Milk hygiene and technology

Range of questions for oral examination winter semester 2006/2007

1. Composition of milk,
Nutritive value of milk and milk products
Milk products, and human health.
Composition of milk:
Milk = the lacteal secretion, particully free from colstrum, obtained by the complete milking of
one or more healthy cows, which containsnot less than 8.25 % of MSNF, not less than 3.25 %
milk fat.
Minimum standards in the various states:
8.0 - 8.5 % MSNF
3.0 - 3.8 % milk fat
Constituents of milk:
Water
Lipids
Protein
Carbohydrates
Salts minerals
Vitamins
Long list of miscellaneous constituents
Many as 105 different kind of molecules
Primary components: principal components
Supplemental components
Secondary contaminants
Principal components:
Water: 82% in sheep, 87,3 % in cows, 88,8% horses
Fat: 1,5% horses, 3,6% goat, 3,8% in cows, 7,4% sheep, 7,5 % in Buffalo,
16-20%
reindeer
Small globules, dispersed in plasma due to their phospholipids
membrane coatings. Contains Glycerides, Sterols, Phospholipids.
Proteins: 2,3% horses, 3.18% in goat, 3,31% in cows (2,7% Casein + 0,6
Whey),
5,5% in Sheep casein are in colloidal suspension,
Whey proteins are in Solution
Lactose: (milk sugar) 4,3% goat, 4,7 % in cow, 4,8% sheep, 5,7% horses
6,2% in mare. Glucose + galactose. Fermented into Lactic Acid.

Supplemental Components:
Minerals:
Ash component: 0,2 1,31% Cl, K, Ca, Na, PO4, Mg +
sodium orthophosphate
Vitamins:
Water soluble; B and C, Fat soluble; A, D, E, K
Citric Acid: Increases stability of casein. Which adds flavour.
Gas:
CO2, N2, O2
Bocy Cells: Leukocytes from the udder are always present in milk.
More than 400,000 ppml indicates mastitis.
Also erythrocytes, lyphocytes and neutrophils
Enzymes:
Lipase, protease, phosphatase.
Secondary contaminants
1
2
3
4
5

Microorganisms from the udder, equipment or milker

Antibiotics penicillin is common, Not broken down by pasteurisation
Pesticides may enter milk trhought skin, respiratory system or food
Heavy metals from milking equipment or in feed. E.g. Cu, which oxidises milk fat
Cleaning agents from milking equipment, feeding through or environement. Cl, NH4
Nutritive value of milk and milk products

6
7
8

10
11
12

13

For young animals, milk contains all the necessary nutrients, other than Fe, for which they
use reserves in the liver during suckling, and vitamin D, which must be produced by the
skin when exposed to sunlight
Milk proteins contain 20 Amino acids, including all the essential Amino Acids
(Normal processing procedures do not alter the nutritive value of proteins)
Milk Fat Easily digestible and highly nutritious.
(less is present in skimmed milk, and therefore less fat soluble vitamins are present, unless
they are added after skimming)
(Milk fats contain cholesterol and polyunsaturated fatty acids. However milk products,
other than butter, do not cause a rise in cholesterol levels, but may lower them.)
(Milk fats are not affected by heat treatment.)
Lactose 4,7% in cows.
(Important supply of energy. Also aids in absorption of Mg, Ca by the human body. May
cause acidic conditions in the large instestine if insufficient lactase is present to break it
down, as microflora convert lactose to lactic acid, causing cramps, diahorrhea etc.)
Minerals A lot of easily digestible Ca and P aid in skeletal and dental construction.
Trace elements Some are important in enzymatic reactions.
Vitamin A Fat soluble
(Produced from carotenoids in the intestine.)
(Deficiency leads to reduced growth, dental diseases and visual problems.)
(Normal processing doesnt break down vitamin A, but sterilization can cause a 20%
reduction in vitamin A.)
Vitamin D Fat soluble, Mainly Vitamins D2 and D3 from plants.

(Deficiency can cause reduced growth, reduced deposition of Ca and P in bones which can
cause rickets.)
(Very stable, unaffected by heat treatment)
14 Vitamin B Water soluble. Produced in the rumen by microorganisms.
(Milk is an important source of only one B vitamin, B2, Riboflavin.)
15 Vitamin C Water soluble. Ruminants produce this themselves, while it is a dietary
requirement for other species.
(Heat treatment does not break it down unless O2 is present. Slight losses to pasteurisation,
more through sterilization.)

Milk products, and human health.

16 Diseases in milk are normally caused by pathogens or hazardous chemicals. These can stem
from udders, milkers, environment and milking, storage or transport equipment.
o Bovine TB
o Brucellosis of goats, sheep, cows and buffalo.
o Foot and mouth disease rarely effects man.
o Anthrax Bacillus antracis. Milk from infected herds is unlikely to be used.
o E-Coli Causes intestinal disorders. Milk should be boiled for babies and intants.
o Shigella causes dysentery
o Salmonella Causes typhoid and paratyphoid fever.
o Mastitis some staphylococci produce a toxin that causes gastroenteritis in man.
o Colostridium Digestion of colostrums leads to formation of toxins.
17 Characterisation of pathogens
o Phychrophilic Optimum temperature = 4 6 degrees. Killed by pasteurisation
o Psychotrophic Optimum temperature = 20 - 30 degrees
(but can grow < 7 degrees). Grow at refrigeration temp.
o Mesophilic Optimum temperature = 25 35 degrees.
o Thermophilic Optimum temperature = 50 degrees.
o Thermoduric Optimum temperature = 30 60 degrees. Survive pasteurisation.

Water

A small amount of the water of milk is"bound" so tightly:

by proteins,
by the fat globule membrane
It does not function as a solvent for small molecules and ions.
The other constituents are: dissolved, colloidally dispersed, and emulsified in water.
The dissolved solutes in bovine milk aggregate about 0,3M and depress the freezing
point by about -0,54C.

The activity of water in milk, aw, which is the ratio of its vapour pressure to that of
air saturated with water, is about 0,993.

Proteins in Milk
Fall into several classes of polypeptide chains:
Caseins, consists of four kinds of polypeptides:
s1-, s2-, -, - with some
genetic variats,
post translational modification,
product of proteolysis.
Almost all of the caseins are associated with calcium and phosphate in micelles 20 - 300 m in
diameter.
Whey proteins are a diverse group including:
-lactalbumin,
-lactoglobulin,
blod serum albumin,
Immunoglobulins.
Species
Human
Cow
Zebu
Yak
Water buffalo
Goat
Sheep
Horse
Reindeer

Casein
0.4
2.6
2.6

Why protein
0.5
0.6
0.6
5.8

3.2
2.6
3.9
1.3
8.6

0.6
0.6
0.7
1.2
1.5

Milk Fat
25 One of the most economically important factors of milk, as milk is sold by fat %
26 An important sourse of vitamins A, D, E and K
27 Easily digestible and nutricious
28 Structure as fat globules ranging in size from 0,1 to 15 Mm. These are covered by a fat
globule membrane of protein and phospholipids
o Fat globules have 4 layers:
1. Outer aqueous layer
2. the protein layer
3. the phopholipid bi layer
4. the fat nucleus
29 Physical Properties

Density at 20 oC 915 kg / m3

30 Fatty acids originate either from the rumen, formed by microbial activity, or from secretory
cells in the udder.
31 Long Chain Fatty Acids
o C14 myristic adic (11%)
o C16 Palmitic acid (26%)
o C18 Stearic acid (10%)
o C18:1 oleic acid (20%) unsaturated
32 Short Chain Fatty Acids (11%) Liquid at room temp.
o C4 Butyric Acid only in ruminants. Anticarcinogenic
o C6 Caproic Acid
o C8 Caprylic acid
o C10 Capric Acid
33 Tricglycerides account for 98% of milk fat
o Formed by binding of fatty acid CO group to one of the 3 OH groups of glycerol
o The presence of monoglycerides, diglycerides and free fatty acids may be due to
early lipolysis or incomplete synthesis.
34 Pospholipids (0,8%) one of the 3 OH groups in glycerol is linked with a phosphoric acid
molecule
35 Spoilage reactions of milk fat
o Breakdown of triglyceride fat structure releasing fatty acids e.g. butyric, to give a
rancid flavour (happens over time during storage)
o Oxidation of unsaturated fats creating an oxidised (flat) flavour.

