Process Dyanmics and Control

Process Dynamics and Control
Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula
1. INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL

A process plant is an arrangement of integrated equipment for the purpose of converting
certain raw materials into useful products in the most economical way. During its operation,
the plant has to satisfy performance requirements in the light of stronger competition, tougher
environmental and safety regulations. With the increased emphasis placed on safe, efficient
plant operation, process control makes it possible to operate process plants safely and
profitably, while satisfying plant quality standards.
TERMINOLOGIES
Process is the conversion of feed materials to products using chemical and physical
operations which may be processing operation or processing equipment.
1. Continuous: tubular heat exchanger, continuous stirred tank reactor, thermal cracking
furnace, and multi-component distillation column.
2. Batch and Semi-Batch: batch or semi-batch reactor, wood-chip digester, plasma etcher, and
kidney dialysis unit.
System is an arrangement, set or collection of things connected or related in such a manner as
to form an entirety or whole.
Control usually taken that means to regulate, direct or command.
Process Dynamics refers to unsteady-state (or transient) process behavior which occurs
during important situations such as startup or shutdowns, unusual process disturbances, and
planned transitions from one product grade to another.
Process Control has the primary objective to maintain a process at desired operating
conditions, safely and efficiently, while satisfying environmental and product quality
requirements.
Instrumentation is the science that deals with the means and methods of obtaining and
processing physical and chemical information. It is the science and technology of complete
measurement systems with which physical quantities are measured so as to obtain data which
can be transmitted to recording and display services.
Input
Device
Signal Conditioning
Processing Variable
Output
Device
Process
Variable
Measurement
Reading
Figure 1. Instrumentation
What?: application of instruments devices that measure and display

Where?: to a process
Why?: in order to measure and control its activity
The purpose of instrumentation is the procurement of information or the control of an object
or a process in accordance with such information. In the process industries (chemical,
petroleum, power, food, textile, paper, pulp, metallurgical, etc.) instrumentation devices are
used for measuring, indicating, recording, and controlling the flow, pressure, temperature,
level and composition of these process materials.
Application of Instrumentation
1. Computers, Data handling, Communications
2. Aerospace, Avionics
1
3. Marine Science/Biology
4. Metrology
5. Automation/Robotics
6. Automatic Process Control
7. Biomedical/Pharmaceutical
8. Cryogenics
9. Nuclear
10. Power
11. Analytical
12. Telemetry
Process Variables
1. Controlled Variables (CVs): The process variables that are controlled. These are the
variables which quantify the performance or quality of the final product, which also are called
output variables. The desired value of a controlled variable is called the set point.
2. Manipulated Variable (MVs): The process variable that can be adjusted in order to keep
the controlled variables at or near the set point. These are input variables that are adjusted
dynamically to keep the controlled variables at their set-points. Typically the manipulated
variable is the flow rates.
3. Disturbance Variables (DVs): The process variables that affect the controlled variables
but cannot be manipulated. These are called the load variables and represent input variables
that can cause the controlled variables to deviate from their respective set points.
Set-point change: implementing a change in the operating conditions. The set point signal is
changed and the manipulated variable is adjusted appropriately to achieve a new operating
conditions. This is also called servomechanism (or servo) control.
Disturbance change: the process transient behavior when a disturbance enters, also called
regulatory control or load change. A control system should be able to return each controlled
variable back to its set-point.
1.1. Basic Aspects of a Control System

A. What is a control system?
The control system is a rational arrangement of equipment such as measuring devices, valves,
controllers, computers coupled with human intervention in the forms of plant designers and
plant operators that together constitute the control system.
B. What are the objectives and incentives in using a control system?

The objectives in using a control system are as follows:
1. To suppress the influence of external disturbances.
2. To ensure the stability of a chemical process.
3. To optimize the performance of a chemical process.
In engineering and science we usually restrict the meaning of control systems to apply to
those systems whose major function is to dynamically or actively command, direct or
regulate.
It is important to note, however, that control systems of interest for analysis or design
purposes include not only those manufactured by humans, but those that normally exist in
nature, and control systems with both manufactured and natural components.
The incentives of using a control system are as follows:
1. For the plant to come up with a safe operation of a process.
2. For the plant to produce the desired amounts and quality of the final products.
3. For the plant to adhere to certain environmental regulations imposed by the state.
4. For the plant processes to work within certain operational constraints.
5. For the plant to conform with certain market conditions, that is, the availability of raw
materials and the demand of final products in order to minimize operating costs and to
maximize profit.
1.2. Objectives of a Control System

A. What are the operational objectives that a control system is called upon to achieve?
1. To select the measurements that will be used to monitor the operational
performance of a plant (What variables should we measure in order to monitor the
operational performance of a plant?)
2. To select the manipulated variables (What are the manipulated variables to be used
to control a chemical process?)
3. To select the control configuration (What is the best configuration for a given
chemical process situation?)
4. To design the controller (How is the information, taken from the measurements,
used to adjust the values of the manipulated variables?)
B. Control System Configuration Constraints
1. Product Specifications.
2. Safety.
3. Operational Constraints
4. Environmental regulations
C. Control System Objectives
All of these objectives should be achieved by the control system made:
1. Safety
2. Environmental protection
3. Equipment protection
4. Smooth operation production rate
5. Product quality
6. High profit
7. Monitoring and diagnosis
1.3. Design Aspect of Process Control

A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a
manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system, dynamically or actively.
A. Variables in a Process
1. Input variables the stimulus applied to a control system, which produces a specified
response. Their values may be adjusted, in which case, they are called manipulated variable,
otherwise, they are disturbances. Input variables can be further classified into:
a. Manipulated/adjustable variables are those values that can be adjusted freely by
the human operator or a control mechanism.
b. Disturbances are those values that are not the result of adjustment by an operator or a
control system.
2. Output variables the actual response obtained from a control system the value of which
is affected by the value of the input variable. Output variables can be further classified into:
a. Measured Output variables are those values that are known by directly measuring
them.
b. Unmeasured Output variables are those values that cannot be directly measured.
B. Design Elements of a Control System
In attempting to design a control system that meets the process requirements, the following
elements must be considered.
1. Control objectives, which are defined qualitatively and quantitatively in terms of the
output variables
2. Measurements of certain process variables, which aid in monitoring the process
performance
3. Manipulated variables to be used
4. Control configuration
a. Feedback, Feedforward, Inferential, etc.
5. Design the mode of controller
a. Proportional, Integral, Derivative or Combination
Figure 2. Distillation Setup
Figure 3. Interaction happening in a control system.
C. Types of Control Systems

Open loop systems are independent of the output and they are not usually troubled with
problem instability. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their calibration.
Command
Input
Reference
Selector
Reference
Input
Dynamic
Unit
Output
Figure 4. Functional Block Diagram
Motor
Powering
Device
Controller
Command
Input
Output
Load
Control
Effort
Figure 5. Physical Arrangement

Two outstanding features of open loop control systems.
1. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their calibration. To calibrate means to
establish or re-establish the input-output relation to obtain desired system accuracy.
2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability.
In contrast closed loop systems are dependent on the output. They are also called feedback.
They permit the output to be compared with the input to the system so that the appropriate
5
control action may be formed as function of the input and output. A block diagram of
feedback control is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 6. Functional Block Diagram of Closed Loop Control System
Controller
Final Control
Element
Process
Measuring
Device
Figure 7. Feedback Control.
Feedback is that property of a closed system which permits the output (or some other control
variable) to be compared with the input to the system (or an input to some other internally
situated component or subsystem) so that the appropriate control action may be formed as
some function of the output and input.
Characteristics of Feedback
1. Increased accuracy (say the ability to faithfully reproduce the output)
2. Tendency toward oscillations or instability
3. Reduced sensitivity of the ratio of output to input to variations in system parameters and
other characteristics.
4. Reduced effects of nonlinearities.
5. Reduced effects of external disturbances or noise.
6. Increased bandwidth. The bandwidth of a system is a frequency response measure of how
well the system responds to variations or frequencies in the input signal.
D. Hardware Elements of a Control System

The physical elements that make up the control system are:
1. The Process the equipment along with the physical or chemical operation, which
takes place (tanks, heat exchangers, reactors, etc.)
6
2. Measuring instrument or sensors measures the value of the output variable

3. Transducers converts one form of signal to another (e.g. electronic to pneumatic)
4. Transmission lines used to carry the measurement signal from the measuring device
to the controller
5. Controller the brain of the control system, which includes the function of the
comparator. It decides by how much to change the value of the manipulated variable
and requires the specification of the desired value.
Input is the stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control system, typically from an
external energy source, usually in order to produce a specified response from the control
system.
Output is the actual response obtained from the control system. It may or may be equal to the
specified response implied by the input.
Reasons why it may be impossible to control all of the output variables of a process.
1. It may not be possible to measure on-line all of the output variables, especially
compositions. Even when it is possible, it may too expensive to do so.
2. By a degree-of-freedom analysis, described below, there may not be enough manipulated
variables available to control all of the output variables.
3. Potential control loops may be impractical because of slow dynamics, low sensitivity to the
manipulated variables available, or interactions with other control loops.
Selection of Controlled (Output) Variables
1. Select output variables that are not self-regulating.
2. Choose output variables that would exceed the equipment and operating constraints without
control.
3. Select output variables that are a direct measure of the product quality or that strongly
affect it.
4. Choose output variables that exhibit significant interactions with other output variables.
5. Choose output variables that have favorable static and dynamic responses to the available
manipulated variable.
Selection of Manipulated Variables
1. Select manipulated variables that significantly affect the controlled variables.
2. Select manipulated variables that rapidly affect the controlled variables.
3. Select manipulated variables that affect the controlled variables directly rather than
indirectly.
4. Avoid recycling disturbances.
Selection of Measured Variables
1. Reliable, accurate measurements are essential for good control.
2. Select measurement points that are sufficiently sensitive.
3. Select measurement points that minimize time delays and time constants.
Degrees of Freedom Analysis
Nmanipulated = Nvariables Nexternally defined - Nequations
1.4. Control System Engineering Problem

This consists of analysis and design:
Analysis is the investigation of the properties of an existing system.
Design Problem is the choice and arrangement of system components to perform a specific
task.
Two methods exist for design:
1. Design by Analysis accomplished by modifying the characteristics of an existing or
standard system configuration.
2. Design by Synthesis accomplished by defining the form of the system directly from its
specification.
In general, a control problem can be divided into the following steps:
1. A set of performance specifications must be established.
2. As a result of performance specifications a control problem exists.
3. A set of differential equations that describe the physical system must be formulated.
4. The performance of the basic (or original) system is determined by application of one of the
methods of analysis (or a combination of them).
5. If the performance of the original system does not meet the required specifications,
equipment must be added to improve the response.
6. The achievement of optimal performance for the required system response specification
may be required. This system is referred to a system optimization.
1.5. Statement of Control Problem

1. The physical system processed is to be controlled through closed loop or feedback
operation.
2. An output variable called response is adjusted as required by the error signal.
3. Error signal is the difference between the system response measured by the sensors and the
reference signal which is the response.
4. Controller is needed to filter the error signal.
Solving Control Problems Generally Involves

1. Choosing sensor to measure the output
2. Choosing actuators
3. Developing sensor equations or models
4. Designing the controller based on the developed models and control criteria
Control criteria:
a. disturbance rejection
b. steady state errors
c. transient response
d. sensitivity to parameter change
5. Evaluating the design analytically by simulation and finally by testing the physical system.
6. If the physical tests are unsatisfactory then repeat steps.
1.6. Analog and Digital Control Systems

The signals in a control system, for example, the input and the output wave forms are
typically functions of some independent variable, usually time, denoted as t.
A signal dependent on a continuum of values of the independent variable t is called a

continuous-time signal, or more generally, a continuous-data signal or (less frequently) and
analog signal.
A signal defined at, or of interest at, only discrete (distinct) instants of the independent
variable t (upon which it depends) is called a discrete-time, a discrete-data, a sampled-data,
or a digital signal.
Control system can be classified according to the types of signals they process: continuoustime (analog), discrete-time (digital), or a combination of both (hybrid).
Continuous-time control system, also called continuous-data control system, or analog
control system, contain or process only continuous-time (analog) signals and components.
Discrete-time control system, also called discrete-data control systems, or sampled-data
control systems, have discrete-time signals or components at one or more points in the
system.
Discrete-time control systems can have continuous-time as well as discrete-time signals, that
is, it can be hybrid. The distinguishing factor is that a discrete-time or digital control system
must include at least one discrete-data signal. Also, digital control systems, particularly of
sampled-data type, often have both open loop and closed loop modes of operation.
1.7. Control System Models or Representations

