Triputi Maharaj- Vol 1, Palitana, India.
9. Kaaba is not a Hindu Shrine
http://kaabaisnotahindutemple.blogspot.com/2011/10/exposing-reality-of-kingvikramaditya.html
10. Astadhayayi Of Panini T. Ganapati Shastri 1914-1917
11. Prabadha Chintanami of Merutunga, SJS No. 10, Shantiniketan, 1935.
12. Rajtarangni of Kilhana, M. A. Stein, London, 1900.
13. Ancient Geography of India, Cunningham, A. Calcutta, India, 1924.
14. The Age of imperial Gupta, R. D. Banerji, Banaras, 1933
15. The Sakas in India, Chattopadhya Sudhakar, Shantiniketan, 1955
16. Catalogue Of the coins of ancient India, British Museum, London, 1936
17. South Indian Inscriptions, Hultzsch, E. 1890-1929
18. Fleet J.F. Inscription of Gupta Kings, Calcutta, 1988
19. D.C. Sircar, Select inscription bearing on Indian History, Calcutta, 1965.
20. Malla Tribe
http://kaabaisnotahindutemple.blogspot.com/2011/10/exposing-reality-of-kingvikramaditya.html
21. Malla http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malla_%28India%29
22. Republics In ancient India, 1500-500 BC, J. R. Sharma, Cambridge University, UK
23. History and Mythology of Vikramaditya
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http://hmindia.blogspot.com/2009/05/ack-123-vikramaditya-chandragupta-...1
24. Kushan History-a rough guide to india-Pakistan and Afghanistan by Robert Bracey
http://www.kushan.org/
25. Asterism http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterism_%28astronomy%29
26. Big Dipper http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Dipper
27. Hindu calendar https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_calendar
28 Vikram savant http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikram_Samvat
29. satavahana dynasty https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty
30. Western Kshatrapa https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Satraps
31. Lunar calendar http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_calendar
32. Solar calendar http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_calendar
33. Persian calendar http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_calendars
34. Hindu Astrology http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_calendars
35 The Historicity of Vikramaditya and Satavahana -published Blog, K.M. Rao
36. Mahabharata- Sacred Text-internet Archive.
37. Early History of India, Vincent Smith, Cambridge, London
38. Hindi Jaina Sahitya Our Itihas, Nathuram Premi, Bombay, 1942
39. Brahm Gupta http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta
40. Mathematics & Astronomers of Ancient India, Shashi B. Sharma, Pitambar Publishing

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