Milk Sugar Lactose

36 Important supply of energy.
37 Aids in absorption of Mg, Ca by the human body.
38 May cause acidic conditions in the large intestine if insufficient lactase is present to break it
down, as LAB (lactic acid bacteria) ferment lactose to lactic acid, causing cramps,
diahorrhea
39
40
41
42

Lactose is a disaccharide made up of Glucose and Galactose

Other than lactose, only traces of other sugars, monosacharides, are found in milk.
Lactose is not found in any other natural products
Lactose makes up 4,8 5,2 % of milk, 52 % of NFS (non-fat solids) in milk and 70 % of
why solids.
43 Variation in milk sweetness between species is dependant on lactose

44 For lactose to be digested and absorbed by the intestine, the enzyme Lactase must first
break it down to glucose and galactose.
45 Milk can be treated with lactase to produce milk for lactose intolerant consumers.
46 Lactose is quite insoluble, which can cause problems with crystalisation in products as ice
cream and sweetened milk.

Minerals in Milk
47
48
49
50

The Mineral component of milk, when separated, is called the ash

The ash component makes up 0,2 1,3 % of milk by weight.
Minerals include Cl, K Ca, P, Na, So4 and Mg
Minerals give the milk a salty flavour, especially at the end of lactation, when ash content is
generally higher
51 A lot of easily digestible Ca and P aid in skeletal and dental construction.

Vitamins in Milk
52 Vitamin A Fat soluble
o Produced from carotenoids in the instestine.
o Deficiency leads to reduced growth, dental diseases and visual problems.
o Normal processing doesnt break down vitamin A, but sterilization can cause a 20 %
reduction in vitamin A
53 Vitamin D Fat Soluble, Mainly Vitamins D2 and D3 from plants.
o Deficiency can cause reduced growth, reduced deposition of Ca and P in bones
which can cause rickets.
o Very stable, unaffected by heat treatment.
54 Vitamin B water soluble. Produced in the rumen by microorganisms.
o Milk is an important source of only one B vitamin, B2, Riboflavin.
55 Vitamin C Water Soluble. Ruminants produce this themselves, while it is a dietary
requirement for other species.
o Heat treatment does not break it down unless O2 is present. Slight losses to
pasteurisation, more through sterilization.

Lipolysis of Milk Fat

56 Caused by the hydrolysis of milk fat by the lipoprotein lipase.
57 Characterized by; soapy, blue-cheese like aroma, slightly bitter, foul, pronounced
aftertaste, does not clear up readily
58 Rancid flavour is due to short chain fatty acid produced, mainly butyric acid.
59 LPL can be indigenous or bacterial.

60 LPL is active at the fat/water interface but ineffective unless the fat globule membrane is
damaged by agitation, shaking, foaming or pumping
61 Therefore lipase must be denatured by heating to 55 50 oC before homogenisation.
62 Some cows can produce spontaneous lipolysis, Late lactation, mastitis, hay and grain ratio
diets (more so than fresh forage or silage), and low yielding cows are more susceptible
63 Lipolysis can be detected by measuring the acid degree value which determines the
presence of free fatty acids.

2. Physio-chemical properties of milk (Directives)

64 Density Weight in grams of 1 ml milk at room temperature
o Dependent on content of fats, which decrease density and non-fat solids.
o Addition of water lowers density, so density is used to ensure that milk has no
added of water.
o Density of 3% milk = 1,0295 g/ml. Density of 4,5% fat milk = 1.0277 g/ml.
o Variation in density between species are smaller than those within a species.
65 Total milk Solids measured by drying a quantity of milk and weighing the residue.
66 Freezing point one of the most constant physical characteristics or milk, used to detect
adulteration of milk.
o Lowered by addition of dissolved components e.g. lactose, salts, preservatives.
o Risen by addition of water.
o Cow milk should freeze between (0,53 and 0,54 degrees) 0,515 degrees
67 pH or Real acidity
o Less variable than titratable acidity, but altered by temperature
o pH varies slightly between species and within species.
Cow = 6,4 6,8, Goat = 6,3 6,7
o Isolectric point the point which milk will begin to coagulate. Cow = 4,6 4,7. This
is affected by temperature; rise in temperature = rise in isoelectric pH.
o pH of colostrums is lower than that of normal milk.
o pH of mastitic milk higher than that of normal milk.
68 Buffering capacity and Titratable acidity
o Buffering capacity milks capacity to neutralise changes in pH due to acids/alkalis.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Titratable acidity The quantity of base (NaOH) required to neutralise milk in the
presence of phenolphthalein indicator, and turn the mixture from white to pink.
0,11M NaOH required to neutralise 100 ml of milk titratable acidity in Degrees
dornic.
1 deg Soxlet Henkel 2,5 deg Torner = 2,25 deg Dornic = 0,0225% lactic acid 0,1
M NaOH required to neutralise 100 ml of milk titratable acidity in Thorners
Degrees.
0,25 M NaOH required to neutralise 100 ml of milk titratable in Degrees Soxlet
Henkel
1 degree dornic = 0,001% Lactic Acid
1 deg Soxlet Henkel = 2,5 deg Torner = 2,25 deg Dornic = 0,0225% Lactic Acid.
Cow milk should be 13-15 degrees dornic = 6,2 7,8 degrees Soxlet Henkel.

69 Heat Stability
o Under normal conditions, milk should be able to withstand heating without
coagulation or heat damage or proteins occurring.
o Caramelisation of lactose may occur as lactose protein complexes form.
o Only after prolonged heating at high temperatures should coagulation occur.
o Heat stability is increased with pH. Addition of phosphates improves stability.
o Buffalo milk cannot be treated in certain ways due to low heat stability.

3. Technical standard for the raw milk (cow, ewe, goat, buffalo)
70 Appearance colour should be white or yellowish if carotenoids are present.
o Milk may be off-white if blood or dirt is present.
o The smaller and more evenly dispersed the fat droplets, the whiter the milk.
71 Flavour Normal milk should have a bland, slightly sweet flavour
o Flavour may change with lactose content and sweeteners between species.
o Late lactation milk contains more salts and minerals, so it tastes saltier
72 Absorbed Flavours
o Flavour is effected by the presence of enzymes formed by micro organisms.
o Most flavours are absorbed by the fats in milk, while some enter the liquid phase.
o Flavours commonly absorbed are from feeds, pharmaceuticals and chemicals.
o Milk should be transported and stored in a clean odourless atmosphere.
73 Cleanliness of Milk
o Foreign materials should not be present in milk.
o Though visible dirt can be removed by filtration, bacteria cannot.
o Care must be taken during milking, storage and transportation.
74 Keeping Quality of milk.
o Handling, storage and transportation methods must adequately prevent the
reproduction of micro organisms present in the milk.
o If milk is not cooled directly after milking, micro organisms will quickly multiply.
Temperature should be reduced to below 8 degrees within 45 min of milking.
o Imporoperly sanitized equipment can lead to presence of lactobacillus and curdling
of milk.
75 Physiochemical properties
o Fat content min. 3,3% = 33 g/l
o Protein content min. 2,8 % = 28 g/l
o Freezing point between 0,53 and 0,54 degrees (-0,515 degrees)
76 Microorganisms
o Must not contain pathogens, bacteria which cause food poisoning, or toxins.
o Plate counts should be less than 100 000 parts per ml
(check min. 2 times/month)
o SCC should be less than 400 000 parts per ml
o TBC should be less than 50 000 parts per ml.
o Contaminents (residues) = - 0
Class Q < 100 000 SC/ml
< 50 000 TBC/ml

Class I < 300 000 SC/ml

< 100 000 TBC/ml
77 Denisty 3% fat milk = 1,0295 g/ml. Density of 4,5% fat milk = 1,0277 g/ml
Charachteristic
Colour
Consistency

Ewe
White-yellowish
Homogenous (no
sediment)
Fat (min)
5,51%
Protein
4,81 %
PH
12 degrees SH (6,46,3)
SCC
400 000
TBC
2 000 000
St. Aureus counts 1000
Density
1,033

Goat
White
Homogenous (no
sediment)
3,01%
3,1%
Tit acid 5-8 (6,3-6,7)
400 000
500 000
2000
1,028

Buffalo
White
Homogenous (no
sediment)
7,81%
3,81%
6,7-6,8 =
12-14 D Dornic
Less than 400 000
Less than 1 000 000
Less than 500
1.030 1.032

4. Payment for the raw cows milk

78 Most milk product producers have minimum standards which must be passed before milk
is accepted. These include fat and protein contents, freezing point, pH, SCCs and
contaminant content.
79 Payment based on quantity (litres or KGs) can be unfair, as farmers who produce low
quality milk, rich in water and low in solids, are paid as mush as farmers who produce high
quality milk. This payment scheme also allows for addition of water to the milk before sale.
80 Payment based on content quality, that is percentage composition of fats, proteins and
lactose encourages producers to care for their animals and ensure good quality milk
production.
81 Hygenic quality and microbiological content, must also be taken into consideration, and
the milk priced accordingly. For this reason, a grading system is normally used, and
premiums are paid for Grade A milk, that is, milk with SCC below 400 000 which is free of
pathogens and contaminants. Subtractions may be made if SCCs are above a certain level,
or milk may be rejected, depending on the contract made with the producer.