To solve a control system problem, the specifications or description of the system
configuration and its components must be put into a form amenable to analysis or design.
Three basic representations (models) of components and systems are sued extensively in the
study of control systems:
1. Mathematical models, in the form of differential equations, difference equations, and/or
other mathematical relations, for example, Laplace- and z-transforms.
2. Block diagram
3. Signal flow graphs
Block diagrams and signal flow graphs are shorthand, graphical representations of either the
schematic diagram of a system, or the set of mathematical operations characterizing its parts.
Mathematical models are needed when quantitative relationships are required, for example, to
represent the detailed behavior of the output of a feedback system to a given input.
Development of mathematical model is usually based on principles from the physical,
biological, social, or information sciences, depending on the control system application area,
and the complexity of such models varies widely. One class of models commonly called
linear system has found very broad application in control system science. Techniques for
solving linear system models are well established and documented in the literature of applied
mathematics and engineering, and the major focus of these are linear feedback control
systems, their analysis and their design. Continuous-time (continuous, analog) systems are
emphasized, but discrete time (discrete, digital) system techniques are developed.
PROBLEMS
1. Identify the input and output for the pivoted adjustable mirror.
2. Identify a possible input and a possible output for a rotational generator for electricity.
3. Identify the organ system components, and input and output, and describe the operation of
the biological control system consisting of a human reaching for an object.
4. How is the following open loop systems calibrated?
a. automatic washing machine
b. automatic toaster
c. voltmeter
5. Explain the operation of ordinary traffic signals, which control the automobile traffic at
roadway intersection. Why is it open loop control system? How can traffic be controlled more
efficiently? Why is the system considered to e closed loop?
6. Describe in a simplified way, the components and variables of the biological control system
involved in walking in a specified direction. Why is walking a closed loop operation? Under
what conditions would the human walking apparatus become an open loop system? A
sampled data system? Assume the person has normal vision.
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4. MATHEMATICAL MODELING
In the process industry control systems are designed based on how the systems behave under
the influence of changes in manipulated variables and external disturbances. Mathematical
models are mathematical representations of the physical and chemical phenomena that are
taking place in a chemical process.
4.1. Introduction to Modeling

A. Uses of Mathematical Models
Mathematical models are useful in process analysis and control in the following ways:
1. To improve understanding of the process when it is not feasible to perform dynamic
experiments in the plant.
2. To train plant operators to operate complex processes.
3. To develop appropriate controller settings, either via computer simulation or by direct
analysis of the dynamic model.
4. To optimize process operating conditions.
B. Classification of Models
Mathematical models can be considered in three different classifications, depending on how
they are derived.
1. Theoretical models are developed using principles of chemistry and physics.
2. Empirical models obtained from a mathematical statistical analysis of process
operating data
3. Semi-empirical models combine 1 and 2 with one or more parameters to be evaluated
from plant data.
C. Modeling for Control Purposes

The relationship between the input and out put variables of a process is shown in Figure 2.
d1 d2
d3.......di
Manipulated variables
m1
m2
m3
mi
disturbances
Measured variables
PROCESS
y1
y2
y3
yi
Unmeasured outputs
Figure 2. Representation of the Input and Output Variables of a Process.
11
We apply the input-output model, that is, the cause and effect relationship in a process:
output f (input var iables )
yi f (m1 , m2 , m3 ,...., d1 , d 2 , d 3 ,..., d i )
(1)
Degrees of freedom of a system refer to the independent variables that must be specified in
order to define the process completely.
f V E
(2)
where f = degrees of freedom

V = number of variables
E = number of equations
A process can be controlled only when all the degrees of freedom have been specified.
If f 0 , process is exactly specified
f 0, process is under-specified by f equations
f 0, process is over-specified by f equations.
Consider a stirred tank heater shown below.
Fi, Ti
steam
h
F, T
Mass Balance:
d ( Ah )
Fi F
dt
(3)
Assuming constant
dh
Fi F
dt
(4)
Energy balance:
d [ AhC (T Tr )]
FiC (Ti Tr ) FC (T Tr) Q
dt
(5)
Assume Tr 0 (reference temperature)
d (hT )
Q
FiTi FT
dt
C
12
(6)
Ah
dT
dh
Q
AT
FiTi FT
dt
dt
C
(7)
Ah
dT
Q
T ( Fi F ) FiTi FT
dt
C
(8)
Substituting Eq (K 4) gives
Simplifying the equation
Ah
dT
Q
Fi (Ti T )
dt
C
(9)
Number of Equations, E=2

Number of Variables, V 6h, T , Fi, F , Ti, Q
f V E 62 4
Analysis:
1. Is the solution of the two equations possible?
Yes, there exists at least one solution
2. If solution is possible, how many solutions exist?
There is an infinite number of solutions since we can specify the arbitrarily the values
of the variables, f 6 4 2 .
If Fi , F , Ti , and Q are specified, unique changes in h and T with time can be obtained.
D. Formulating the Scope of Modeling for Process Control

Before attempting to model a process, pose the following questions and understand their
implications.
1. What are the control objectives that must be satisfied?
2. What are the expected disturbances and their impact?
3. What are the dominant physical and chemical phenomena in the process to be
controlled?
The answers will define and simplify:
1. The system that will be modeled.
2. The mass, energy, etc., equation that will be developed.
3. Additional equations needed to complete the mathematical model.
These will also help to identify
1. The state variables
2. The input variables (manipulated and disturbances)
3. The output variables
4.2. Linearization of a Function
13
Linearization is a process by which we approximate non-linear systems with linear ones.

Linearization is accomplished by expansion in Taylor Series and neglecting higher order
terms.
A Differential Equation is linear when it is of the first degree in the dependent variable and its
derivatives.
A. Linearization of Functions with Single Dependent Variable

Consider a non-linear Differential Equation modeling a given process:
dX
f (X )
dt
(10)
Expanding into Taylor Series around the point X o ,

f (X ) f (X o )
( X X o ) df
( X X o )2

1!
2!
dt X o
d2 f
2
dt
( X X o )n
...
n!
Xo
dn f
n
dt
(11)
Neglecting terms of order two and higher
df
f ( x) f ( x0 ) ( x x0 )
dX X o
(12)
dX
df
f ( X o ) ( X X o )
dt
dX X o
(13)
Substituting in Eq (10).
This is the linearized form of equation 10. The error introduced in the approximation is the
same order of magnitude as the term
I
( X X o )2
2!
d2 f
2
dX
Xo
(14)
The linear approximation is satisfactory only when X is very close to Xo, when the value of I
is very small.
Deviation Variables (Perturbation)
Let Xs = steady state value of X
dX s
0 f (X s )
dt
Then
From
dX
dt
f ( X s ) , a non-linear equation
Linearizing around Xs
14
(15)
dX
f
f ( X s ) ( X X s )
dt
X X s
d(X Xs )
f
(X Xs)
dt
X X s
Subtracting
Let
(16)
(17)
X X s , a deviation variable
d f

dt X X s
(18)
B. Linearization of Systems with Many Variables

Consider the following dynamic system:
dX 1
f1 ( X 1 , X 2 )
dt
(19)
dX 2
f2 (X1, X 2 )
dt
Expanding the non-linear functions f1 ( X 1 , X 2 ) and f 2 ( X 1 , X 2 ) into Taylor series around

X 1,o , X 2,o :
f
f1 ( X 1 , X 2 ) f1 ( X 1,o , X 2,o ) ( X 1 X 1,o ) 1
X 1 X1,o
(20)
( X X 1,0 ) 2 f1
f
( X 2 X 2,o ) 1
1
X 2
2!
X 2 X 2 ,o
1 X 1, o
2
( X 2 X 2,o ) 2 f
n f1
..
(
X
X
)(
X
X
)
1
1,o
2
2 ,o
2
2!
X 1X 2
X 2 X 2 ,o
f
f 2 ( X 1 , X 2 ) f 2 ( X 1,o , X 2,o ) ( X 1 X 1,o ) 2
X 1 X1,o
(21)
( X X 1,0 ) 2 f 2
f
( X 2 X 2,o ) 2 1
X 2
2!
X 2 X 2 ,o
1 X 1o
2
( X 2 X 2,o ) 2 f 2
n f2
....
(
X
X
)(
X
X
)
1
1,o
2
2 ,o
2
2!
X 1X 2
X 2 X 2 ,o
Neglecting terms of order two and higher
f
f1 ( X 1 , X 2 ) f1 ( X 1,o , X 2,o ) ( X 1 X 1,o ) 1
X 1 X1,o
f
( X 2 X 2,o ) 1
X 2 X 2 ,o
15
(22)
f
f 2 ( X 1 , X 2 ) f 2 ( X 1,o , X 2,o ) ( X 1 X 1,o ) 2
X 1 X1,o
(23)
f
( X 2 X 2,o ) 2
X 2 X 2 ,o
Substituting to the original differential equation
f
f
dX 1
f1 ( X 1 X 1,o ) ( X 1 X 1,o ) 1 ( X 2 X 2,o ) 1
dt
X 1 X
X 2 X
1, o
(24)
2 ,o
f
f
dX 2
f 2 ( X 2 X 2,o ) ( X 1 X 1,o ) 2 ( X 2 X 2,o ) 2
dt
X 1 X
X 2 X
1, o
(25)
2,o
Expressing the linearized equation in terms of deviation variables, let the steady state X1,s and
X2,s as the point of linearization, that is
X 1,o X 1,s and X 2,o X 2,s
At steady state:
f1 ( X 1,s , X 2,s ) 0
f 2 ( X 1,s , X 2,s ) 0
Subtracting,
d ( X 1 X 1, s )
dt
d ( X 2 X 2, s )
dt
f
f
( X 1 X 1, s ) 1 ( X 2 X 2, s ) 1
X 1 s
X 2 s
(26)
f
f
( X 1 X 1, s ) 2 ( X 2 X 2,s ) 2
X 1 s
X 2 s
(27)
Let the deviation variables be
1 X 1 X 1,s and 2 X 2 X 2,s
This may be written as
f
f
d1
1 1 2 1
dt
1 s
2 s
(28)
f
f
d 2
1 2 2 2
dt
1 s
2 s
(29)
d1
a111 a12 2
dt
(30)
d 2
a211 a22 2
dt
(31)
16
where:
f
a11 1
1 s
f
a12 1
2 s
f
a 21 2
1 s
f
a 22 2
2 s
The determinant form of the coefficient is
f1 f1

1 s 2
f 2 f 2

1 s 2
(32)
4.3. The Transfer Function

The result of mathematical modeling using the basic heat, mass and momentum balances will
yield a set of differential equations that describes the system. After linearization and
expressing the differential equations in terms of deviation variables, the dynamics of the
system can be described by equation K-33.
an
dny
d n1 y
dy
a
...a1
a0 y K p x(t )
n 1
n
n 1
dt
dt
dt
(33)
where y is the output variable, x is the input variable, Kp is the process gain and an, an-1, etc are
the constants. Taking the Laplace Transform with initial condition y (0) =0, yields
(an s n an1 s n1 ...a1 s a0 ) y (s) K p x (s)
(34)
Kp
y ( s)
G( s)
n
x ( s) (a n s a n1 s n 1 ...a1 s a0 )
(35)
Simplifying yields,
y ( s)
is called the transfer function of the system. The transfer function is the ratio of
x ( s)
the Laplace Transform of the output variable y (s) to the Laplace transform of the input
variable x (s)
G( s)
Transfer function
LaplaceTransform of output y ( s)
LaplaceTransform of input x ( s)
(36)
The polynomial an s n an1 s n1 ...a1 s a0 0 is called the characteristic polynomial of the

system
4.4 Block Diagram Representation
17
From the previous section, we were able to get the transfer function of the system as shown in
equation 35, which can be simplified as
G( s)
y ( s)
x ( s)
(37)
The system dynamics in s domain can be conveniently shown using block diagram
representation below.
x (s)
y (s)
G(s)
Figure 3. Block Diagram Representation of the System.
The arrow entering the block represent the input and arrow leaving the block represent the
output. The transform of the output is conveniently obtained by multiplying the input with the
transfer function inside the block. The Laplace Transform of the output can be obtained from
y ( s ) G( s ) x ( s )
For a double input single output system with dynamics represented by
y (s) G1 (s) x1 (s) G2 (s) x2 (s)
(38)
The system is represented by the block diagram shown below.

x1 ( s)
G1 ( s)
x2 ( s)
y (s)
G2 ( s )
Figure 4. Block Diagram Representation of the Double-Input

Single-Output System.
A double input, double output system can be represented by the equations shown below.
y1 ( s) G1 ( s) x1 ( s) G2 y 2 ( s)
y 2 ( s) G3 ( s) x1 ( s) G4 ( s) x2 ( s)
(39)
The dynamics of the system can be represented by the block diagram shown in Figure 5.
If it is required to determine the transfer function relating one input to a particular output, it
can be obtained by letting the other inputs equal to zero.
y1 ( s )
, let x1 ( s) 0 , so that y1 (s) y 2 (s)G2 (s) .
x2 (s)
The second output y 2 can be obtained from y 2 (s) x2 (s)G4 (s) . Substituting this equation to
the equation for y1 yields y1 (s) x2 (s)G4 (s)G2 (s) .
For example, to get the transfer function
18
Simplifying this will give
y1 ( s)
G2 ( s)G4 ( s) .
x2 ( s)
G1 ( s)
x1 ( s)
y1 ( s)
G2 ( s )
G3 ( s)
y 2 ( s)
x2 ( s)
G4 ( s )
Figure 5. Block Diagram Representation of the DoubleInput Double-Output System.
Properties of the Transfer Function and Block Diagram

