Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Petroleum systems of the Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel*
ECOPETROL, Instituto Colombiano del Petroleo (ICP), km 7 Autopista Piedecuesta, Bucaramanga AA P.B.X. 4185, Colombia
Received 17 March 2003; received in revised form 10 November 2003; accepted 20 November 2003

Abstract
In the Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia, four petroleum systems were identified. Two petroleum systems are located in the
Girardot sub-basin and the other two in the Neiva sub-basin. Limestones laterally changing to shales of the lower part of the Villeta
Gp, deposited during Albian and Turonian marine flooding events, constitutes the main source rocks of the oil families. These rocks
contain 1 4% TOC and type II kerogen. The littoral quartz arenites of the Caballos (Albian) and Monserrate (Maastrichtian) Fms.
are the main reservoir rocks. Seal rocks are Cretaceous and Paleocene shales. Overburden includes the Cretaceous rocks and the
Tertiary molasse deposited simultaneously with development of two opposite verging thrust systems during Cenozoic time. These
deformation events were responsible for trap creation. Except for the Villarrica area, where the source rock reached maturity during
the Paleocene, generation occurred during Miocene. Two oil families are identified, each in both sub-basins: One derived from a
clay-rich source and the second from a carbonate-rich source rock lithofacies of the lower part of Villeta Gp. Geochemical sourcerock to oil correlations are demonstrated for the three of the petroleum systems. Up-dip lateral migration distances are relatively short
and faults served as vertical migration pathways. A huge amount of oil was probably degraded at surface, as a result of Miocene
deformation and erosion.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Petroleum systems; Upper Magdalena Valley; Colombia; Petroleum source rock; Oil families

1. Introduction
The Upper Magdalena Valley (UMV) is a narrow
intermontane basin located along the southern upstream
portion of the Magdalena River Valley, between the Central
and Eastern Cordilleras of the Colombian Andes. Precambrian to Jurassic igneous and metamorphic rocks and locally
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks crop out on the Central and
Eastern Cordilleras on both sides of the basin. The
Natagaima structural high, where Triassic and Jurassic
economic basement rocks crop out, divides the UMV into
the northern Girardot sub-basin and the southern Neiva
subbasin (Fig. 1).
The UMV contains a number of commercial accumulations of oil and gas. Between 1962 and 1982 several
oil fields were discovered just north of Neiva in the
uppermost Cretaceous Monserrate Fm. Beginning in 1984
oil was discovered along the Dina-San Jacinto fault in
the Aptian-Albian Caballos Fm. By 1994 542.1 MMbbl
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 57-674-01-49; fax: 57-644-5444.
E-mail address: arangel@ecopetrol.com (A. Rangel).
0264-8172/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2003.11.019

of recoverable oil and 91.9 BCF of gas had been

discovered in more than 30 accumulations and
287.5 MMbbl of oil had been produced. A total of 191
exploration wells and more than 300 appraisal and
development wells have been drilled in the basin. In
spite of the basinss petroliferous character, the existing
knowledge about the petroleum systems in this basin is
minimal.
Buitrago (1994) defined two petroleum systems in the
southern Neiva subbasin, both related to the same source
rock of the Villeta Gp. Ecopetrol-Icp (1994) and Cordoba
(1998) have also proposed petroleum systems schemes for
the UMV.
This paper (1) Describes the sedimentary record of the
UMV making emphasis on the sedimentary processes
controlling distribution and quality of the petroleum system
elements. (2) Discusses a geochemical approach for source
rock-oil correlation. (3) Identifies and describes the
petroleum systems of the UMV applying concepts and
terminology discussed by Magoon (1992) and Magoon and
Dow (1994).

374

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

Fig. 1. Location map of the Upper Magdalena Valley (UMV), Colombia.

2. History of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic sedimentary

and deformation processes as controlling mechanisms
for petroleum elements distribution and quality
Triassic and Jurassic sedimentation and volcanism occur
in a narrow rift, which define economic basement rock
(Mojica & Bayer, 1987; Mojica & Dorado, 1987).
The Aptian to Paleocene sedimentary rocks constitute a
major dominantly marine megasequence (Fig. 2). This
megasequence includes a lower transgressive part that
records the onset of continental deposition (Yav and
Alpujarra Fms.), and transition to marine environments
(El Ocal and Caballos fms.). A medial portion recorded a
dominantly muddy to limy oxygen deficient marine shelf
deposition (Villeta Gp.), and an upper regressive and
progradational part recorded by the change from marine to
continental environments (Monserrate and Guaduala Fms.,
Etayo-Serna 1994).
The Aptian Paleocene megasequence was formed by five
major sequences (Fig. 2). The source rocks and the main
reservoir rocks are part of this megasequence.
Sequence 1. Aptian-Lower? to Middle? Albian (Fig. 2).
After a period of non-deposition represented by the JurassicAptian unconformity, Aptian sedimentation started with
gravels and red muds of the Yav Fm deposited as alluvial
fans coming from the elevated borders of rift grabens. Then
the quartzitic sands of the Alpujarra Fm. (Reservoir rock)
were deposited by a fluvial system on a valley along the