5. Characteristic of the colostrums, normal milk

and mastitic milk.
82 Mastitic milk Milk from an animal suffering from inflammation of the udder.
o Mastitis can be detected using baceteriological or cytological tests, or SCCs.
o p of mastitic milk is higher, causing problems with renneting (euzomatic
coagulations)
o Mastitic milk shows high catalase activity

o
o

Mastitic milk has a higher Cl and Na content

Mastitic milk has a 10-20% lower lactose content, 5-12% lower fat content, 7%
lower protein content and lower Ca, K and Mg contents
o Bromthymol mastitis test By testing for pH with bromthymol blue indicator
o California Mastitis Test Change in viscosity is noted on adding milk to CMT fluid.
o Detection of Cl-ions Normal Cl-levels = 0,1 0,11%
83 Colostrum First milk produced for 3-4 days post partuition
o Very rich in antibodies, has a bitter flavour.
Characteristic
Colour
Consistency
pH
Fat content
Protein content
Vitamin and Minerals
Lactose content

Colostrum
Yellow or brownish
Viscous
More Acidic
6,7%
More than normal milk
More than normal milk
2,7%
+ light in Abs.

Normal milk
White
Unified, fluid
6,8 6,4
3,8%
3,3%
4,7%

6. Microbiology of raw milk

84 General Bacterial Requirements
o Milk must come from healthy animals
o Milk must be hygienically drawn.
o Milk must be cooled to 10 degrees within 120 min of milking, and stored cold.
o Milk must contain no residues of bacterial inhibitors.
o Total Bacterial Counts TBC must be below 100 000 part/ ml
85 Sources of Contamination
o Udder streptococci, micrococci etc.
o Environment Staphylococcus etc.
86 Bacteria
o Desirable Bacteria Lactobacillus bulgaricus. Streptococcus lactis etc.
o Undesirable Bacteria pseudomonas, salmonella staphylococcus, bacillus ets.
Microbacterium bovis
o Psychrophilic Optimum temperature = 4-6 degrees. Killed by pasteurisation.
o Psychrotrophic Optimum temperature = 20-30 degrees But can grow <7 degrees.
Grow at refrigeration temp.
o Mesophilic Optimum temperature = 20-25 degrees.
o Thermophilic Optimum temperature = 50 degrees.
o Thermoduric Optimum temperature = 30 60 degrees. Survive pasteurisation.
87 Yeasts

o May contaminate butter, condensed milk and cheeses, yoghurt

o Aerobic and acidophilic
o Form gasses and therefore flavours
88 Moulds
o Aerobic and acidophilic
o Desirable moulds mucor in cheese making
o Undesirable moulds aspergillus, geotrichum dont survive pasteurisation.

7. Lactic acid bacteria

89 Lactid acid bacteria will normaly outcompeter other bacteria in a sample of contaminated
milk.
90 The Lactic Acid they produce is not unpleasant and, in fact suppresses pathogenic bacteria
and bacteria which cause proteolysis or lipolysis. Therefore it helps preserve the milk.
91 LAB can be divided into Mesophilic and Thermophilic.
92 The two main families of LAB are streptococcacae (cocci) and lactobacillaceae (rods).
93 In yoghurt, Streptococcus lactis and lactobacillus bulgaricus live in symbiosis.
94 Different kinds of LAB are used depending on the desired milk product.
95 Innoculation of fresh milk should be carried out immideitaley in order to prevent growth of
undesirable organisms
96 100 000 000 bactera per ml are required as a starting culture.

8. Inhibiting agents in dairy industry

(Additives, contaminants, radionuclide)
Inhibiting Agents in milk
97 Inhibiting agents inhibit the growth and reproduction of microorganisms in milk thereby
preserving the milk.
98 Milk naturally contains bacteriostatic compounds, which are more active in milk at room
temperature, but last longer at lower temperatures. Thes bacteriostatic compounds often
cause the difference in keeping quality between milk from different species.
o Aggulation a type of immunoglobulin. Deactivated by heating to 76oC for 20 sec.
o Lactoperocidase inactivated by heating to 86oC for 20 sex.
o To preserve these compounds, pasteurisation carried out must be HTST, at the
lowest possible temperature.
99 artificially added inhibiting agents include detergents left behind from cleaning equipment,
antibiotics secreted by animals being treated. Preservatives may also be added on purpose,
but this is illegas in many countries, and only used when necessary in others.
o Inhibiting agents and preservatives should never be used as a substitute for hygienic
milk handling

o
o

Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) is used in 0,03% solution. To inhibit or kill

microorganisms.
Lactoperoxidase can be used to activate the antibacterial potential of the milk.

Additives (used in the Dairy Industry)

100

Preservatives Added to prevent milk from spoiling

o Nisin is a preservative produced by streptococcus lactis which has an antibiotic
affect and inhibits growth of spore forming bacteria. This is used in cheese making
to prevent cheese rind.
101
Anti-oxidants added tu butter to delay oxidation of fats. These additives are
prohibited in many countries. Instead, intense heat treatment of the cream is used.
o Free Sulphydryl groups liberated from certain acidic acids (Aas) are natural
antioxidants.
102
Stabilisers Widely used to increase viscosity of flavoured milks. Also prevent
aggregation and separation of whey in case of a rise in acidity.
o Include dellulose, agar, pectin, alginates.
103
Emulsifiers added to enhance the conglomeration of fat molecules, contributing to
desired texture.
o Certain glycerides, lecithin from vegetable oils
104
Flavouring agents Used to give specific characteristics to certain milk products.
o Vanilla, cocoa, sucrose, glucose, fruit flavourings, salt, spices and herbs.
o Must state on package what is in the product.
105
Colourings often used in butter. Colouring agents should not be harmful to health.
o Carotene, annatto, synthetic pigments.
106
Enzymes e.g. Lactase for lactose intolerant milk; also added for cheese making.
Contaminants and radionuclide ( used in the Dairy Industry)
107
108

Physical Dust, hairs etc. Introduce biological and chemical contaminants too.
Chemical Detergents / pesticides / lipases/ proteases / toxins / antibiotics /
preservatives
109
Biological Bacteria / viruses / moulds / fungi. Can introduce chemical
110Radionuclides potentially hazardous radioactive isotopes of heavy metals may enter the
food chain.
o The potential hazard of an isotope is dependant on its Physical Half Life, or the
time it takes for the isotope to half in size. The longer the half life the more chance
concentrations of the isotopes will build up in the body.
o Sr (strontium) tends to concentrate in the bones.
o I (iodine) tends to concentrate in the thyroid gland.
o Other potential isotopes are Ba (Barium) and Cs (Cesium)
o The cow acts as a partial filter, so not all radioisotopes in the diet enter the milk,
but about 1% of ingested isotopes are excreted in milk.
o Some radioisotopes (Sr, Ba) are found mainly within protein micelles, binding
much like Ca.
o I and Cs are found in liquid solution in milk.