1. It relates two variables in the physical process
Forcing function
Input variable
Response
Output variable
Process
Let G(s) = Transfer Function

X(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
Block Diagram of the Transfer Function
G( s)
Y ( s)
X ( s)
(40)
2. It completely describes the dynamic characteristics of the system. From the Transfer
Function, the response of the system to a forcing function can be obtained.
Y (s) G(s).X (s)
19
(41)
Y (t ) L1 Y (s)
(42)
For several inputs or forcing functions:
a1 X 1 ( s )
a 2 X 2 (( s )
Y(s)
G(s)
X (s) a1 X 1(s) a2 X 2 (s)

The response is:
Y (s) G(s).X (s)

G(s)a1 X 1 (s) a2 X 2 (s)
a1G(s).X 1 (s) a2 G(s).X 2 (s)
aY1 (s) a2Y2 (s)
20
(43)
(44)
7. OPEN LOOP SYSTEMS

Control systems are classified into two general categories: open loop and closed loop system.
Their difference is determined by the control action. Control action is the quantity responsible
for activating the system to produce the output. An open loop control system is the one in
which the control action is independent of the output while the closed loop control system is
one in which the control action is somehow dependent on the output.
An open loop system is represented by the block diagram;
f (s)
G( s)
y ( s)
f ( s)
y (s)
(45)
where
f (s) = Laplace Transform of the input function
y (s) = Laplace Transform of the output function
G(s) = Ratio of the output to the input.
The output of the system is determined by the nature of the transfer function.
The response of the system can be determined by taking the inverse LaplaceTransform of the
function:
(46)
y ( s ) G( s) f ( s )
7.1. First Order Systems

A. What is a first order system?
A first order system is a system whose dynamics is modeled by the first order differential
equation.
a1
dy
a0 y bf (t )
dt
(47)
This can be simplified into
dy
y K p f (t )
dt
(48)
a1
b
and K p
. is known as the time constant and Kp is the steady state gain
a0
a0
or static gain.
where
Getting the Laplace Transform of the first order differential equation yields
G( s)
kp
Y ( s)
X ( s) s 1
(49)
This is the Transfer Function of the First Order system. It is defined only for linear timeinvariant system. For non-linear systems, the mathematical model must first be linearized
around a steady state. When defining the transfer function, all initial conditions must be set to
zero.
The time constant is related to the speed of response of the process once the process starts to
responds to a forcing function. The slower the process the larger is the value of .
21
B. Physical systems modelled as first order

First order processes are characterized by their capacity to store material, energy or
momentum and the resistance associated with the flow of mass, energy or momentum in
reaching the capacity. Examples of systems that can be modeled as first order are:
a) Flow of the fluid into a tank - the relationship between the height (as output) to the
inlet flow rate (as input).
b) Thermometer system the relationship between the thermometer reading (as output)
to the surrounding temperature (as input).
c) The dynamics of a stirred-tank heater resulting from the heat balance of the system.
1. First Order Systems with a Capacity for Energy Storage

Consider a mercury thermometer
fluid film
Hg
glass wall
Let x = temperature of surrounding fluid
y = temperature of mercury
thermometer reading
Assumptions:
1. Resistance of glass and mercury are negligible.
2. No temperature gradient in the mercury.
3. Heat capacity of glass is negligible.
4. No expansion or contraction of glass walls.
5. For t 0, the thermometer is at steady state; at t 0, a change in the surrounding
temperature x(t) occurs.
Under transient (unsteady state) condition
Heat Balance:
Input Output = Accumulation
hA( x y ) mC p
(50)
dy
dt
(51)
xs y
(52)
At steady state, t 0
hA( xs y s ) 0 ;
Expressing the equation in terms of deviation variables:
hA( x x s ) ( y y s ) mC p
22
d ( y ys )
dt
(53)
Let x x s X ;
y ys Y
where
dY
Y X
dt
(54)
mC p
, time constant of the system

hA
m = mass of mercury in the bulb
Cp= heat capacity of mercury
H = heat transfer coefficient of surrounding fluid
A = heat transfer area
Taking the Laplace Transform of Eq. 54 gives
sY (s) Y (s) X (s)

Y ( s)
1
X ( s) s 1
(55)
(56)
This is the transfer function of the mercury system
2. First Order Systems with a Capacity for Mass Storage

Liquid Level Control System
q(t)
R
qo(t)
Let
A
qo
h
R
= uniform cross-sectional area of the tank

= volumetric flow rate through the resistance
= hydrostatic pressure
= resistance through the valve
Mass balance around the tank
q(t ) qo (t )
qo (t )
d ( A h )
dt
h
R
h Adh
q(t ) R dt
(57)
(58)
(59)
At steady state
qs hs 0
23
(60)
Using deviation variables

h hs
d (h hs )
q(t ) qs
A
R
dt
Let q(t ) q s Q ;
(61)
h hs H
Q
H
dH
A
R
dt
(62)
Taking the Laplace Transform

H ( s)
AsH ( s)
R
H ( s)
R
G( s)
Q( s) ARs 1
Q( s )
(63)
(64)
Let AR
G( s)
R
s 1
(65)
This is the Transfer Function of the liquid level system.
C. Response of the first order systems to various inputs
1. Standard Process Inputs

a. Step Input. This corresponds to a sudden and sustained input changes
x(t) = 0 t < 0
x(t) = A t 0
A
x(t)
0
Zero time is the time at which the sudden change in magnitude A occurs.
b. Ramp Input. This corresponds to inputs that drift, that is, they change relatively slowly
upward or downward for some period with a roughly constant slope.
x(t) = 0
x(t) = at
t< 0
t 0
slope = a
x(t)
t
c. Impulse. Impulse functions are not encountered in usual plant operations, nor are they easy
to generate physically by the engineer. To obtain an impulse input it is necessary to inject a
finite amount of energy or material into a process in an infinitesimal length of time.
x(t) = A(t)
1/b
24
(66)
(t ) lim
b 0
u (t ) u (t b)
b
d. Rectangular Pulse. This is a sudden but un-sustained type of disturbance.

x(t ) A Au(t tw )
(67)
tw
e. Sinusoidal Input. These inputs vary periodically.

x(t ) 0
x(t ) ASint t 0
t<0
The amplitude of the sinusoidal function is A while the period P is related by

P
(68)
2. Response to Step Input of the First Order System
0 t 0
The step input function is given by x(t )
(69)
A t 0
where A is the magnitude of step chance. Taking the Laplace transform, the input in the s
domain is
A
(70)
x( s )
s
The response of the system to the first order system is given by the equation
y ( s)
A KP
s s 1
(71)
Getting the inverse Laplace transform of y (s) gives
y(t ) AK p (1 e t / )
25
(72)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.632
0.6
y(t)/AKp
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
3
t/
Figure 6. Response of the First Order System to Step Change in the Input.
1
0.9
0.8
Increasing Kp
0.7
0.6
y(t)/AKp
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Time (sec)
Figure 7. Effect of Varying Kp on the Response of First Order system to Step Change.
26
1
0.9
Increasing
0.8
0.7
0.6
y(t)/AKp
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Figure 8. Effect of Varying the Time Constant
Time (sec)
on the Response of the First Order System to Step Change in the Input.
The response of the system to a step change of magnitude A is given in Figure 6.

The Kp determines the maximum value of the response of the system, y max AK p . The effect
of process gain in shown in Figure 7.
When t , t / 1 and the value of the response
y( ) AK p (1 e 1 ) .632 AK p . This is shown in Figure 6.
of
the
system
is
Therefore, the time constant is the time needed for the response to reach 63.2% of the
maximum value of the response of the system. The time constant determines the speed of the
response of the system. The smaller the value of , the faster is the response; the bigger the
value of the slower is the response of the system. The effect of the time constant is shown
in Figure 8.
3. Impulse Response of the First Order System
Impulse function is given by the equation,
0
x(t ) A
0
t0
t 0
(73)
t 0
The Laplace Transform of the impulse function is x( s) A , where A is the magnitude of

impulse.
AK p
The response of the first order of the system to impulse change is y ( s)
. Taking the
s 1
inverse Laplace Transform yields
y(t ) AK p e t /
The plot of the response to various magnitude of impulse change is shown in Figure 9.
27
(74)
4. Sinusoidal Response of the First Order System

The sinusoidal input function is given by the function
0 t0
x(t )
A sin wt t 0
(75)
where A is the amplitude and is the frequency of the sinusoidal input.

5
4.5
4
3.5
3
Y(t)/Kp
Increasing A
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
Time (sec)
Figure 9. Effect of Varying the Magnitude of Impulse Change to the Impulse Response of a
First Order System.
The Laplace transform of the input function is

A
x( s ) 2
s 2
The output of the first order system to sinusoidal input is given by
y( s)
KP
A
2
s s 1
2
(76)
(77)
Taking the inverse Laplace Transform of the system, the response of the first order system to
sinusoidal input in time domain is given by
Ae t /
A
A
y(t ) 2 2
2 2
cos t 2 2
sin t
1 1
1
(78)
This equation can be written in another form using the trigonometric identity
p cos A q sin A r sin( A )
where r
p 2 q 2 and tan
p
.
q
28
(79)
Applying this identity to the sinusoidal output function yields

Ae t /
A
y (t ) 2 2
2 2
sin(t )
1 1
where tan 1 (t ) .
(80)
The effect of different values of amplitude A is shown in Figure 10 and the effect of different
values of frequency is shown in Figure 11.
As the time approaches infinity, the first term of the right side of the output equation (80)
vanishes and leaves only the ultimate periodic steady state solution
A
(81)
y(t ) t y(t ) s 2 2
sin(t )
1
Comparing the input function and the ultimate periodic steady state response of the system
shows that
a) The output is a sine wave with the same frequency as the input signal.
1
b) The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is 2 2
. This is always
1
smaller than 1, thus the output signal is attenuated. The comparison between input and
output waves is shown in Figure 12.
c) The output lags behind the input signal by an angle . If 0 then there is a phase
lag. If 0 then there is phase lead. Lag always occurs in a first order system since
the value of is always negative.
2.5
Increasing A
1.5
1
0.5
y(t)/Kp
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0
10
12
Time (sec)
Figure 10. Effect of Varying the Amplitude of the Sinusoidal Input Function to the Response of a First
Order System.
29
0.8
Decreasing
0.6
0.5pi
0.4
pi
y(t)/AKp
0.2
1.5pi
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0
10
Time (sec)
Figure 11. Effect of Varying the Radian Frequency of the Sinusoidal Input to the Response of a First
Order System.
1.5
input wave
1
phase lag
0.5
output wave
y(t)/AKp
-0.5
-1
-1.5
10
Time (sec)
Figure 12. Comparison of the Input Sinusoidal Curve to the Output Sinusoidal Curve of the First Order
System.
D. First order systems in series

There are many applications in industry where the system can be modelled as a series of first
order systems. Consider a non-interacting tank system connected in series as shown in Figure
K - 13.
30
q1
qo
h1 , A1
R1
h2 , A2
q2
R2
Figure 13. Non-Interacting Tanks in Series.
In the figure qs are flow rates, hs are the heights of the tanks, As are the cross sectional
areas of the tanks and Rs are the valve resistances.
Applying overall mass balance of Tank 1 yields,
dm1 d V1 d A1h1
qo q1
dt
dt
dt
(82)
If the density is constant the equation can be simplified as
1 dm dV1 dA1h1
qo q1
dt
dt
dt
(83)
If the tank height is taken as the state variable and tank cross sectional area is constant, the
following state equation can be obtained
A1dh1
qo q1
dt
(84)
For linear valves, the outlet flow is related to the tank height, so for tank 1, the outlet flow rate
is
h
(85)
q1 1
R1
The state equation will become
A1dh1
h
qo 1
dt
R1
(86)
This can be further simplified to the standard form of the first order system state equation
A1R1
dh1
h1 R1qo
dt
(87)
Comparing equation K-87 with the standard equation for the first order system, it can be seen
that the time constant is 1 A1 R1 and the process gain K p1 R1 , the state variable (output
variable) is the height in tank l, h1 and the input variable is q0 , the inlet flow rate to tank 1.
The state equation can now be written as
31
At steady state,
dh1
h1 K p1qo
dt
(88)
dh1
0 , h1 h1s and q0 q0s . Applying the steady state condition yields
dt
h1s K p1qos
(89)
Subtracting the steady state equation from the unsteady steady state equation yields
dh1
h1 h1s K p1 (qo qos )
dt
(90)
dh1 dh1
. These are called
dt
dt
deviation variables. The advantage of using the deviation variables is that at t 0 , the
deviation is zero. The state equation in terms of the deviation variables is
If we let h1 h1 h1s and qo qo q0 s , it can be seen that
d h1
h1 K p1qo
dt
(91)
Taking the Laplace transform with the condition h1 (0) 0 , gives
1 (sh1 (s) h1 (0)) h1 (s) K p1qo (s)
(92)
.
Simplifying the equation yields]
G1 ( s)
K p1
h1 ( s)
q o ( s ) 1s 1
(93)
This the transfer function relating the inlet flow rate to tank 1 to the height of liquid level in
the tank.
Applying overall mass balance to Tank 2 yields
dm2 d V2 d A2 h2
q1 q2
dt
dt
dt
(94)
Simplifying the equation assuming linear valve characteristics yields