central part of the basin (Etayo Serna, 1994; Florez &

Carrillo, 1994). Dark gray mudstones of the overlying El
Ocal Fm. (Source rock) recorded a southward marine
transgression, which reached its maximum flooding surface
(MFS) at the beginning of Albian time during deposition of
organic rich muds (average TOC from 0.5 to 2%) containing
mixed marine and continental organic matter.
Sequence 2. Middle Albian-Cenomanian (Fig. 2). A local
unconformity exists at the bottom of the Caballos Fm.
(Etayo-Serna, 1994, Fig. 2) and was probably caused by a
slight tectonic uplift of the area. This sequence begins with
quartzitic sandstone of the Caballos Fm. (Reservoir rock)
interpreted as fluvial influenced littoral, beach or deltaic
deposits (Etayo-Serna, 1994; Florez & Carrillo, 1994).
Succeeding black shale and limestone facies of the Villeta
Gp. (seal rock) record marine deposition on a shelf. This
recorded a new marine flooding event, which was more
intense toward the north. Maximum water depth was deeper
than normal weather wave base. Maximum flooding of the
shelf was reached during deposition of planktonic derived
fine-grained limestones and organic rich muds (TOC 1 4%)
of the Tetuan Limestone (Source rock). The upper part of
the sequence, transitional from Tetuan Limestone to
Bambuca Shale, records deposition in shallower water and
an increase of coastal influence with increasing detrital clay
input from the land and bioclastic lime beds deposited
during storms.
Sequence 3. Cenomanian-late Coniacian (Fig. 2). This
sequence is represented in its lower part by the transition
from gray shale (proximal shelf facies of the Bambuca
Shale) to black fine-grained pelagic limestone (distal shelf
facies of the La Luna Limestone) as a deepening upward
trend. The La Luna Limestone (source rock) records water
deepening during the end of Cenomanian and beginning of
Turonian. During deposition of La Luna Limestone (Iateral
equivalent of La Luna Fm.), the Cretaceous maximum
marine flooding event (MFS) occurred over an area
extending from Venezuela to Peru (Fabre, 1985). This
planktonic derived micritic limestone unit contains abundant marine organic matter (Type II kerogen, average TOC 1
to 4%, Fig. 3a and b). After the maximum flooding event
there was a water shallowing and a decrease of distance
from the coastline, evident from a relative increase of fine
grained detrital sediment during deposition of the uppermost part of the Villeta Gp. From middle Turonian to late
Coniacian this gradual progradation and shallowing upward
is interpreted to be related to a relative tectono-eustatic sea
level fall (Villamil, 1994).
Sequence 4. late Coniacian-earliest Campanian (Fig. 2).
During the late Coniacian to Santonian the transition from
the uppermost Villeta Gp., deposited in an inner shelf, to the
lower chert unit of the Olini Gp, deposited on a deeper
middle shelf (Jaramillo & Yepez, 1994; Ramirez &
Ramirez, 1994), points to a deepening of the basin and a
relative tectono-eustatic level rise (cf Etayo-Serna, 1994).
Maximum flooding was reached during deposition of

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

Fig. 2. Generalized stratigraphic column of the UMV (modified after Geotec, 1994 and Etayo-Serna, 1994).

375

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L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

Fig. 3. (a). Lithofacies distribution of Tetuan Limestone and the La Luna Limestone (lower part of Villeta Gp.). (b). TOC l, HI and Tmax of the lower part of
Villeta Gp. (includes Tetuan Limestone, Bambuca Shale and Luna Limestone).

the lower chert unit of the Olini Gp. During Santonian to

earliest Campanian, regression and progradation was
recorded by the middle shale unit of the Olini Gp,
Sequence 5. Earliest Campanian-Maastrichtian (Fig. 2).
The lower sequence boundary occurs at the base of the
middle shale unit of the Olini Gp. and the shallow water El
Cobre sandstones described by Barrio and Coffield (1992)
and Villamil (1994). The upper part of the sequence
represented by the Monserrate and La Tabla fms. (Reservoir
rock) records depositional environments shallowing from
marine shelf to beach, and a progradation of the coast line as
indicated by a coarsening upward deposits from terrigenous
silt to quartz sand in the upper part of the sequence.
The Guaduala Fm. mudstones (seal rock) record sea

withdrawal, and then paralic and fluvial sedimentation.