9. Milk handling on the farm

o Within the udder, bacterial counts in milk are normally below 500 parts / ml.
111 Post Milking Contamination
o Contamination from the skin of the animal udders should be washed and dried with
individual paper towels before milking. Pre-milking test dip may be used.
o Contamination from the milker milkers hands and clothes should be clean and dry.
o Contamination from the air nothing should be done that might raise dirt before
milking, e.g. cleaning or feeding.
o Contamination from milking utensils seamless smooth surfaces utensils should be
used. These should be disinfected after every milking.
(Stainless steel for all tubes, containers etc. not heavy metals or Al. (Al in some
cases: eg it held for limited time controlled by legislation) (Sometimes wood: must
be very clean: controlled by legislation))
112Keeping Milk Clean
o Milk should be filtered to remove all foreign objects. However since filtration does
not remove bacteria, milk should at no point have foreign matter in it if milking is
done with the proper cleanliness.
(never mix for an example mastitis milk with good milk)
113Cooling of Milk
o Milk should be cooled within two hours, to 8oC if collection is daily.
o Milk should be cooled within two hourse, to 6 oC if collection is every 48 hours.
o Immerstion cooler system of bent tubes with cooling agent inside = direct cooling.
Dipped into milk, not as hygienic.
o Surface cooler horizontal tubes filled with cooling agent, over which milk flows.
o Farm tank cooler container with double jacket, and coolant between outer walls.
(sterilised by a ventilation cyde) Agitator in tank to mix the milk: to stop ceam
layer, cool quickly
114Collection and Transportation collection may be by farmers, dairy plant, or professional
transporters, in jars or a bulk tank. Milk should arrive at its destination below 10 oC (unless
collected within 2 hours of milking.

10.

Sanitization process in dairy industry.

115Law requires that all milk contact surfaces be effectively cleaned and sanitized before each
use.
116Milk storage tanks must be emptied and cleaned at least every 72 hours.
117It is recommended that log records are maintained of manual cleaning operations. This will
enable plant quality control staff and the regulatory agency to validate plant
cleaning/sanitizing operations.

118Utensils should be cleaned using a two compartment wash and rinse sink. Sanitizing with
chemicals must be accomplished using a third treatment vat, unless heat is used for
sanitizing.
119The use of absorbent items, such as rags and sponges should be eliminated to reduce the
potential of spreading microorganisms throughout the plant environment.
120
Separate brushes should be used for product and not-product surfaces and wooden
handled tools should not be used in production areas.
121
Steps in a clean in place (CIP) operation:
1. Remove those items that require manual cleaning such as fill tubes, manhole
gaskets, plug valves, etc.
2. Provide physical breaks between any circuits or tanks containing product.
3. Pre-rinse or flush thoroughly with cool water not to exceed 80oF
4. Discard pre-rinse water, flushing until relatively clear.
5. Circulate an effective detergent solution throughout the circuit for the period of
time necessary to remove the residues in the circuit.
6. Circulate a rinsing water.
7. Circulate an acid detergent when needed followed by another rinse.
8. Sanitize immediately before use.
122

Chemicals Used
Alkaline Detergents NaOH, KOH NaOCl; Attack fats and residues. Normally
contain surfactants and saponifiers.
o Acid Cleaners HNO3 (nitric acid) or H3PO4 (. acid) or both; break down the
mineral depostis that form milk stone, Ca, Mg, Fe, SO4 etc. Do not saponify but
provide a bacteristatic condition. Should only be used after chlorinated alkaline
based detergent, otherwise it will fix protein soil to the surface.
o

11.

Cooling of milk after milking (temperatures, equipments)

123

Cooling times and temperatures

Cooling immediately reduces the reproduction rate of microorganisms in milk.
Cooling to 10 oC is sufficient to limit production of lactic acid for up to 24 hours.
Cooling to 4 oC or less is necessary to limit bacterial reproduction, and for longer
storage periods.
Quick cooling stops reproduction at the lag phase. Later cooling will be less
efficient at keeping microorganism populations low.
Cooling from 35 oC to below 10 oC should occur within the first hour.
Cooling apparatus + other technical equipments.
Immersion cooler system of bent tubes with cooling agent inside
Surface cooler horizontal tubes filled with cooling agent, over which milk flows.
Farm tank cooler container with double jacket, and coolant between outer walls.
Water bath jars submerged in cold water to the neck.
Ice cones milk pail is filled 1/3 with ice.

o
o
o
o
o
124
o
o
o
o
o

12.

Clarification, separation, homogenization,

standardization of milk.

125
o
o

126
o
o
127
o
o
o
128
o
o

13.

Clarification of Milk removal of solid impurities e.g. dirt, udder cells, blood cells.
Filtering simple but does not stop dissolved impurities or microorganisms.
Clarifiers These remove impurities by centrifugation (25 000 rpm). This can be
done at low temperatures. Clarifiers are so similar to cream separators that the
latter is often used to fulfil the purpose of the former, so the dairy plant does not
buy a clarifier.
Separation of Milk into cream and skimmed milk by centrifugation.
Centrifugal force is used to hasten the natural division of milk into cream and
skimmed milk.
The separator centrifuges the milk on several discs at 6000 rpm, causing low
density cream to move inwards and higher density skimmed milk to move
outwards.
Homogenization of Milk Breaking down fat globules to a size of 1 m or less.
This prevents the formation of a cream layer during storage.
Milk is forced through a narrow opening under 25 atmospheres of pressure.
Fat must be in a liquid state for homogenization so milk temperature is kept at 40
o
C.
Standardisation of Milk For production of a product with constant fat content.
Indirect Standardisation mixing skimmed milk with cream or whole milk.
Direct Standardisation Separation of whole milk to achieve the required fat
content.

Heat treatment of milk

129

Purpose of Heat Treatment

To kill any bacteria or spores which might be pathogenic or cause spoilage of the
product.
o To inactivate enzymes, both of milk and bacterial origin.
o To alter milks physical and chemical properties in order to improve its suitability
for further processing.
130
Extents of Heat Treatment
o Thermisation Heating to 60 65 oC for 15 20 seconds. Minimises changes in
microorganisms populations and enzymes during storage before further processing.
o Pasteurisation Kills pathogens and deactivates enzymes.
o Low temp. Long Holding; 61 63 oC for 15 30 min. + +
o High temp. short holding; 72 oC for 15 20 seconds
- +
o Flash Pasteurisation; 88 90 oC for 15 20 seconds
- o Flash Pasteurisation for butter cream; 90 110 oC for 2 3 seconds
o Flash Pasteurisation for Sour Milk products; 90 100 oC for 15 30 seconds
131
Sterilization Heating to 135 150 oC (UHT) for a few seconds. Kills all pathogens
and spores and deactivates all enzymes.
o In Bottle or In Container sterilization; 110 120 oC for 10 30 min.
132
System of Heat Treatment of Milk
o Holder System Vat Pasteurisation
o

o
o
133
o
o
o
o
o
o
134
o
o
o
135
o
o
o
o
o
136
o
137
o
o
o

An inner vessel with a jacket through which steam or hot water flows is filled with
3000 5000 litres of milk (good for small scale portions). The milk is heated to the
required temperature and held there for the required period.
After paseurisations, milk must be cooled as quickly as possible. This is done by
running coolant or cold water through the outer jacket of the vat. Plate heat
exchangers can also be used to speed up the process.
Holder system In Package Heat Treatment
Can only be used for small quantities, and can take long to head and cool milk.
Pasteurised milk can be recontaminated on bottling, but not with this method.
Pasteurisation in a water bath; bottles or sachets are immersed in a hot water
bath. Simple, small scale.
Pasteurisation in a steam chest; bottles are placed in a chest filled with steam.
Sterilisation in a Water Bath; autoclaves are used for this purpose.
Steirilisation in a Steam Chest; Higher temperatures and pressures are used than
in pasteurisation.
Continuous flow systems
Can be used for large quantities as it is more compact, more easily controlled, more
economical and higher temperatures can be used.
The following systems can be used for sterilisation also, at higher temperatures for
shorter periods.
In bottle sterilisation or aseptic filling may be carried out after heating in a CFS
(continuous Flow System)
Continuous flow system Plate Heat Exchangers
Milk and heating / cooling medium flow in counter current over stainless tell plates
separated by rubber.
Regeneration Section; pasteurised milk is countercurrent of fresh milk.
Heating Section; milk is heated to pasteurisation temperature.
Holding section; milk is held here at pasteurisation temperature.
Cooling section; via the regeneration section. Here milk is rapidly cooled with ice
water before exiting system.
Continuous flow system Tubular Heat exchangers
Milk flows through the middle of 2 or 3 concentric tubes shich are filled with the
cooling heating medium. Operate at temperatures up to 150 oC.
Systems of UHT Treatment of Milk
Heating by Direct Steam Injection, combined with plate heat exchangers. High
pressure steam is injected into pre-heated liquid by a steam injector. This is energy
intensive and there is risk of flavour damage.
Heating by Direct Steam Infusion, combined with plate heat exchangers. Milk is
pumped through a distributing nozzle injector into a chamber of high pressure
steam. Temperature is controlled through pressure.
Heating using a Scraped Surface Heat Exchanger, A Jacketed cylinder with a
rotating dasher holding rows of scraper blades. The product is pumped through the
cylinder while the heating or cooling medium is circulated between the cylinder and
the jacket. The medium can be steam, water or a refrigerant such as ammonia or
Freon.
Heating using Plate or Tubular Heat Exchangers.