A2
dh2 h1 h2
dt
R1 R2
(95)
Putting in the standard form yields
A2 R2
dh2
R
h2 2 h1
dt
R1
(96)
Comparing equation 96 with the standard form, it can be seen that the time constant is
R
2 A2 R2 and the process gain is K p 2 2 . The standard equation becomes
R1
32
dh2
h2 K p 2 h1
dt
(97)
Applying the deviation variables and getting the Laplace transforms yields
dh2
h2 K p 2 h1
dt
(98)
and
G2 ( s )
K p2
h2 ( s)
h1 ( s) 2 s 1
(99)
This is the transfer function relating the output of tank 2 (h2) to the input of tank 2 (h1).
The height of tank 2 can be taken using h2 ( s) G2 ( s)h1 ( s)
K p2
2s 1
h1 ( s) .
Putting in the equation for h1 ( s)
K p2
h2 ( s) G2 ( s)h1 ( s) G2 ( s)G1 ( s) q o ( s)
K p1
2 s 1 1s 1
q o ( s)
(100)
.
The block diagram representation of the system is shown in Figure 14.
q o ( s)
G1 ( s)
h1 ( s)
K p1
G2 ( s)
1s 1
h2 ( s)
K p2
(101)
2s 1
Figure 14. Block Diagram Representation of the Tank System in Series.
The relationship between the initial input to the final output is
K p1 K p 2
h2 ( s)
G1 ( s)G2 ( s)
1s 1 2 s 1
q o ( s)
(102)
It can be seen that for two non-interacting first order systems in series, the resulting overall
transfer function is second order. In general, for a system of n first order systems is series
shown in Figure 15, the overall transfer function is nth order as shown in the equation below.
Yn ( s)
G1 ( s)G2 ( s)...Gn1 ( s)Gn ( s)
X o ( s)
X o (s)
G1 ( s)
Y1 ( s)
G2 ( s )
Y2 ( s)
Yn2 ( s)
Gn1 ( s)
Figure 15. Block Diagram of n First Order Systems in Series.
7.2. Higher Order System

A. Second order systems
33
Yn1 ( s)
(103)
Gn (s)
Yn (s)
Second order systems are systems whose dynamics are governed by second order differential
equations. Although most of the systems especially those who are very complex have
dynamics that are higher than second order, the systems of order higher than two can be
transformed into a combination of first and second order systems. The overall response of the
higher order systems to changes in the input is the sum of all the first and second order
responses. Thus, it is very important to understand the dynamic behavior of the second order.
This program automatically generates the response of the second order system to step change
in the input. Second order characteristic parameters can be varied to see the effect of these
parameters to the response of the system. This can be used as the starting guide for process
control software development.
B. Physical systems modeled as second order

Examples of second order system:
a) Second order system resulting from interaction of two first order systems, i.e. two tanks in
series.
b) First order systems become second order if integral controller is added into the system.
c) Inherently second order systems are systems that cannot be decomposed into two first
order systems in series. Examples are simple manometers, externally mounted level
indicator, differential pressure transducers and pneumatic valve.
C. Response of the second order systems to various inputs

Second order systems are governed by the second order differential equation of the general
form
d2y
dy
2
y K p x(t )
2
dt
dt
2
(104)
Taking the Laplace transform of the differential equation, the transfer function of the second
order system is
G(s)
K
y (s)
2 2 P
x( s) s 2 s 1
(105)
Second order characteristic parameters

a) - time constant, determines the speed of the response
b) - damping factor determines the shape of the response.
c) Kp process gain determines the final value of the response
Response to Step Input of Second Order System
0
The step input function is given by x(t )
A
t0
,
t0
where A is the magnitude of step change. Taking the Laplace Transform, the input in the s
domain is
A
x( s )
(106)
s
34
The response of the system to step input is given by the equation

y ( s)
KP
A
s 2 s 1 s
2
(107)
Getting the inverse Laplace Transform of equation 107 yields the response in the time
domain.
There are three cases to be considered in taking the inverse Laplace transform of the second
order systems. The form of function depends upon the value of the damping factor. The
damping factor depends upon the roots of the characteristics polynomial of the second order
function
2 s 2 2 s 1 0
(108)
The two roots are given by the equation

p1
2 1
p2
2 1
(109)
The three forms of the response in time domain are

Case 1. > 1, overdamped response (two distinct real roots)
t
y (t ) AK p 1 e t / (cosh 2 1
sinh 2 1
2 1
(110)
Case 2. 1 critically damped (two equal roots)
t
y (t ) AK p 1 1 e t /

(111)
Case 3. < 1, underdamped response (two complex conjugate pair of roots)
1
y (t ) AK p 1
e t / sin t
1 2
1 2
1 2
tan 1
The response of the second order system to step change input is shown in Figure 16.
35
(112)
(113)
(114)
1.6
1.4
1.2
y(t)/AKp
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
t/
10
Figure 16. Effect of Varying the Damping Factor to the Response of a Second
Order System to Step Change in the Input.
Characteristics of Underdamped Second Order Step Response

There are some terms being used to describe the response of an underdamped system to step
changes in the input. In general these terms depend upon and . The definition of these
terms are given below with reference to Figure 17.
a. Overshoot. Overshoot is the measure of how much the response exceeds the ultimate value.
This is the ratio of the highest value attained by the response of the system to the steady value
after the step change. This is decreasing with the damping factor. This is calculated from the
formula
A
exp
B
1 2
(115)
b. Decay Ratio. Decay ratio is the ratio of the sizes of the successive peaks. This computed
using the formula
C
exp 2
A
A
1 2
B
(116)
This is also the square of the overshoot.

c. Rise time (tr). The rise time is the time required for the response to first reach its ultimate
value. This is increasing with increasing damping factor.
d. Response time. The response time is the time required for the response to come within 5
percent of its ultimate value. The limit 5 percent is arbitrary.
36
e. Period of oscillations (T). The period of oscillations is the time between two peaks. The
radian frequency (radians/time) is the coefficient of t in the sine term. It is related to and
by the formula,
1 2
(117)
Radian frequency is related to cyclical frequency f by the formula, 2f . Thus, cyclical

1
frequency is f
.
T 2
Cyclical frequency is related to the period of oscillations, and by the formula
1
1
T 2 2
1 2
(118)
f. Natural period of oscillations. If the damping factor approaches zero, the system oscillates
continuously without attenuation. The frequency for sustained oscillation is called the natural
1
frequency. This frequency is given by the formula n and the corresponding cyclical
frequency is f n
expression
1
1
. The natural frequency is related to the actual frequency by the
Tn 2
f
1 2 .
fn
1.6
Period, T
1.4
Response time
limit
A
1.2
y(t)/AKp
0.8
0.6
T
B
0.4
0.2
Response time
Rise time, Tr
0
10
Time (sec)
37
12
14
16
18
20
Figure 17. Characteristics of the Underdamped Response of a Second Order System.

1
0.9
0.8
f/fn
0.7
0.6
0.5
Overshoot
0.4
Decay
Ratio
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 18. Characteristics of a Step Response of an Underdamped Second-Order System.
The characteristics of the step response of an underdamped system are shown in Figure K18.
Impulse Response of Second Order System

The Laplace Transform of the response of the second order impulse change of magnitude A in
the input is given by the equation
AK P
(119)
y ( s) 2 2
s 2 s 1
As in the case of the step input, the nature of the response is dependent on the roots of the
characteristic equation, 2 s 2 2 s 1 0 . The problem is divided into three cases. The
response of the system in time domain for the three cases are shown as follows.
Case I: Overdamped impulse response, 1
1
1
y (t )
2 1
t
e t / sinh
2
Case II: Critically damped impulse response, 1

1
y (t ) 2 te t /
Case III: Underdamped impulse response, 1

1 2
1
1
y (t )
e t / sin

1 2
(120)
(121)
(122)
The response of the second order system to a unit impulse input function is shown in Fig 19.
38
0.2
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.4
y(t)/AKp
1.0
0.2
1.2
1.4
-0.2
-0.4
0
5
6
7
8
9
10
t/
Figure 19. Effect of the Damping Factor to the Response of a Second Order System to Impulse Change in the Input
Function.
Another way of deriving the response of the system to impulse change is by obtaining it from
the response of the system to the step changes. It can be shown that the transform of the
output to impulse response is related to the transform of the output to the step response by the
formula
y ( s) impulse sy (s) step
(123)
Using a theorem of Laplace transforms yields the relationship between the time domain
response of the system to the impulse change in the input and the time domain response of the
system to the step change in the input as shown in the equation
y(t ) impulse
d
y(t ) step
dt
(124)
Thus, the response of the system to impulse change is obtained from the first derivative of the
response of the system to step changes.
To summarize the nature of the response of the system to impulse change, it can be seen in
Figure 16 that the general behavior is the same as the step response curves except that the
impulse response always returns to zero while the step change response settled to a new
steady state value.
Sinusoidal Response of Second Order System
The sinusoidal input function is x(t ) A sin t and the Laplace tranform of the function is
A
x ( s) 2
. Applying this transform of the input to the equation y (s) G(s) x (s) , yields
s 2
the transform of the response of the second order system to sinusoidal change,
39
y ( s)
KP
A
2
2 2
s s 2 s 1
(125)
In order to inverse the function, it is necesssary to factor the two terms of the denominator.
y ( s)
AK p / 2
KP
( s i )(s i ) ( s s1 )(s s 2 )
(126)
Here s1 and s2 are the roots of the modified denominator of the second order transfer function
1
s 2 2 s 2 =0. For the case of underdamped system, the roots of the denominator are a
pair of pure imaginary roots ( i , i contirbuted by the sinusoiodal input function and a
pair of complex conjugate roots of the main transfer function
2
2

i 1 , i 1

(127)
The response of the system to the sinusoidal input can be written as
1 2
1 2
y (t ) C1 cos t C 2 sin t e t / C3 cos
t C 4 sin
(128)
The constants C1 to C4 can be obtained by partial fraction expansion. As t , the third

term will decay to zero and only the first two terms remain. The remaining terms are the
ultimate periodic response of the second order system
y(t ) t C1 cos t C2 sin t
(129)
Upon evaluating C1 and C2 and simplifying using trigonometric identitites, the response of the
second order system to a sinusoidal input function is ultimately sinusoidal and has the same
frequency as the input sinusoidal curve. The ultimate response of the system is given by
y (t )
A
[1 ( ) 2 ] 2 (2 ) 2
sin(t )
2
tan
1 ( ) 2
(130)
Figure 17 compares the response of the system to the input forcing function at differrent input
frequencies. If we compare the ultimate response of the system to the sinusoidal input
function, it can be seen that:
a) The ratio of the the output amplitude to the input amplitude is
1
[1 ( ) 2 ]2 (2 ) 2
(131)
This amplitude ratio may be less than or greater than 1 depending on the values of and .
It can be seen in Figure 20 that for sinusoidal input with frequency 0.25 , the amplitude
ratio is greater than 1 while for the input with frequency 0.75 , the amplitude ratio is
less than 1.
40
b) The output lags the input by phase angle . It can be shown later that approaches
180o assymtotically as the frequency approaches infinity. On the other hand, the phase lag
of the first order system can never exceed 90o.
Most systems are not truly second order but they exhibit similar step responses to second
order system, thus such systems are often approximated as second order in mathematical
analysis. Therefore, second order system is very important in control theory.
0.5
1 .25
2 .75
1.5
0.5
y(t)/AKp
-0.5
-1
Output 1
Input 1
-1.5
0
Input 2 Output 2
10
15
Time (sec)
Figure 20. Comparison of the Response of a Second Order System to Sinusoidal Input
Function at Various Radian Frequencies.
8. CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS
8.1. Introduction to Feedback Control Systems
This section covers the analysis and design of feedback controls systems. This closed loop
system represents the control schemes most commonly encountered in a chemical plant. The
emphasis of this section is in understanding the effects, which various feedback controllers
have on the response of controlled processes. This will also help the designer decides what is
the most appropriate controller selection.
A. Concepts of feedback control