14.

Packaging of milk and milk products

138
139
140

Packaging should prevent recontamination or adulteration of the product.

Packaging can be returnable (glass) or non returnable (cardboard/plastic)
Packaging is normally done by an automatic, machinated process by which treated
milk is poured aseptically into suitable containers.

141

Glass bottles Commonly used for milk and liquid milk products.
May be reused 40 100 times
Thorough washing necessary requires space and labour.
Glass bottle do not protect agains light, which may affect quality and flavour.
142
Plastic Bags Low density polyethylene sachets often used for milk or sweet cream.
o Protected against light, but, depending on the plastic, the milk may absorb flavours.
o For use with UHT milk, plastic bags must be internally lined with aluminium.
143
Plastic Cups Used mainly for fermented products like sour cream and youghurts.
144
Cardboard Packages Mostly used for UHT milk
o Covered internally with a layer of aluminium.
o Advantages of paper and cardboard light weight, protected against sunlight, no
returns.
o Disadvantages of paper and cardboard Can be costly.
145
Packaging of UHT Treated Milk
As UHT is carried out before packaging, packaging must take place in a sterile
environment, and all packaging must be sterile, in order to avoid recontamination.
o
o
o

15.

HACCP system used on the cows farms

(Hazard analysis critical control point)
Cow Health (CCP)
Milking
(CCP)
Proper preparation of stable, parlour, milkers and cows is necessary.
Cleaning and Disinfection (CP)
Milk Filtration
(CP)
Measuring of Milk Yield (CP)
Cooling and storage of milk

(CP)

Receiving of milk on the farm

(CP)

Transport to the Dairy Plant

(CP)

146

The plan can be tabulated as follows:

Process
Step

CCP
(y / n)

16.

HACCP system used in dairy industry

Chem/
Phys/
Bio
Hazards

Critical
Limits

Monitoring
Procedure
&
Frequency

Corrective HACCP
Action &
Records
Person
Responsible

Verification
Procedure
& People
Responsible

(Hazard analysis critical control point)

147

This procedure is specially applied to microbial contamination and identification of

conditions enhancing microbial growth.
148
Setting up of a control system An HACCP team is assembled, the desired product
should be described, including a description of the distribution, common use and common
consumers of the product.
Principle I:
Hazard analysis steps in the process where hazards occur should be
noted and preventative measures should be described.
Principle II:
Identification of CCPs in the process. (Points in which we can take
down the hazard for the consumers)
Principle III:
Establishment of critical limits for preventative measures in relation
with each CCP e.g. temperature, time, humidity, pH etc.
Principle IV:
Establishment of CCP monitoring requirements to ensure that the
process is properly controlled. E.g. Temperature, time humidity, pH
etc.
Principle V:
Corrective Action should be established for when monitoring indicates
deviation from established critical limits.
Principle VI:
Record Keeping to document HACCP System.
Principle VII:
HACCP Verification procedures should be drawn up.
See also special paper we got from the lecture!!!!!

17.

Quality and keeping quality of the raw milk,

heat-treated milk

Quality and Keeping quality of Raw Milk

149
o
o
o
150

Quality dependant on
Nutritional content protein, fats, lactose
Microbiological content shouldnt have pathogenic or spoiling MOs
Physiochemical characteristics
Keeping Quality Dependant on

o Heat treatment used (proportional to MOs killed)

o Sterility and type of Packaging
o Addition of preservatives or fixatives.
Quality and Keeping quality of Heat Treated Milk
151
Controlling Deterioration of Flavour
o Absorbed Flavours As milk easily absorbs flavours during handling, treatment and
packaging, these stages should be carried out in clean containers which are
impermeable to flavour e.g. Tin and Glass.
o Cooked Flavours May be caused by excessive heat treatment.
o Oxidised Flavours Caused by oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. Can be
prevented by better homogenisation and less air in the packaging.
o Sunlight Flavours Exposure to light breaks down proteins and amino acids,
changing flavour. Coloured packages, impermeable to light can reduce this
problem.
152
Controlling Sedimentation Sediments may form due to high cell counts in the
milk. Occurs mainly in reconstituted milk. Buffalo milk is more susceptible to
sedimentation due to low stability during heat treatment.
153
Controlling Bacteriological Defects
o Pasteurisation Heat and duration may not be sufficient to destroy thermophilic and
spore forming bacteria.
o High temp. Short Time Bacteriological recontamination by phychrophilic bacteria
e.g. Bacillus may occur after 3 to 7 days of refrigeration.
o In-Bottle Sterilisation Recontamination may occur, or spore forming bacteria may
survive.
o UHT Milk Al microbes and spores are destroyed, but recomtamination may occur.
Some lipases, which cause rancidity and some proteases. Which cause bitter taste,
are heat resistant to above 145 oC.

18.

Fermented milks definition and description,

manufacturing, defects, HACCP
(sour cream and yoghurt)

Definition and description

Definition Fermented milk is milk in which lactic Acid producing bacteria have been
allowed to thrive, suppressing other forms of bacteria. 107 bacteria per gram of milk are
added initially.
155
Description
o Flavour is acidic and sour
o Texture is gel-like as acid causes casein to clump.
o Milk is better preserved due to inhibition of micro organisms.
156
Divisions Fermented milk products are divided by three characteristics
o Type of milk goat / Ewe / Buffalo / cow.
o Family of Flora Used lactobacillaceae / streptococcaceae
o Other processing of milk pasteurised / sterilised / homogenised
154

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Manufacture of Sour Cream

Milk separated to give cream
Cream heated at 75 85 oC for 30 min.
Cream cooled to 45 60 oC
Homogenisation at 125 200 atm.
Stabilisers added (gelatine, milk powder, rennin)
Inoculation with starter culture; 2 species of Streptococcus and 2 of Leuconostoc
Fermentation at 18 22 oC for 16 hours, until the desired pH is met.
Cooling to 5 oC deactivates bacteria
Packaging

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Manufacture of Stirred Yoghurt

Milk Clarified, Separated and standardised
Milk pasteurised at 90 oC for 15 30 min.
Milk cooled to 43 oC
Inoculation with starter culture; Streptococcus salivarius and Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Fermentation at 43 oC for 4 to 6 hours, unagitated, until TA = 0,85 0,9% Lactic Acid
Yoghurt is cooled to 5 oC
Fruit / Suryp / Colour added as necessary.
o It is also possible to package the yoghurt during fermentation, then cool the
packaged product. This is called Set Yoghurt.

(acidophilus milk, kefir, coumvs)

157
o
o
o
o

o
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Definition and description

Definitions
Fermented milk products prepared from milks fermented by specific
microorganisms.
Acidophilous Milk Skim or whole milk fermented with lactobacillus acidophilus.
TA may be as high as 1% Lactic acid, but is normally between 06, and 0,7 %
Kefir Alcohol fermented milk, fermented with lactose fermenting bacteria and
Torula and saccharomyces yeasts. Acidity is between 70 and 100 Dornic. Alcohol
content is between 0,5 and 1,5 %
Kourmiss An alcoholic sour milk drink similar to kefir but originally made from
Mares milk.
Manufacture
Acidophilus Milk
Heating of milk to 95 oC for a few min.
cooling of milk to 38 oC
Inoculation with 2 % of pure acidophilus culture in sterilised milk.
Homogenisation.
Incubation at 38 Cuntil the milk coagulates (12 18 hours)
cooling to 4 oC and stirring until smooth.
packaging

o Kefir
1. Homogenisation of milk.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Heating to 90 oC for 15 30 min.

inoculation with 3 8 % of moist kefir grains.
incubation at 15 30 until a soft and smooth coagulum is formed (8 12 hrs)
removal of grains by straining
bottling and corking
additional fermentation at 5 10 oC for 24 hours.

o
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Koumiss
Milk standardised. Whey, sugar and water may be added.
Milk heated
Milk cooled
inoculation with 10 % mixed culture.
Holding at 27 oC until a firm curd is formed
Firm curd kept under intermittent aeration and stirring to stimulate yeast
development until acidity reaches 30 SH.
7. Packaging and hermetic sealing.
8. Kept at 17 oC for 2 hours to allow for more alcohol and CO2 to be produced
9. cooling to 4 5 oC

19.

Cheeses: enzyme-coagulated: definition and description,

manufacturing, defects, HACCP

158

Definition (sweet cheeses)

Enzyme Coagulated cheese cheese made from milk which was curdled by the
action of enzymes of animal or vegetable origin
Manufacture
Coagulation (6 steps of manufacturing)
Several enzymatic coagulants (Rennets) are used to coagulate the milk and break
down proteins, aiding the ripening process.
Animal Enzymes Rennin or Chymosin is the principle enzyme, used at about 31 oC
Vegetable enzymes are extracted from Figs, Papaya and bromeliad amongst other
plants.
Microbiological enzymes Rennet substitutes produced from moulds, mainly of the
genus mucor.
Rennet is diluted with water to facilitate even distribution.
Rennet is usually used with a starter culture to aid in ripening.

o
159
o
o
o
o
o
o

20.

Cheeses acid-coagulated: definition and description,

manufacturing, HACCP

160

Definition

(acid cheeses)

o
o
o
161

Acid coagulated Cheese Cheese manufactured from milk shich was curdles by
acidification.
Acidification may be by LAB or addition or orfanic acids such as citri or acetic
Cottage cheese is typical of Acid Coagulated cheeses. It is a granulated product.

Manufacture
(coagulation (6)
The stability of the calcium casein complex decreases with lowering pH, until at
pH 4,6 the casein coagulates completely at room temp.
o Acid coagulation can be combined with heat treatment, the milk being heated to its
boiling point either after acidification by LAB, or during addition or organic acids.
o

21.

Cheeses: processed definition and description,

manufacturing, HACCP

162
o
o
o
o
o

Definition
Processed cheese cheese produced by melting one or more natural cheeses with
the aid of emulsifying agents and possibly milk fat, cream, whey or milk powder.
Cheeses that are defective in quality or composition may be used.
Spreadable processed cheeses have a higher water content and pH 5,6 5,9.
Sliceable processed cheeses have a pH of 5,4 5,6 and less water content.
Can be made solely from fresh cheese, but results are better ir at least 20% matured
cheese is used.

163

Manufacture
9. Constituent cheeses are ground and melted in hot water or steam together with
emulsifying fats and other components at 70 80 oC.
10. The cooking period should be kept short to avoid browning.
11. Cooking should proceed for 2 3 min. after the desired temperature has been
reached.
12. Warm cheese paste is packaged in a foil lined container in the case of sliceable
products, or tubs in the case of spread able products.

164

Classification
1. By kind of natural cheese emental / eidam / niva
2. According to fat content 60 % + / 45 55% / 40 %
3. According to ingredients added pepper / ham.

22.
165

Cheeses: heat processed: definition and description,

manufacturing, defects, HACCP
Definition
o The curd is heated after it has reached a pH of 5,1

o
o
166

Hot curd becomes plastic, and portions of it are formed into cheeses of various
shapes.
Heating of the curd kills many bacteria, but removes the possibility of eating the
cheese fresh. This is beneficial in tropical climates.

Manufacture
(Processing of the Curd (9))
Curd is milled or otherwhise cut into pieces, and heated in hot (70 90 oC) Water,
whey or brine once its pH is 5,1.
o Cheese is then salted by adding salt to plastified curd, placing the curd in brine,
sprinkling or rubbing salt on the cheese.
o

23.

Defects of the cheeses

167

Cause of Defects in cheese

Bad quality of milk used (low pH or high Bacterial presence.)
Errors in the technological procedure.
Bad quality of ingredients.
Lack of hygienic conditions
Surface Defects of Cheese
Soft rind
Change in colour of rind
White sticky places on rind
Cracks in the rind
Internal Defects of cheese
Irregularly ripened cheese
White decay
Coloured stains in cheese dough
Marbled cheese
Bland cheese
Bitter cheese
Musty cheese
Swollen cheese
Evaluation of cheese quality
Organoleptic evaluation
Physio-chemical examination
Bacteriological examination

o
o
o
o
168
o
o
o
o
169
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
170
o
o
o

24.
171

Butter definition and description, manufacturing,

defects, HACCP

Definition Butter is an emulsion of water droplets in milk fat. Made from salted
sweet cream / acidulated cream / bacteriologically soured cream

172
o
o
o
o
o
o
173

Description
Must contain at least 80% milk fat.
Non fat solids max 2 %
Water content max 16 %
Salt content up to 1 %
Contains fat soluble vitamins A, D and E.
Should have a uniform colour, be dense and taste clean.

Manufacture of butter
13. Separation of milk into cream
14. Pasteurisation of cream at 95 oC or more to destroy enzymes which reduce keeping
quality.
15. Cooling to 21 oC
16. Addition of starter culture; S. Cremoris, S. lactis, Leuconostocs
17. Fermentation and cream ripening at 21 oC till pH 5,5, then further fermentation at
13 oC till pH 4,6.
18. Aging and crystalisation.
19. Churning and division into butter and buttermilk
20. Working and salting of butter. Salt adds flavour and preserves the butter.
21. Packaging.

174

Defects
Overworked butter may be too brittle or greasy, depending on whether the fat is
hard or soft. Some water may be added so standardise the moisture content.
o Rancidity due to lipolysis
o Mould and bacterial development
o

25.

Dried milk powder definition and description,

manufacturing defects, HACCP

175

Definition The product obtained on removing water from milk, partially skimmed
milk or skimmed milk.

176
o
o
o
o
177

Description
Cream Powder; Fat = 40%, Water = 5% max.
Whole Milk powder; Fat = 26 40 %, Water 5 % max.
Partially Skimmed Milk Powder; Fat = 1,5 26 %, Water = 5 % max.
Skimmed Milk Powder; Fat = 1,5 % max., water = 5 % max

Manufacture
o Roller (Drum) Drying Milk is spread on a heated, horizontal rotating drum, dried
milk is removed and pulverised.
o This process lowers quality and solubility, so the final products are mostly used in
animals feeds (also bakery)

o
o

178

Spray drying Small milk droplets are sprayed against hot air (120 250 oC) in a
special chamber.
This process is most common, and the quality of the end products is dependant on
treatment of milk before and after the drying process. The less severe heat
treatment used to achieve dryness, the better the end product.

Defects
Burnt particles
Milk powder is hygroscopic, so storage in moist conditions or water permeable
packaging can lead to lump formation.
o Oxidative rancidity can occur.
o
o

26.

Condensed and evaporated milk definition and

description, manufacturing, defects, HACCP

179

Definition Products obtained from the partial removal of water from milk by boiling
in a vacuum.
o Condensed milk sweetened concentrated milk. Preserved by addition of sucrose.
o Evaporated Milk sterilised concentrated milk, sterilised and packaged aseptically.

180

Description
o Evaporated Milk Fat = 7,5 9 %, NFS = 17,5 22 %, Total Solids = 25 31 %
o Condensed Milk Fat = 8 9 %, NFS = 20 22 %, Sucrose.