Closed loop control systems are commonly called feedback control systems. The feedback is
the characteristic of the closed loop system, which distinguishes the closed loop system from
41
the open loop systems. The feedback of a closed loop system permits the output to be
compared with the input to the system so that appropriate action may be formed as some
function of the output and input.
Consider the generalized process shown in Figure 21. This system has an output y; a potential
disturbance d and a variable can be a potential manipulated variable.
disturbance, d
manipulated
variable, m
Process
output variable, y
Figure 21. Generalized Process System.
In this system the disturbance changes in an unpredictable manner and the control objective is
to keep the value of the output variable at desired level, which is the set point. A feedback
control system is installed and the generalized feedback control system is shown in Figure 22.
Controller mechanism
y sp
c
Controller
ym
Final
Control
Element
Process
Measuring
device
Figure 22. Generalized Feed Back Control
System.
The feedback control action takes the following steps:

a) Measures the value of the output using the appropriate measuring device.
b) Compares the measured value of the output ym to the desired setpoint value of the
output ysp. The error (deviation from the setpoint) y y m is computed.
c) The value of the deviation is supplied to the main controller. The controller in turn
changes the value of the manipulated variable m so that the error is reduced. The
controller decides the magnitude of control action. This control signal is fed to the
final control element, which adjusts the value of the manipulated variable. The
adjusted value of the input to the process changes the value of the output. The
magnitude and direction of change depends upon the value of the error fed to the main
controller.
B. Controller Systems
The basic hardware components of the control systems are:
a) Process: this is the material equipment along with the physical or chemical operations,
which takes places.
b) Measuring device or sensors: the device to measure the value of the output variable,
such as thermocouples (for temperature), bellows or diaphragms (for pressure), orifice
plate (for flow) and gas chromatograph (for concentration).
c) Transmission lines: used to carry the measurement signal from the sensor to the
controller and the control signal from the controller to the final control element. The
lines can be pneumatic or electrical.
42
d) Controller: this includes the function of the comparator. This is the unit that decides
the control action to be taken in order to reduce the error and make the output value
attain the setpoint value.
e) Final control element: this is usually a control valve or a variable speed-metering
pump. This device receives the control signal and physically adjusts the value of the
manipulated variable.
C. Types of Controllers
There are three basic types of feedback controllers: 1) proportional, 2) proportional-integral,
and 3) proportional-integral-derivative.
Proportional controller (P controller)
The control signal or the actuating output is proportional to the magnitude of the error:
c(t ) K c e(t ) cs
(132)
where c is the control signal, Kc = the proportional gain of the controller and cs = controller
bias signal. This is the signal from the controller if there is no deviation from the desired
output. This is to maintain the steady state operation of the system. The proportional
controller is characterized by the value of its proportional gain Kc or equivalently by this
proportional band PB. Proportional band PB = 100/Kc. The proportional band characterizes
the range over which the error must change in order to drive the actuating signal of the
controller over its full range.
The control signal at steady state, assuming the steady state error is zero, is given by
c() c s
Subtracting the steady state control signal to the actual actuating signal yield
c(t ) c(t ) c() c(t ) cs K c e(t )
(133)
(134)
For convenient let us drop the sign to denote the deviation variable.
Taking the Laplace Transform yields
c ( s) K c e ( s)
(135)
The transfer function of a proportional controller is
Gc ( s )
c ( s)
Kc
e ( s)
(136)
Proportional-Integral controller (PI controller)

This controller is commonly known as proportional-plus-reset controller. The control signal
or the actuating output is:
1 t
(137)
c(t ) K c e(t ) e(t )dt c s
0
where I is the integral time constant or reset time. This has usually a unit of minutes.
Converting the control signal to its deviation variable form yields
43
1
c(t ) c(t ) c s K c e(t )
I
e(t )dt
(138)
Taking Laplace Transform and dropping the for the deviation variable yields
1
c ( s) K c e ( s)
e ( s)
Is
(139)
The transfer function of the PI controller is
Gc ( s)
c ( s)
1
K c 1
e ( s)
s
I
(140)
The reset time I of the PI controller is an adjustable parameter and it is sometimes referred
as time per repeat. Some manufacturers calibrate their controller in terms of the reciprocal of
the reset time 1 . This is known as the reset rate.
The origin of the term reset can be explain as follows:

After a period of I minutes, the contribution of the integral term is
Kc
Kc
e(t )dt
e I
(141)
This means that the control action has repeated the response of the proportional action after
this period. This repetition takes place every I minute. This is the reason why this term is
called reset time.
Reset time is the time needed to repeat the initial proportional action change in its output.
The integral action causes the controller output c(t ) to change as long as an error exists in the
process output. Such controllers can eliminate even smaller errors.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller (PID controller)
This is also known as proportional-plus-reset-plus-rate controller.
Its actuating signal output is given by the equation
1
c(t ) K c e(t )
I
e(t )dt
0
de(t )
cs
dt
(142)
where D is the derivative time constant usually in minutes.

Applying the steady state conditions and converting the control signal c(t ) to its
corresponding deviation variable form yields
1
c(t ) c(t ) c s ) K c e(t )
I
e(t )dt D
de(t )
dt
Taking the Laplace Transform and dropping the for the deviation variables yields
44
(143)
1
c ( s) K c e ( s)
e ( s) D se ( s)
Is
(144)
Rearranging yields the transfer function of the PID
Gc ( s)
c ( s)
1
K c 1
D s
e ( s)
Is
(145)
The derivative control action is sometimes referred as anticipatory control because the
presence of the derivative term in the PID controller enables the controller to anticipate what
the error will be in the immediate future.
The major disadvantage of the derivative control action is that: 1) for a response with constant
non zero error it gives no control action since de dt 0 , and 2) for a noisy response with
almost zero error, it can compute large derivatives giving large control action although it is
not necessary.
8.2. Dynamic Behavior of Feedback Control Processes

In this section the response of the feed controlled system to changes in setpoint and
disturbances will be studied.
A. Closed Loop Response of the System

For the control system presented in Figure 22, the corresponding generalized block diagram
with its for components (process, measuring device, controller mechanism and final control
element) replaced by its corresponding transfer function relating its output to it input is shown
in Figure 23.
d (s)
Gd (s)
y sp (s)
(s)
Gc (s)
y m (s)
c(s)
G f (s)
m(s)
G p (s)
y(s)
Gm (s)
Figure 23. Block Diagram of Generalized Feed Back Control
System.
From Figure 23, we can get the corresponding output of the block from its input and transfer
function. In particular we can get:
For the process we can get:
y(s) GP (s)m(s) Gd (s)d (s)
For the measuring device:

45
(146)
ym (s) Gm (s) y(s)
(147)
For the controller mechanism:
(s) ySP (s) ym (s) from the comparator
(148)
c(s) GC (s)(s)
(149)
from the control action
Final control element:
m( s) G f ( s)c( s)
(150)
where GP , Gd , Gm , GC , and G f are the transfer functions between the corresponding inputs
and outputs.
Algebraic manipulations of the equation will yield
m(s) G f (s)c(s) G f (s)GC (s)(s)
(151)
but (s) ySP (s) ym (s)

so
m (s) G f (s)GC (s) y SP (s) y m (s)
(152)
Substituting ym (s) Gm (s) y(s) to the equation yields,
m (s) G f (s)GC (s) y SP (s) Gm (s) y(s)
(153)
Putting the last expression into y(s) GP (s)m(s) Gd (s)d (s) yields
y(s) G p (s){G f (s)GC (s) y SP (s) Gm (s) y(s) } Gd (s)d (s)
(154)
Simplifying further yields
y( s)
GP ( s)G f ( s)GC ( s)
1 GP ( s)G f ( s)GC ( s)Gm ( s)
y SP ( s)
Gd ( s)
d ( s)
1 GP ( s)G f ( s)GC ( s)Gm ( s)
(155)
This is the closed loop response of the process. The first terms show the effect on the output
of a change in the setpoint while the second terms constitutes the effect on the output of a
change in the disturbances (load).
From this equation we get
GP G f GC
1 GP G f GC Gm
G
GSP
1 GGm
the transfer function relating the output variable to the set point and
46
(156)
Gd
Gd
Gload
1 GP G f GC Gm 1 GGm
(157)
the transfer function relating output to the load.

It is easy to get the closed loop transfer function relating the desired input and the
corresponding output from the block diagram. For example, to get the relationship between
the output and the setpoint we can trace a path from the setpoint to the output. This path is
referred to as the forward path as shown in Figure 24. Then we trace a path around the
feedback loop; this is referred to as the feedback loop path. To get the forward path transfer
function, multiply all the transfer functions that the line passed through. This is also the
process to get the feedback loop path transfer function. Referring to the Figure 24, the forward
path transfer function for setpoint changes effect on the output is
Forward path transfer function = Gc (s)G f (s)G p (s)
(158)
and the feedback loop path transfer function is

Feedback loop path transfer function = Gc (s)G f (s)G p (s)Gm (s)
(159)
The transfer function relating the setpoint to the output is

Forward path transfer function
1 + Feedback loop path transfer function
(160)
Putting the corresponding transfer function to this formula yields the transfer function relating
the output to the setpoint
GP G f GC
y ( s)
G
GSP
y sp ( s) 1 GP G f GC Gm 1 GGm
(161)
We can also get the relationship between the output and the disturbance using the same
process.
The forward path transfer function for disturbance is Gd (s) , and the feedback loop path
transfer function is the same as above. Therefore the transfer function relating the output to
the disturbance using the formula presented above is
Gd
Gd
y ( s)
Gload
d ( s) 1 GP G f GC Gm 1 GGm
(162)
Forward path for

load changes
Gd (s)
Forward path for setpoint changes

y sp (s)
(s)
Gc (s)
y m (s)
c(s)
G f (s)
m(s)
G p (s)
Feedback loop path
Gm (s)
Figure 24. Forward Path and Feedback Loop Path.
47
y(s)
B. Types of Control Problems

From the derivations in the previous section, we can simplify the closed loop block diagram
using the two overall transfer function GS P and Gload as shown in Figure 25.
d (s)
Gload (s)
y s p (s)
GSP (s)
y (s)
Figure 25. Simplified Closed Loop Block Diagram.
The simplified overall transfer function of this system is
y(s) GSP (s) y SP (s) Gload (s)d (s)
(163)
For every feedback control system we can distinguish two types of control system problems:
the servo problem and the regulator problem. This will be discussed below:
Servo Problem
In servo problem the disturbance does not change while the setpoint changes. The feedback
controller acts in such a way that the output y will follow the changing setpoint ysp as close as
possible. For this problem the relationship between the setpoint and the output is given by
y(s) GSP (s) y SP (s)
(164)
GSP (s) is the overall servo transfer function.
Regulator Problem
In this problem the set point remains the same while the load changes. The feedback
controller suppresses the error caused by changing disturbances and forcing the value of the
output back to the desired setpoint level. In this case the relationship between the disturbance
and the output is
y (s) Gload (s)d (s)
(165)
Gload (s) is the overall regulator transfer function.
C. Effect of proportional control on the response of a controlled process

We are now going to examine the effect of proportional controller on the output of the system.
Let us first consider a first order system then the second order system. To simplify the
analysis we assume that the final control element transfer function G f (s) and measuring
device transfer function Gm (s) are both unity.
First order system
For a first order system with disturbance the following equation apply
48
dy
y K pm Kd d
dt
(166)
the transform of the system is given by

y( s)
Kd
KP
m( s)
d ( s)
P s 1
P s 1
(167)
The simplified block diagram of the system is shown in Figure 26.
d(s)
Gd ( s )
ysp(s)
G p (s)
Gc ( s) K c
Kd
ps 1
Kp
y(s)
ps 1
Figure 26. Simplified Block Diagram of the System.
For the uncontrolled system we got the original time constant p , and original static gains Kp
for the manipulated variable and Kd for the disturbance.
The close loop response of the system is
y ( s)
Gc G p
1 Gc G p
y s p ( s)
Gd
d ( s)
1 Gc G p
(168)
Putting the expressions for the transfer function yields
y( s)
K P Kc
Kd
y SP ( s)
d ( s)
p s 1 K p Kc
p s 1 K p Kc
(169)
Rearranging yields
where
'P
K 'P
K 'd
y ( s) '
y ( s) '
d ( s)
P s 1 SP
P s 1
(170)
1 K P KC
K P KC
K 'P
1 K P KC
Kd
K 'd
1 K P KC
The parameters Kp and Kd are called closed loop static gains.
Let us consider a unit step change in the set point and examine the resulting closed loop
responses. For a unit step change in the set point with constant load (servo problem), we get
the expression for the output
y( s)
49
K 'P 1
'P s 1 s
(171)
After inversion we obtain
y(t ) K ' p (1 e
t ' p
(172)
As time approaches infinity, the new steady state value approaches y() K ' p . For a unit
step change in the setpoint, the desired steady state value for the output is y() y sp () 1.
We noticed that there is an offset, which is equal to
offset
= (new set point)-(ultimate value of the response)

K p Kc
1
= 1 K' p = 1
1 K p Kc 1 K p K c
(173)
The offset is characteristic effect of a proportional controller. This can be minimized by

increasing the value of K c . As K c approaches infinity the offset will approach zero.
For unit step change in load (regulator problem) we get
y( s)
K 'd 1
'Ps 1 s
(174)
After inversion yields
y(t ) K ' d (1 e
The ultimate value of the response is
t ' p
(175)
y() K ' d .
Applying the equation for the offset, with setpoint for regulator problem equals 0, we get
Offset = 0 K ' d 0
Kd
Kd
1 K p Kc 1 K p K c
(176)
It can be seen that the offset will approach zero when K c approaches infinity.
The effect of increasing Kc on the closed loop response of the system is shown in Figure 27.
The effects of the proportional controller on the response of a first order system are:
a) The system remains first order with respect to load and set point changes.
b) The time constant has reduced ( ' p p ) indicating that the closed loop response is
faster than the uncontrolled system.
c) The static gains decreased.
d) There is an offset for both regulator and servo problems.
e) Although generally the offset approaches zero as the controller gain is increased,
extremely large values of the gain cannot be used for proportional control especially
for higher order system due to problems of instability.
50
1
0.9
0.8
Offset
0.7
Increasing Kc
0.6
y(t) 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Time (sec)
Figure 27. Effect of Increasing the Controller Gain Kc on the Closed Loop Response
of the First Order System.
Second Order System

In the analysis of the second order system, only the servo problem is considered since the
regulator problem behaves almost identically with servo problem using the same controller
mode.
The transfer function of a second order process is given by
y( s)
K 'P
G( s)
2 2
'
y SP ( s) ( ) s 2 s 1
(177)
The simplified block diagram for the closed loop system is shown in Figure 28.
ysp(s)
Gc ( s) K c
G p ( s)
Kp
y(s)
p 2 s 2 2 s 1
Figure 28. Simplified Closed Loop Block Diagram for the

Second Order System.
The overall servo transfer function for this system is
Gcl
Gc G p
y ( s)
y sp ( s) 1 Gc G p
(178)
Putting in the expression of the transfer functions and simplifying yields,
y( s)
where
'
K 'P
y SP ( s)
( ' ) 2 s 2 2 ' ' s 1
1 K P KC
51
(179)
'
K 'P
1 K P KC
K P KC
1 K P Kc
Let us consider a unit step change in the set point, then the transform of the output becomes
y( s)
K 'P
1
' 2 2
'
( ) s 2 ' s 1 s
(180)
Applying final value theorem of Laplace Transforms
y (t ) lim s 0 [ sy ( s)] K ' p
K p Kc
(181)
1 K p Kc
Applying the equation for offset with new set pint equals 1 for servo problem with unit step
change in the setpoint yields
offset = 1
K p Kc
(182)
K p Kc
As the controller gain approaches infinity the offset approaches zero.

From the expressions for the closed loop parameters the following characteristics can be
observed:
a. The system remains second order.
b. The static gain decreases.
c. Both the period and damping factor are decreasing implying that even an overdamped
process with proportional controller and appropriate Kc value, the process becomes
underdamped and oscillatory.
d. There is an offset, this can be minimized by increasing the controller gain. However
extremely large controller gain may decrease the damping factor causing the response
to oscillate.
1.6
Kp 1
Kc = 41
1.4
1
p 1
1.2
y(t)
0.8
0.6
Increasing Kc
0.4
Kc = 1
0.2
Time (sec)
Figure 29. Effect of Increasing Kc on the Closed Loop Response of

Controlled Second Order System.
52
D. Effect of Integral control on the response of a controlled process

In this section, the effect of integral action on the closed loop response of the system will be
evaluated. The same analysis procedures done in the preceding section will be repeated except
that we limit our discussion to first order systems and for servo problem only. The simplified
block diagram of the process is shown in Figure 30.
ysp(s)
Kc
Gc
Is
G p ( s)
Kp
y(s)
ps 1
Figure 30. Simplified Closed Loop Block Diagram for the First
Order System Controlled by Integral Controller System.
For the servo problem, the expression for the output is
GP G f GC
y( s)
y SP ( s)
(183)
1 GP G f GC Gm
To simplify the system, both measuring device and final control element transfer functions are
taken as unity. Putting the expression for the transfer functions into the output equations
yields
K P
1
K c
s
I
y ( s) P
y SP ( s )
(184)
K P
1
K C
s
I
P
Upon simplifying, the equation becomes

y(s)
1
y SP ( s)
s 2 s 1
2
(185)
where
I P
K P KC
I
1
2 P K P KC
It can be seen that for first order uncontrolled process, the response of the closed loop
becomes second order. Since the order is increased the response will be slower compared to
the original system. Thus, integral action alone tends to make the response of the control
system slower.
Let us consider a unit step change in the set point for the integral controlled system at hand.
The equation for the output becomes
y ( s)
1
1
s 2 s 1 s
2
Applying final value theorem yields,
53
(186)
y(t ) lim s 0 s y ( s) lim s 0 2 2

1
s 2 s 1
(187)
The offset with new set point of 1 is

offset = 1-1 = 0.
This is the most important characteristic effect of integral action. The integral action
eliminates any offset of the system.
The graphs of the effect of controller gain on the response of the first order system controlled
by integral controller are shown in Figure 31. It can be seen that the offset is eliminated even
at moderately low values of Kc unlike in the proportional controller where in offset still occurs
even if the Kc s very large.
Figure 32 shows the effect of the integral time constant on the closed loop response of the first
order system controlled by integral controller. It can be seen that increasing the time constant
makes the response slower.
1.5
Kp 1
Kc = 5
p 1
I 1
y
(
t 0.5
)
Kc = 4
Kc = 3
Kc = 2
Kc = 1
10
12
Time (sec)
Figure 31. Effect of Change the Controller Gain Kc on the Closed Loop Response of the
First Order System Controlled by Integral Controller.
1.4
1.2
Kp 1
0.8
Kc 1
y(t)
p 1
0.6
Increasing
I 1
0.4
0.2
10
12
14
16
18
20
Time (sec)
Figure 32. Effect of Change of the Integral Time Constant

the First Order System Controlled by Integral Controller.
54
on the Closed Loop Response of
E. Effect of derivative control action

First order system
The block diagram of a first order system controlled by derivative control action only is
shown in Figure 33. For simplicity, both the valve and measuring element transfer function
were taken as unity.
ysp(s)
G p ( s)
Gc K c d s
y(s)
Kp
ps 1
Figure K 33. Simplified Closed Loop Block Diagram for the First Order System
Controlled by Derivative Controller System.
The closed loop response of a first order system with derivative action is
KP
K C D s
P s 1
y( s)
y SP ( s)
KP
1
K C D s
P s 1
(188)
Simplifying yields
y( s)
K P K C D s
y ( s)
P K P K C D s 1 SP
(189)
From these equations, we can observe the following effects of the derivative action on the
closed loop response of a first order system:
a) The order of the response remains the same.
b) The effective time constant of the closed lop response is larger than the original
uncontrolled system. This implies that the derivative control action slows down the
response of the process. Increasing the value of Kc further make the response slower.
Second order system
The block diagram of a second order system controlled by derivative control action only is
shown in Figure 34. For simplicity, both the valve and measuring element transfer function
were taken as unity.
ysp(s)
Gc K c d s
G p ( s)
Kp
y(s)
p 2 s 2 2 1
Figure 34. Simplified Closed Loop Block Diagram for the Second Order System Controlled
by Derivative Controller System.
The closed loop response of a second order system with derivative action is
y( s)
K P K C D s
y SP ( s)
s 2 K P K C D s 1
2 2
(190)
From this equation, the following effects of the derivative action on the closed loop response
of a second order system can be observed:
55
a) The natural period of the closed loop response is the same as the period of the
uncontrolled response.
b) The effective damping factor is larger than the original damping factor. This implies
that the closed loop response is more damped. Increasing the Kc further increases the
damping factor. This increased damping factor produces a more robust response.
c) The derivative control adds more robustness and stability to the system. This
advantage is offset by a slower closed loop response.
F. Effect of combined control on the response of a controlled process

Effect of proportional-integral control
These are the effects on the behavior of the closed loop response of a PI controlled system to
the combined proportional and integral control action:
a) The order of the closed loop response increases due to the effect of integral action.
b) The offset is eliminated by the action of integral mode
c) As Kc increases, the closed loop response becomes faster. This is the effect of
combined proportional and integral modes. However due to the effect of the integral
action, the response is more oscillatory. Larger value of proportional gain Kc creates a
very sensitive response that may result in instability.
Effect of proportional-integral-derivative control
PID controlled system has all the general characteristics and dynamic behavior as the PI
controlled system. The advantage of adding the derivative mode is the added stability of the
system. In PID controlled system, the proportional action generally determines the speed of
the response, the integral mode eliminates the offset and the derivative mode suppresses
oscillation and produces stability. Proportional control alone has a problem of offset, to
eliminate the offset integral mode is necessary. However, the integral action increases the
order of the system causing slower closed loop response. Increasing the value of the
proportional gain will increase the speed. However, increasing the gain to make the response
faster decreases the damping factor and may lead to oscillations and eventually instability.
This problem can be solved by adding the derivative action. Derivative action increases the
damping factor, thus the gain can be increased to make the response faster with out the danger
of oscillation and instability. The combined effect of the PID modes leads to a faster and more
robust closed loop response.
9. STABILITY OF CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS

9.1. The concept of stability
Definition of stability. A system is stable if the output response is bounded for all bounded
input. Otherwise the system is unstable.
A bounded input is an input whose steady state value approaches a finite value as time
approaches infinity. Examples of bounded inputs are step input, sinusoidal input with
decaying amplitude, impulse input and exponential decay equation input. Examples of
unbounded input are the ramp input, sinusoidal input with increasing amplitude and
exponential growth equation input.
An example of bounded input function is
56
F (t ) e at (c1 sin wt c2 cos wt )
with a 0 .
The graph of the function is shown in Figure 35. If a 0 this function is unbounded and the
graph of the input is shown in Figure 36.
an
dny
d n1 y
dy
a
... a1
ao y KF (t )
n 1
n
n 1
dt
dt
dt
(191)
The solution of this differential equation depends upon the nature of the characteristic
equation, which can be obtained from the left hand side of the equation, and the nature of the
forcing function F (t ) .
Bounded Input
Unounded Input
1.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
F(t)
F(t)
1
0.5
0
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
10
15
20
25
10
t
t
Consider a linear system
defined by a differential equation
Figure 35
Figure
36 the characteristics
For bounded input, the stability of the response of the system depends
upon
solution y c . This characteristic solution depends upon the roots of the characteristic equation
an m n an1m n1 ... a1m ao 0 .
For the equation with n finite and distinct roots, the characteristics solution
yc c1e r1t c2 e r2t ..cn e rn1t .
(192)
(193)
For the equation with repeated roots r the characteristic solution is

yc e rt (c1 c2 t ....cn t n1 )
(194)
If the set of roots contains a least one pair of complex roots r a bi the characteristic
equation will have the form
yc e at (c1 sin bt c2 cos bt ) y3 y 4 .. y n
(195)
where y n are linearly independent functions representing the remaining roots. These
functions are either of the form of equation (193) or (194) depending upon the nature of the
remaining roots.
The response of the system depends upon signs of the roots. If at least one root is positive, the
term represented by this root will be infinity as time approaches infinity. This root will cause
unbounded response even for bounded input, thus the system is unstable. For a pair of
complex roots, the sinusoidal response will have a decreasing amplitude if the sign of the real
part is negative otherwise the amplitude will be increasing.
57
In general, the system will be stable if all the roots of the characteristic equation lie on the left
hand side of the imaginary plane. The region on the imagery plane where the roots are stable
is shown in Figure 37. If at least one root lies on the right hand side of the imaginary plane,
then the system is unstable. Examples of stable roots r 1 2i , r 3 these roots lie on the
left hand side of Figure 38. Examples of unstable roots are r 1 i and r 4 , they lie on the
right hand side of the imaginary plane as shown in Figure 38.
Imaginary Axis
Stable roots
Imaginary Axis
Real Axis
2
1
0
-4
-2
-1
-2
-3
Real Axis
Figure 37
Figure 38
9.1.2 Stability Analysis in the s Domain

Consider the differential equation describing the system in Equation (191). Suppose the initial
conditions are
y ( n1) (0) y ( n2) (0) y ( n3) (0) ..... y' (0) y(0) 0
(196 )
the transfer function of the of the system will be

G( s)
y ( s)
K
n
F ( s) a n s a n1 s n1 ..a1 s ao
(197)
an s n an1 s n1 ..a1 s ao 0
(198)
Equation 198 is of the same form to the characteristic equation shown in Equation (192), thus
the denominator of the transfer function of the system can be taken as the characteristic
equation of the system.
Stability of the closed loop response
Consider the standard block diagram of a feedback control system
Gd (s)
y sp (s )
(s )
Gc (s)
c(s )
y m (s )
G f (s)
m(s )
G p (s)
Gm (s)
Figure 39. Block Diagram of Generalized Feed Back Control System.
With the following transfer functions;