181

Manufacture of Evaporated Milk

22. Standardisation
23. Heating at 93 120 oC for 10 25 min.
24. Evaporation
25. Homogenisation at 55 60 oC
26. Cooling to 14 oC if packaging immeditaley, or to 5 oC if it is to be sterilised first.
27. Packaging
28. Sterilisation in container
29. cooling to 20 25 oC
30. Storage at temp up to 15 oC

182

Manufacture of Condensed Milk

1. Standardisation
2. heating to 90 120 oC for up to 10 min.
3. Addition of sucrose
4. evaporation at 52 55 oC
5. cooling to 35 oC and crystallisation
6. Seeding with lactose

7. Cooling to 20 oC
8. Packaging
9. Storage at temp up to 15 oC
183
o
o
o
o

Defects in Evaporated Milk

Thermoduric and spore forming bacteria may survive if heat treatment is
insufficient.
Creaming may occur if insufficient homogenisation is carried out.
Browning reactions may occur at high temperatures.
Lipases and proteases may survive sterilisation
Age thickening may occur due to lactose crystal formation on cooling

o
o
o
o
o
o

Defects in Condensed Milk

Added sugar may cause caramelisation.
Gas formation may occur due to yeast fermenting sucrose
Thickening may occur due to proteolytic Micrococcus Spp.
Moulds may form e.g. Aspergillus penicillum
Age thickening due to lactose crystal formation on cooling
Browning may occur if storage is above 30 oC

184

27.
185

Ice cream definition and description, manufacturing,

defects, HACCP
Definitions
Dairy ice mixture of pasteurised products which is whipped and frozen to give a
frozen foam in which only part of the water is frozen. Often contain stabilisers and
emusifiers.
o Soft ice Soft ice cream, with a temperature of about 5 oC. Must be consumed
immediately due to low keeping quality.
o Hardened ice Mixed at about 5 oC then hardened to 20 oC. Can be kept for 6
month or more.
o

186

Manufacture
31. Formulation Flavours, colouring, fat content and solids added.
32. Heat treatment 68 oC for 30 min.
33. Homogenisation
34. Cooling to 4 oC and aging of mix.
35. Freezing and incorporation of air at 5 oC
36. Additives e.g. nuts added.
37. Direct Sale or Hardening at 40 oC
38. Storage and distribution (in case of hardened ice)

187

Defects and HACCP

o Milk used may have bad organoleptic properties (1)

o
o
o
o
o
o

28.

Pathogens may survive heat treatment (2)

Microbial contamination may occur during homogenisation (3)
Excessive fat destabilisation may occur during homogenisation (3)
Spoiling may occur if storage is prolonged; wheying off (4)
Contamination may occur when additives are added (6)
Contamination may occur at the point of sale (8)

Ewes milk, goats milk and buffaloes milk and milk

products (basic technical requirements, quality, defects,
manufacturing, HACCP
Ewes Milk and milk products

188
189

Market varieties Raw or Pasteurised Ewes Milk

Heat Treatment
o 65 oC for 30 min
o 71 74 oC for 20 30 sec.

190
o
o
o
191

Organoleptic Requirements
Colour white or weak yellowish shade
Consistency and appearance homogenous, liquid, without sediment flocculi or dirt
Flavour and Odour characteristic, without strong smelling materials

o
o

Phyiso-chemical requirements
Fat 55 g/ltr
Protein 48 g/ltr
NFS - 9,5 % min.
TA of raw milk 12 SH max.
TA of pasteurised milk 13 SH max.
Density 1,033 g / ltr.min
Microbiological requirements of raw milk
TBC 2 000 000 max
Staph Aureus count 1 000

o
o
o
o

Microbiological requirements of Pasteurised Milk

Aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria 105 5*105
Coliform Bacteria 500
Salmonella 0/25
Staph Aurens 0

Ewe Milk Lump Cheese additives

Rennet, CaCl, Lactic Acid Bacteria

o
o
o
o
o
o
192

193

194

195
Ewe milk Lump Cheese Manufacture
1. Milk is filtered
2. Cooling or heating to 29 31 oC
3. Renneting at 29 31 oC for 30 min.

4.
5.
6.
7.

Cutting the curd 4 mm cubes

Pressing the curd 18 22 oC for 24 hrs. minimum
Ripening at 14 16 oC for 3 days
Transport to dairy plant within 1 7 days

196
o
o
o
o

Organoleptic Requirements of Ewe milk Lump Cheese

Shape regular, dry surface, clean
Colour white with weak yellowish shade
Consistency firm, spreadable in fingers, small holes on cutting
Flavour and Odour pleasant, milky sour.

o
o
o

Physiochemical Requirements of Ewe milk Lump Cheese

Solids Content 47 % min.
Fat conentin dry matter = 50 % min.
pH 4,9 5,2

197

Goats Milk and Goats milk products

198

Market varieties Raw or Pasteurised Goats Milk

199

Heat Treatment
o 65 oC for 30 min.
o 71 74 oC for 20 30 sec
o 82 84 oC for 2 3 sec

200

Organoleptic Requirements
o Colour white
o Consistency and appearance homogenous, liquid, without sediment flocculi or dirt.
o Flavour and Odour Characteristic, without strong smelling materials.

201
o
o
o
o
o

Physio-chemical requirements
Fat 30 g/ltr
Protein 30 g/ltr
NFS 8,3 % min.
TA of raw milk 5 8 SH
Density 10,28 g/ltr min.

o
o

Microbiological Requirements of raw milk

TBC 500 000 max
Straph Aureus count 2 000

202

203

Microbiological Requirements of Pasteurised Milk

o
o
o
o
204
o
205
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

o
o
o
o

Organoleptic Requirements of Goat milk Lump Cheese

Shape regular, dry surface, clean
Colour white with weak yellowish shade
Consistency firm, spreadable in fingers, small holes on cutting.
Flavour and Odour pleasant, milky sour

Physiochemical Requirements of Goat milk Lump Cheese

o Solids Content 47 % min.
o Fat contentin dry matter 50 % min.
o pH 4,9 5,2

29.

208

Goat Milk Lump Cheese additives

Rennet, CaCl, Lactic Acid Bacteria

Goat milk Lump Cheese Manufacture

Milk is filtered
Cooling or heating to 32 oC
renneting at 32 oC for 30 min.
Cutting the curd 4 mm cubes
Pressing the curd 20 24 oC for 24 hrs min.
Ripening at 14 16 oC for 3 days
Transport to dairy plant within 1 7 days

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Aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria 10 000 100 000

Coliform Bacteria 100
Salmonella 0/25
Staph Aureus 0

Determination of fat content in milk and milk methods

(methods used in dairy industry)
Gerber Method Good for milk, cream and butter.
All non fat solids are burned in sulphuric acid and fat volume is measure after
centrifugation
o Procedure
39. 10 ml of conc. H2SO4, 11 ml of milk, 1 ml amyl alcohol (helps fat dissolve) placed
in butyrometer.
40. Butyrometer is closed well with a rubber bung
41. The butyrometer is shagen vigorously with the nech down for 30 sex
42. Butyrometer is turned end over end to mix the contents of stem and neck
43. Butyrometer is centrifuged and the amount of fat is read off the scale on the
bytorometer.
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Rose-Gotlieb Method More exact then Gerber

Proteins are dissolved in alkali
Extracting of fat by light petroleum
Everything remaining once the solvent has evaporated is fat.

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The turbidimetric method not good for fermented products 1 products with
sediment eg. Chocolate
o Light of wavelength 620 nm is passed through milk alkalic solution.
o The decrease in intensity is measured, and correlated to fat %

211Milcoscan

30.
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Determination of adulteration of milk with water density,

freezing point (methods used in dairy industry)
Determination of Density using a Lactometer
44. The milk sample is thoroughly mixed
45. The sample is heated carefully to 40 oC in a water bath
46. The sample is cooled to 20 oC
47. The sample is poured into the cylindrical hydrometer until it is full
48. A lactometer is inserted into the sample and released
49. As soon as the lactometer comes to reast, the reading is taken off it, supposedly
while the sample is at 20 oC
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The density of milk falls if water is added. Addition of as little as 3 % H20 can be
detected this way.
Density lower than 1,028 shows adulterated milk. Normal milk has a density of
1,032 at 15,5 oC.

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Freezing Point one of the most constant physical characteristics or milk, used to
detect adulteration of milk.
o Lowered by addition of dissolved components e.g. lactose, salts, preservatives
o Risen by addition of water.
o Cow milk should freeze between 0,53 and 0 54 oC.

31.

Microbiological investigation of milk and milk products

(methods used in dairy industry)

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Sampling Must be done under aseptic conditions for sterilized foods.

The more homogenous the distribution of organisms, the smaller the sample
needed. Therefore, 1g of well mixed milk is sufficient, but 10g of cheese or butter
would be used.