58
y (s )
1
2s 1
1
(199) Gm
s 1
Gc K c
G p Gv
(198 ) Gv
1
2s 1
(200)
(201)
It can be shown that the closed-loop system produces unstable responses if Kc is too large.
The closed loop transfer function for set-point changes is
Gservo
Gc G f G p
y ( s)
d ( s ) 1 Gc G f G p G m
(202)
1
substituting with y sp s , step four
s
K c ( s 1)
1
y s .
3
s 10s 17 s 2 2s 1 K c
(203)
If Kc is specified, y t can be determined from the inverse Laplace transform with the roots
of the polynomial by partial fractions. With this procedure, the response may be plotted for
various Kc as shown in Figure 40.
Step Response
3
2.5
Kc = 15
Kc = 6
1.5
y(t)
1
0.5
0
Kc = 2
-0.5
-1
-1.5
10
12
14
16
18
20
time
Figure 40
For disturbance changes
Gregulator
Gd
y ( s)
d ( s ) 1 Gc G f G p G m
(204)
Take note that the denominator of the servo and regulator transfer functions are the same.
This function is called the characteristic equation of the system
1 Gc G f G p Gm 0
(205)
The roots of this characteristics equation determine the stability of the system. As discussed
above, of the roots of this equation determines the stability of the system. If all roots of this
equation lie on the left hand side of the imaginary plane, then the system is stable. Otherwise,
if at least one root lies on the right hand side of the imaginary plane then the system is
unstable,
59
The Characteristic Equation

For the block diagram shown:
Gc G f G p
1 GOL
y sp
Gd
d
1 GOS
(206)
where GOL GC G f G p Gm (open loop)

For a set point change,
Gc G f G p
y
y sp
1 GOL
and for disturbance changes
Gd
y
d 1 GOL
(207)
(208)
Simplifying the set point change equation and factoring into poles ( Pi ) and zeroes ( Z i )
s z1 s z 2 ....s z m
y
K'
s pi s p2 ....s pm
y sp
(209)
'
where K is a constant to give correct steady state gain.

Comparing the equations, the poles are the roots of the equation
1 GOL 0
(210)
which is the characteristic equation of the closed loop system.

For a unit change in set point, y sp s
1
S
K ' s z1 s z 2 ....s z m
.
s s pi s p 2 ....s p m
(211)
if there are no repeated roots, then the response is
A0
An
A1
A2
.......
s s p1 s p 2
s pn
Taking the inverse Laplace transform
y s
yt A0 A1e P1t A2 e P2t ...... An e Pnt
(212)
(213)
If one of the poles is a positive real number, Pn 0, then C (t ) is unbounded thus the close
loop system is unstable.
If Pk is a complex number, Pk ak jbk with a k 0, the system is unstable.
General stability Criterion A feedback control system is stable if and only if all roots of the
characteristic equation are negative or have negative real parts. Otherwise the system is
unstable.
60
9.2 Methods of Determining Stability of Linear Control Systems

The methods outlined below are frequently used for the stabilities studies of linear timeinvariant systems.
9.2.1 Routh Test for Stability

The characteristics equation 1 GOL 0 , can be simplified and expressed into the standard
form of the characteristic equation
an s n an1 s n1 .... a1 s a0 0
(214)
with a n 0.
A necessary (but not sufficient) conditions for stability is that an, an-1,..ao must be positive.
If any coefficient is negative or zero, the system is unstable.
If all coefficients are positive, construct the Routh Array to determine if the system is stable.
Row
1
2
3
4
.
.
n+1
where:
an1an2 an an3
,
an1
b a an1b2
c1 1 n3
,
b1
b1
an
an-1
b1
c1
.
.
z1
an-2 a-4 ..
an-3 an-5 .
b2 b3 ..
c2 ..
an1an2 an an3
an1
b a an1b3
c 2 1 n 3
b1
b2
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion A necessary and sufficient condition for all roots of the
characteristic equation to have negative real parts is that all the elements in the leftmost
column of the Routh Array are positive.
If any of the elements of the first column is negative, then there is at least one root to the right
of the imaginary axis. The number of sign changes in the elements of the first column is equal
to the number of roots in the right side of the imaginary axis.
Characteristics of Routh Array
1) There are n+1 rows in the Routh Array.
2) The elements in the n-1 th row determine the value of the gain that will give a root that
will lie on the imaginary axis. This will be discussed in the next section.
3) The Routh stability criterion is valid only if the characteristic equation is algebraic and
all the coefficients are real, if any one of the coefficients of the characteristic equation
is a complex number or if the equation contains exponential function of s, such as the
case of a system with time delays, this criterion cannot be applied.
4) Routh Criterion is generally used only to determine the absolute stability of the
61
system; no information on relative stability can be obtained.
9.2.2 Root Locus Method

The root locus plot represents a diagram of loci of the characteristic equation roots when a
certain system parameter varies. When the root loci lie on the right half of the imaginary
plane, the system is unstable.
Concept of Root Locus
The root locus method is graphical procedure for finding the roots of the equation 1 G 0 if
one of the parameters of G varies.
Consider the characteristic equation of a closed loop system:
k
0 or (s 1)(s 2)(s 3) k 0
( s 1)( s 2)( s 3)
or
(215)
(216)
s 3 6s 2 11s (k 6) 0
For every k value, there is a corresponding set of 3 roots of the characteristic polynomial. If
we vary the value of k from zero to infinity, we can obtain 3 loci of roots when plotted on the
imaginary plane. In the example above, if we vary the value of k from 0 to 60 increment of 5,
we can obtain the roots of the characteristic equation for every k value as shown in Table 1.
Plotting all these points in the imaginary plane yields the root locus in Figure 41
Table 1
K
Root 1
Root 2
Root 3
-3
-2
-1
-3.9042
-1.0479 - 1.3112i
-1.0479 + 1.3112i
10
-4.3089
-0.8455 - 1.7316i
-0.8455 + 1.7316i
15
-4.6012
-0.6994 - 2.0186i
-0.6994 + 2.0186i
20
-4.8371
-0.5814 - 2.2443i
-0.5814 + 2.2443i
25
-5.038
-0.4810 - 2.4335i
-0.4810 + 2.4335i
30
-5.2145
-0.3928 - 2.5980i
-0.3928 + 2.5980i
35
-5.3729
-0.3135 - 2.7445i
-0.3135 + 2.7445i
40
-5.5174
-0.2413 - 2.8773i
-0.2413 + 2.8773i
45
-5.6506
-0.1747 - 2.9992i
-0.1747 + 2.9992i
50
-5.774
-0.1128 - 3.1121i
-0.1128 + 3.1121i
55
-5.8906
-0.0547 - 3.2175i
-0.0547 + 3.2175i
60
-6
-0.0000 - 3.3166i
-0.0000 + 3.3166i
62
Imaginary axis
Locus of 2nd root
3
2
1
st
Locus of 1 root
0
-7
-5
-3
-1
-1
-2
Locus of 2nd root
-3
-4
Real axis
Figure 41
Plotting the root locus Diagram
Standard form of the open loop transfer function

GOL Gc G f G p Gm k
N
D
(217)
The overall open loop transfer function can be written in terms of the numerator part N(s) and
denominator part D(s).
The characteristic equation is
1 GOL 0 or k
N
1
D
(218)
This can be written as kN D . If k = 0, then the characteristic polynomial becomes 0 D

or D 0 . That is, the roots of the characteristic equation are the roots of the denominator of
the open loop transfer function. The roots of the denominator of the overall open loop transfer
function are called the poles of the system. Therefore, the root locus starts at the open loop
poles when k = 0.
If k = , the characteristic equation can be written as
N
D
k
(219)
Since k approaches infinity, the right hand portion will vanish to zero and the characteristic
polynomial will become. N 0 . This means that at k equals infinity, the roots of the
characteristic equation are the roots of the numerator of the overall open loop transfer
function. The roots of the numeration of the open loop transfer function are called the zeroes
of the system. We can deduce that the root locus ends at the open loop zeroes when k
approaches infinity.
In terms of poles and zeroes the characteristic equation of the set can be written as
63
( s z1 )(s z 2 ).......(s z m )
1 .
( s p1 )(s p 2 )......(s p n )
(220)
The left hand size of the equation is generally complex. This equation can be written in terms
of magnitude and phase angle of the individual term.
s z1 s z 2 ........ s z m
s p1 s p 2 ........ s p n
(221)
(s z1 ) (s z 2 )...... (s z n ) (s p1 ) (s p2 )....... (s pn ) (2i 1)
where i is any integer or zero. The two equations above are called the magnitude and angle
criterion.
Suppose a system has an open loop transfer function
k ( s z1 )
N
D ( s p1 )(s p 2 )
(222)
Assume the s c is point on the imaginary plane lying on the root locus, this point is part of the
root locus if it follows the magnitude and angle criteria.
The point s c and the zeroes and poles of the system are plotted in Figure 42.
j
sc
sc z1
o 1
sc p1
sc p2 2
p1
z1
p2
Figure 42. Use of the angle criterion to establish the root locus.
The point s c lies on the root locus if the angle criterion,
1 1 2 (2i 1)
(223)
is followed for some value of i. The value of K corresponding to this point can be solved
using the magnitude criterion,
K sc z1
sc p1 s c p 2
(224)
Solving for K yields
sc p1 sc p 2
sc z1
Rules for Plotting Root Locus Diagrams for Negative Feedback

64
(225)
For the system with open loop transfer function
( s z1 )(s z 2 ).......(s z m )
1
( s p1 )(s p 2 )......(s p n )
(226)
the following rules will be used to plot the root locus of the system.
Rule 1 The number of loci or branches is equal to the number of open loop poles, n.
Rule 2 The root loci begin at open loop poles and terminate at open loop zeros. The
termination of ( n m ) of the loci will occur at the zeros at infinity along the asymptotes. For
qth order pole q loci emerge from it and for qth order zero, q loci terminate on it.
Rule 3 Locus on real axis. The real axis is part of the root locus when the sum of the number
of poles and zeroes to the right of a point on the real axis is odd. A qth order pole (or zero)
must be counted q times in applying this rule.
Rule 4 Asymptotes. There are n m loci that approach asymptotically n m straight lines,
radiating from the center of gravity of the poles and zeroes of the open loop transfer function.
The center of asymptotes is given by
n
p z
j 1
i 1
(227)
nm
The asymptotic lines make angles of (2k 1) /( n m) with the real axis, with k = 0,1,2..nm-1.
Rule 5 Breakaway point. The point at which two root loci, emerging from adjacent poles on
the real axis, intersect and then leave the real axis. This point is determined by the solution of
the equation
m
n
1
1
i 1 s z i
j 1 s p i
(228)
If a pair of complex poles pi ai jbi add to the right side of the equation
2( s ai )
( s ai ) 2 bi
(229)
Rule 6 Angle of Departure or Approach. There are q loci emerging from each qth order open
loop pole at angles determined by
m
n
1
2k 1 p a z i p a p j
q
i 1
j 1
j a
k 0, 1, 2,.......q 1
where p a is a particular pole of order q.

These loci will approach their particular zeroes at
65
(230)
n
m
1
2k 1 z b p j z b z i
v
i 1
i 1
i b
k 0, 1, 2,.......v 1
(231)
where z b is a particular pole of order v.
10. INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS

How to read P&IDs
Dave Harrold, senior editor
Discussion about the acceptability of combining
safety and process control functions in a common
system has heated up recently. Much of the public
debate, however, isn't fueled by end-users, but by
suppliers of traditional, multi-modular redundant
systems who have a vested interest in their
technologies. Some vendors have targeted the enduser community with fear tactics insinuating that
your plant will not be "as safe" when combining
control and safety onto a single, robust platform.
Instrumentation detail varies with the degree of
design complexity. For example, simplified or
conceptual designs, often called process flow
diagrams, provide less detail than fully developed
piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs).
Being able to understand instrumentation symbols
appearing on diagrams means understanding
ANSI/ISA's S5.1-1984 (R 1992) Instrumentation symbols and identification standard. S5.1
that defines how each symbol is constructed using graphical elements, alpha and numeric
identification codes, abbreviations, function blocks, and connecting lines.
Deciphering symbols
ISA S5.1 defines four graphical elements-discrete instruments, shared control/display,
computer function, and programmable logic controller-and groups them into three location
categories (primary location, auxiliary location, and field mounted).
Discrete instruments are indicated by circular elements. Shared control/display elements are
circles surrounded by a square. Computer functions are indicted by a hexagon and
programmable logic controller (PLC) functions are shown as a triangle inside a square.
Adding a single horizontal bar across any of the four graphical elements indicates the function
resides in the primary location category. A double line indicates an auxiliary location, and no
line places the device or function in the field. Devices located behind a panel-board in some
other inaccessible location are shown with a dashed horizontal line
66
Letter and number combinations appear inside each graphical element and letter combinations
are defined by the ISA standard. Numbers are user assigned and schemes vary with some
companies use of sequential numbering, others tie the instrument number to the process line
number, and still others adopt unique and sometimes unusual numbering systems.
The first letter defines the measured or initiating variables such as Analysis (A), Flow (F),
Temperature (T), etc. with succeeding letters defining readout, passive, or output functions
such as Indicator (I), Record (R), Transmit (T), and so forth.
Example shows the story
Referring to the Example P&ID diagram, FT 101 represents a field-mounted flow transmitter
connected via electrical signals (dotted line) to flow indicating controller FIC 101 located in a
shared control/display device. A square root extraction of the input signal is applied as part of
FIC 101's functionality. The output of FIC 101 is an electrical signal to TY 101 located in an
inaccessible or behind-the-panel-board location. The output signal from TY 101 is a
pneumatic signal (line with double forward slash marks) making TY 101 an I/P (current to
pneumatic transducer). TT 101 and TIC 101 are similar to FT 101 and FIC 101 but are
measuring, indicating, and controlling temperature. TIC 101's output is connected via an
internal software or data link (line with bubbles) to the setpoint (SP) of FIC 101 to form a
cascade control strategy.
Often P&ID's include a cover page where common and typical terms, symbols, numbering
systems, etc., are defined. On the example, Typical YIC would likely appear on the cover
page and the simplified form of YIC would appear throughout the P&IDs.
Typical YIC indicates an on/off valve is controlled by a solenoid valve and is fitted with limit
switches to indicate open (ZSH) and closed (ZSL) positions. All inputs and outputs are wired
to a PLC that's accessible to the operator (diamond in a square with a solid horizontal line).
The letter 'Y' indicates an event, state, or presence. The letter 'I' depicts indication is provided,
and the letter 'C' means control takes place in this device.
Adherence to ISA's S5.1 Instrumentation Symbols and Identification standard ensures a
consistent, system independent means of communicating instrumentation, control, and
automation intent is developed for everyone to understand.
General instrument or function symbols
Primary location
accessible to
operator
Field mounted
Auxiliary location
accessible to
operator
Discrete
instruments
Shared display,
shared control
Computer
function
Programmible
logic control
1. Symbol size may vary according to the user's needs and the type of document.
2. Abbreviations of the user's choice may be used when necessary to specify location.
67
3. Inaccessible (behind the panel) devices may be depicted using the same symbol but with a
dashed horizontal bar.
Source: Control Engineering with data from ISA S5.1 standard
Identification letters
First letter
Measured or
initiating variable
Succeeding letters
Modifier
Readout or
passive function
A Analysis
Alarm
B Burner, combustion
User's choice
C User's choice
D User's choice
User's choice
Sensor (primary
element)
Ration
(fraction)
Glass, viewing
device
H Hand
High
Current (electrical)
Indication
J Power
Scan
K Time, time schedule
Time rate of
change
L Level
M User's choice
Control station
Light
Middle,
intermediate
User's choice
O User's choice
Orifice, restriction
P Pressure, vacuum
Point (test
connection)
Safety
Switch
Transmit
U Multivariable
Multifunction
Vibration,
mechanical analysis
Multifunction
Well
X axis
Unclassified
Unclassified
Event, state, or
presence
Y axis
Relay, compute,
convert
Z Position, dimension
Z axis
Driver, actuator
Multifunction
Valve, damper,
louver
W Weight, force
X Unclassified
User's choice
Record
T Temperature
User's choice
Integrate,
totalizer
R Radiation
S Speed, frequency
Low
Momentary
N User's choice
Q Quantity
User's choice
Differential
G User's choice
Modifier
Control
E Voltage
F Flow rate
Output function
68
Unclassified
Common connecting lines

Connection to process, or instrument
supply:
Pneumatic signal:
Electric signal:
Capillary tubing (filled system):
Hydraulic signal:
Electromagnetic or sonic signal (guided):
Internal system link (software or data link):
To understand instrumentation symbols appearing on process diagrams means understanding

ANSI/ISAs S5.1-1984 (R 1992) Instrumentation symbols and identification standard.
Indicator
Ratio
Elemen Elemen Transmitte Indicato
Controlle
Recorde
Process
controlle
Controlle
t
Type
t
r
r
r
r
Measuremen
r
r
t
Code
E
T
I
IC
C
FC
R
Analysis
AE
AT
AI
AIC
AC
AFC
AR
Conductivity
CE
CT
CI
CIC
CC
CFC
CR
Density
DE
DT
DI
DIC
DC
DFC
DR
Voltage
EE
ET
EI
EIC
EC
EFC
ER
Flow
FE
FT
FI
FIC
FC
FFC
FR
Dimension
GE
GT
GI
GIC
GC
GFC
GR
Hand
HE
HT
HI
HIC
HC
HFC
HR
Current
IE
IT
II
IIC
IC
IFC
IR
Time
KE
KT
KI
KIC
KC
KFC
KR
Level
LE
LT
LI
LIC
LC
LFC
LR
Humidity
ME
MT
MI
MIC
MC
MFC
MR
Power
NE
NT
NI
NIC
NC
NFC
NR
Pressure
PE
PT
PI
PIC
PC
PFC
PR
Delta
Pressure
dP
dPE
dPT
dPI
dPIC
dPC
dPFC
dPR
Quantity
QE
QT
OI
OIC
QC
QFC
QR
Radioactivit
y
RE
RT
RI
RIC
RC
RFC
RR
Speed
SE
ST
SI
SIC
SC
SFC
SR
Temperature
TE
TT
TI
TIC
TC
TFC
TR
Delta
Temperature
dT
dTE
dTT
dTI
dTIC
dTC
dTFC
dTR
69
Viscosity
VE
VT
VI
VIC
VC
VFC
VR
Weight
WE
WT
WI
WIC
WC
WFC
WR
Vibration
YE
YT
YI
YIC
YC
YFC
YR
Position
ZE
ZT
ZI
ZIC
ZC
ZFC
ZR
Process
Measurement
Element Hand Hand

Indicating Solenoid
Control
Totalizer
Calculation
Type Switch Valve
Totalizer Valve
Valve
Code
HS
HV
IQ
XV
Analysis
AHS
AHV
AQ
AIQ
AXV
AY
AV
Conductivity
CHS
CHV
CQ
CIQ
CXV
CY
CV
Density
DHS
DHV
DQ
DIQ
DXV
DY
DV
Voltage
EHS
EHV
EQ
EIQ
EXV
EY
EV
Flow
FHS
FHV
FQ
FIQ
FXV
FY
FV
Dimension
GHS
GHV
GQ
GIQ
GXV
GY
GV
Hand
HHS
HHV
HQ
HIQ
HXV
HY
HV
Current
IHS
IHV
IQ
IIQ
IXV
IY
IV
Time
KHS
KHV
KQ
KIQ
KXV
KY
KV
Level
LHS
LHV
LQ
LIQ
LXV
LY
LV
Humidity
MHS
MHV
MQ
MIQ
MXV
MY
MV
Power
NHS
NHV
NQ
NIQ
NXV
NY
NV
Pressure
PHS
PHV
PQ
PIQ
PXV
PY
PV
Delta
Pressure
dP
dPHS dPHV
dPQ
dPIQ
dPXV
dPY
dPV
Quantity
QHS
QHV
QQ
QIQ
QXV
QY
QV
Radioactivity
RHS
RHV
RQ
RIQ
RXV
RY
RV
Speed
SHS
SHV
SQ
SIQ
SXV
SY
SV
Temperature
THS
THV
TQ
TIQ
TXV
TY
TV
Delta
Temperature
dT
dTHS dTHV
dTQ
dTIQ
dTXV
dTY
dTV
Viscosity
VHS
VHV
VQ
VIQ
VXV
VY
VV
Weight
WHS WHV
WQ
WIQ
WXV
WY
WV
Vibration
YHS
YHV
YQ
YIQ
YXV
YY
YV
Position
ZHS
ZHV
ZQ
ZIQ
ZXV
ZY
ZV
Process
Measurement
Element
Ratio
Switch Switch Alarm
Type Calculation Low
High
Low
Alarm
Low
Low
Alarm
High
Alarm
High
High
Code
FY
SL
SH
AL
ALL
AH
AHH
Analysis
AFY
ASL
ASH
AAL
AALL
AAH
AAHH
Conductivity
CFY
CSL
CSH
CAL
CALL
CAH
CAHH
Density
DFY
DSL
DSH
DAL
DALL
DAH
DAHH
70
Voltage
EFY
ESL
ESH
EAL
EALL
EAH
EAHH
Flow
FFY
FSL
FSH
FAL
FALL
FAH
FAHH
Dimension
GFY
GSL
GSH
GAL
GALL
GAH
GAHH
Hand
HFY
HSL
HSH
HAL
HALL
HAH
HAHH
Current
IFY
ISL
ISH
IAL
IALL
IAH
IAHH
Time
KFY
KSL
KSH
KAL
KALL
KAH
KAHH
Level
LFY
LSL
LSH
LAL
LALL
LAH
LAHH
Humidity
MFY
MSL
MSH
MAL
MALL
MAH
MAHH
Power
NFY
NSL
NSH
NAL
NALL
NAH
NAHH
Pressure
PFY
PSL
PSH
PAL
PALL
PAH
PAHH
Delta Pressure
dP
dPFY
dPSL
dPSH
dPAL
dPALL dPAH dPAHH
Quantity
QFY
QSL
QSH
QAL
QALL
QAH
QAHH
Radioactivity
RFY
RSL
RSH
RAL
RALL
RAH
RAHH
Speed
SFY
SSL
SSH
SAL
SALL
SAH
SAHH
Temperature
TFY
TSL
TSH
TAL
TALL
TAH
TAHH
Delta
Temperature
dT
dTFY
dTSL
dTSH
dTAL dTALL dTAH dTAHH
Viscosity
VFY
VSL
VSH
VAL
VALL
VAH
VAHH
Weight
WFY
WSL
WSH
WAL
WALL
WAH
WAHH
Vibration
YFY
YSL
YSH
YAL
YALL
YAH
YAHH
Position
ZFY
ZSL
ZSH
ZAL
ZALL
ZAH
ZAHH
Qualitative Plantwide Control System Synthesis

The design of a plantwide control system should be driven by the objectives of the overall
process rather than by consideration of the individual processing units. The bottom-up
approach, the process is divided into subsystems, with each subsystem often comprised of
several process units that share a common processing goal. A control system is formulated for
each subsystem, relying on the qualitative guidelines or the quantitative analysis. An
integrated is synthesized by eliminating possible conflicts among the subsystems. The main
disadvantage of this bottom-up approach is that good solutions at the subsystem not satisfy
the process objectives. The qualitative design procedure:
1. Establish the control objectives
2. Determine the control degrees of freedom
3. Establish the energy management system
4. Set the production rate
5. Control the product quality and handle safety, environmental, and operational
6. Fix a flow rate in every recycle loop and control vapor and liquid inventories (vessel
pressures and levels)
7. Check component balances
8. Control the individual process units
9. Optimize economics and improve dynamics controllability.
71

Process Dyanmics and Control

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Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

1. INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL

What?: application of instruments devices that measure and display

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

1.1. Basic Aspects of a Control System

B. What are the objectives and incentives in using a control system?

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

1.2. Objectives of a Control System

1.3. Design Aspect of Process Control

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

Figure 2. Distillation Setup

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

Figure 3. Interaction happening in a control system.

C. Types of Control Systems

Figure 4. Functional Block Diagram

Figure 5. Physical Arrangement

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

Figure 6. Functional Block Diagram of Closed Loop Control System

D. Hardware Elements of a Control System

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

2. Measuring instrument or sensors measures the value of the output variable

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

1.4. Control System Engineering Problem

1.5. Statement of Control Problem

Solving Control Problems Generally Involves

1.6. Analog and Digital Control Systems

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

A signal dependent on a continuum of values of the independent variable t is called a

1.7. Control System Models or Representations

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

4.1. Introduction to Modeling

C. Modeling for Control Purposes

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

where f = degrees of freedom

Assume Tr 0 (reference temperature)

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

Simplifying the equation

Number of Equations, E=2

D. Formulating the Scope of Modeling for Process Control

4.2. Linearization of a Function

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

Linearization is a process by which we approximate non-linear systems with linear ones.

A. Linearization of Functions with Single Dependent Variable

Expanding into Taylor Series around the point X o ,

Neglecting terms of order two and higher

Process Dynamics and Control

Compiled by Mary Rose F. Persincula

B. Linearization of Systems with Many Variables

Expanding the non-linear functions f1 ( X 1 , X 2 ) and f 2 ( X 1 , X 2 ) into Taylor series around