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Quantitative Plating Technique Spread Plate Method.

o The sample to be examined is spread over a nutrient agat plate using a sterile glass
spreader.
o After incubation, the amount of colonies formed is counted.
o The dilution factor is then used to determine the amount of MOs per gram per ml
in the original sample; No. of colonies found * Dilution number.

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Quantitative Plating Technique Pour Plate Method.

The sample is poured into a sterile Petri dish
Melted, warm agar is poured into the Petri dish
Sample and agar are mixed thoroughly by tilting the plate
Liquid Cultural Media
Used only to show presence of small amounts of MOs with fermenting capabilities.
One part sample is added to two parts cultural medium.
Indicator and saccharides are added.
If fermenting MOs are present, gas will be formed from saccharides and a colour
change reaction will occour.
Standard Plate Count
Sample is mixed with liquidated agar in a Petri dish.
Incubation at 30 oC for 3 days.
Microbe colonies are counted, Between 30 300 should be present if the dilution
factor used was correct.
Plate count is calculated by multiplying colony number bydilution factor.

Coliform Count.
Used only to ensure that contamination has not occurred after pasteurization.
Liquid agar can be used. This should include ingredients that suppress other
bacteria.
o Tubes are incubated at 30 oC for 2 days
o Presence of coliforms will cause production of gasses, which will raise the liquid
level in the tube.
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Psychotrophic Bacteria Count

Standard plate count incubated at 7 oC for 7 days.

Thermophilic Bacteria Count

Standard platecount incubated at 55 oC for 2 days.

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Direct Microscopic Method

Used when numbers of MOs are high. Also shows past bacterial infestations in raw
ingredients of products.
o A measure amount of milk is spread over a measured area of slide.
o The slide is dried, fixed, stained and examined under oil immersion.
o Bacteria per ml is found from; area of microscopic field, known quantity of milk
examined.
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32.

Detection of inhibiting agents in milk and milk products

(methods used in dairy industry)

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Using yoghurt Culture

Milk is heated to 85 oC for 2 min. to disturb natural inhibitors.
Milk is cooled to 45 oC and 2 ml of yoghurt culture are added.
Incubation at 43 oC for 3,5 hrs
TA is determined by titration.
If at least 20 ml of 0,25 M NaOH are used, no inhibitors are present.

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Using Bacillus Stearothermophilus.

A dish of agar medium is inoculated with Bacillus
A filter-paper disc, soaked in the milk to be tested, is placed above the agar.
The Petri dish is incubated for 2,5 5 hrs.
Any antibiotics present will dirupt growth of the bacterial colonies on the medium.

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33.

Determination of milk acidity pH titratable acidity

(methods used in dairy industry)

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The acidity of milk is due mainly to Organic Acid (mainly Lactic Acid), minerals and
proteins

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Active acidity, of pH is a better method of acid determination than TA, but is

temperature dependant.
o pH of bovine milk at 25 oC = 6,6
o pH above 6,7 indicates matitis
o pH below 6,5 indicates colostrums or bacterial infestation.

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Titratable Acidity Determined by titration of 100 ml of milk with NaOh in the

presence of phenolphthalein Indicator.
o 1 deg Soxlet Henkel = 2,5 deg Torner = 2,25 deg Dornic = 0,0225 % Lactic Acid

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Titratable Acidity By Soxlet Henkel

o Milk + phenolphthalein + 0,25M NaOH
o 1 ml NaOH (0,25M). Titrated against 100 ml of milk = 1 SH
Milk Acidity by Thorner
Milk is diluted with water, phelophthalein is added and this is titrated against 0,1M
NaOH.
o 1 ml NaOH (0,1M) titrated against 100 ml of milk = 1T
o

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Determination of milk Acidity using Orientational Methods

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34.

Clot on Boling Test Sour milk curdles during boiling as curdling will occur when
acidity is above 12 SH or the milk is mastitic.
Alisarin Alcohol Test If acidity is high, colour changes to brown / yellow. Fresh
milk will stay pink.
Test with indicator (litmus) paper. (very fast. Used in dairy plant when milk
receiver
Test with red hydroxide when red hydroxide is added to milk, in the presence of
phenolphthalein, acidic milk will change its colour.

Determination of milk from cows suffering from mastitis

(methods used in dairy industry)

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Bacteriological test for mastitis pathogens

Cytological tests
Electronic devices such as the coulter counter, Autoanalyzer and Fosomatic
fluorescence-optic system.
234
High catalase activity, high SCCs, high Cl content.
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N-Mastitis Test
o Equal quantities (2ml) of milk and N-Mastitis Test Reagent are mixed in a Petri
dish and observed against a dark background under askew light.
o Determination of milk quality is dependant on the resulting viscosity of the mixture.

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Bromthymol Mastitis Test

o Milk is added to bromthymol blue indicater and the colour change is noted after 3
minutes, and compared to a control strip of pH 6,7.
o If indicator is unchanged (remains green), milk is from a healthy udder.
o If indicator turns dark green or dark blue, some inflammatory reaction is present in
the udder.

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Detection of Cl ions in milk

o Cl ions in normal milk = 0,1 0,11 %
50. Cl is precipitated by excess (10 ml) 0,1M AgNO3
51. Free AgNO3 is titrated against ammonium rhodanide (NH4CNS)
52. Suphate Iron (III) ammonium is used as an indicator
53. Cl ion content calculated from AgNO3 used in precipitation

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Procedure:
1. 10 ml milk, 5 small glass balls, 5 ml 25% HNO3, 1 ml NH4Fe(SO4)2.12H2O are
placed in a titrimetric flask and mixed.
2. Burette is filled with 0,1M NH4CNS to zero level
3. Titration is carried out until the mixture turn red-brown.
Chlorine Content = (10 ml 0,1M NH4CNS used) * 3,546 * 100 / Weight (g) of Milk

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Determination of efficiency of heat treatment of milk

(methods used in dairy industry)
Peroxidase Test for Pasteurisation above 80 oC
o Peroxidase is inactivated in a few secontd at 80 oC. Its presence shows presence of
raw milk, or insufficiently heated milk.
o Peroxidase can release oxygen from H2O2, which oxidises p-phenylendiamine to
give a blue colour.
54. 5 ml of milk and 3 5 drops H2O2 are put in a test tube.
55. 2 3 drops 4 % p-phenylendiamine are added and mixed.
56. The reaction si read after 2 minutes

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Phosphatase (Lactognost) Test for Pasteurisation

Phosphatase is inactivated by HTST pasteurisation.
Phosphatase can release phenol from a phenol-phosphate mixture added to milk
Liberated phenol = phosphatase present.
1. one tablet of lactognost I & II is dissolve in 10 ml of warm (38 oC) water.
2. 1 ml of milk is added, after heating to 37 oC for 10 min.
3. 0m1 ml Lactogngost III added to solution.
4. solution removed from water bath and mixed
5. Result read after 15 min. Change to light blue-grey indicates HTST treatment.
Above 71 oC of LTLT at 61 oC. Remaining white = insufficient heat treatment.

36.

Organoleptic evaluation of milk and milk methods

(methods used in dairy industry)

241

Organoleptic Evaluation of White Yoghurt

Appearance no separation of bubbles should be present. Colour should be
homogenous.
Consistency Should not be sandy with separated whey.
Odour
Flavour no acid / metallic / yeast / musty / rancid / mouldy / bitter should be tasted.

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Organoleptic Evaluation of Cream

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Organoleptic Evaluation of Butter

244

Organoleptic Evaluation of Cheese

o Appearance state of packaging, rind, protective wax layer or mould. Surface
colour and colour on cutting.

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Organoleptic Evaluation of Milk Powder

o Reconstitution should be as follows:
o Whole milk powder 15g in 100 ml of water at 55 oC
o 14 % fat milk powder 10 g in 90 ml of water at 55 oC
Organoleptic Evaluation of Evaporated Condensed Milks
Consistency of Evaporated milk homogenous, mildly viscous without sandy signs
flour like sediment may be present.
o Consistency of condensed milk homogenous, weakly viscous, sediment on tin
bottom may occur, fat layer on top may occur in high fat varieties.
o Flavour weak cooked flavour, salty in higher fat varieties.
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Organoleptic Evaluation of Ice Cream

Carried out at temperatures of -10 to -12 oC