(Diaz Poveda, 1994a,b; Ramirez & Ramirez, 1994;
Etayo-Serna, 1994; Rodriguez & Castro, l994).
The Cenozoic sedimentary record forms the third
megasequence, its understanding is important because it
recorded (1) sedimentary and tectonic burial responsible
for petroleum generation and (2) deformation events
responsible for petroleum traps. Its lower boundary is a
regional unconformity, which represents an Early Eocene
hiatus (Fig. 2), probably caused by an uplift of the basinal
area. During this time in some places (e.g. Natagaima
high, Fig. 1) Cretaceous and Paleocene sediments were
totally or partially eroded (cf. Anderson, 1972; Caicedo &
Roncancio, 1994). Erosion of uplifted fault blocks

Table 1
Petroleum systems elements and oil reserves in the Upper Magdalena Valley
Main source rock

Oil family

Main reservoir rock

Seal

Trap

Oil field

Reservoir rock

Villeta-Tertiary
Girardot Sub-basin

Lower Villeta

Oil Family I

HondaMonserrate

Tertiary
Claystones

Estructural

Toqui-Toqui
Pul

Doima
Monserrate

Pacande
Totare

Caballos
Honda

Chenche
Ortega-Tetuan

Monserrate
Caballos

Toy
Toldado
Quimbaya
Pauta
Ro Saldana
Purificacion
Montanuelo
Olini
Monserrate
Revancha
Venganza

Caballos
Caballos
Caballos
Caballos
Caballos
Monserrate
Monserrate
Caballos
Monserrate
Monserrate
Monserrate

Balcon-Colombia
Hatonuevo-Loma Larga

Caballos
Caballos

Tenay
San Francisco
Andaluca

Caballos
Caballos
Honda

Dina Terciario
Dina Cretacico

Honda
Monserrate

Cebu
Pijao
Tello
Palogrande
Brisas
Gigante
Los Mangos-Yaguara
La Canada
La Jagua
Santa Clara
Santa Clara Sur
Rio Ceibas

Monserrate
Monserrate
Monserrate
Monserrate
Monserrate
Monserrate
Caballos
Monserrate
Honda
Caballos
Caballos
Honda

Villeta-Caballos
Girardot Sub-basin

Villeta-Caballos
Neiva Sub-basin

Villeta-Monserrate
Neiva Sub-basin (4)

Lower Villeta

Lower Villeta

Lower Villeta

Subtotal
Oil Family II

Subtotal
Oil Family I

Subtotal
Oil Family II

Caballos

Monserrate

Villeta Fm.

Villeta Fm.

Guaduala Fm.

Estructural

Estructural

Estructural

Reserves
(MMbbl)

Oil produced
(MMbbl)

29.0
29.0

5.8
5.8

1.0
0.0

6.0
29.0
93.0
5.0
155.1

1.2
0.6
13.4
1.0
31.2

0.4
0.2
1.6

38.1
50.0
17.0
9.0
27.9
57.0
28.0
5.0
1.0
14.0
51.0
458.1
44.0
6.8

7.6
10.0
3.4
0.3
2.1
11.4
5.6
1.0
0.2
5.0
9.0
87.8
8.8
3.0

20.1
0.9
1.9

20.0
675.0
80.0
825.8
182.5
125.0

5.1
135.0
11.4
163.3
36.0
48.5

5.3
65.7
8.3
82.1
33.1
40.8

126.0
18.0
230.0
214.5
28.2
175.0
100.0
12.2
2.0
11.8
5.0
42.5
1272.7
2649.6

25.0
5.0
46.0
42.9
7.0
35.0
17.5
2.4
0.4
4.6
1.0
8.5
279.8
544.3

7.4
4.9
51.5
30.2
6.1

12.3

0.2
3.8
0.3
0.0
0.0
1.6
1.9
0.0

6.2
1.3
0.4
3.1
0.0
0.1
185.1
288.9

377

Subtotal
Total

Caballos

Oil in situ
(MMbbl)

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

Petroleum system
and sub-basin

378

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

and anticline crests occurred during structural deformation

starting at the end of the Cretaceous and increasing during
Early Eocene.
The Cenozoic megasequence of the UMV was deposited
in dominantly continental environments. Two thrust and fold
systems are present in the UMV (Butler & Schamel, 1988):
the Central Cordillera system, with eastward tectonic
transport active during Eocene to Oligocene time, and the
Eastern Cordillera system, with westward tectonic transport
active during the Miocene (Butler & Schamel, 1988). During
the Eocene to Oligocene the basin has been interpreted as a
foreland with sediments derived from uplifted and deformed
thrust fault blocks of the paleo-Central Cordillera (Cooper
et al., 1995). However, there is evidence of local deformation
and uplift in the area of the Eastern Cordillera since the
Paleogene (Gomez, 2001; Sarmiento-Rojas, 2001). During
the Miocene, sediments were derived from uplifted thrust
blocks of both the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, and basin
became intermontane (Sarmiento-Rojas, 2001).

3. Petroleum systems of the Upper Magdalena Valley

3.1. Petroleum source rock
The Villeta Gp. contains two main source rock stratigraphic intervals responsible for most of the commercial oil
found in the UMV (Fig. 2, Tables 1 and 2). A minor amount
of oil could have been generated by the EI Ocal Fm. and
possibly from some Lower Cretaceous stratigraphic intervals in the northeastern part of the basin (evident in the
Suarez1 and Villarrica1 wells).
Strata deposited during maximum marine flooding events
of the lower part of Villeta Gp. have oil-generating potential.
The lower part of Villeta Gp. is 305 518 m (1000 1700 ft

gross thickness) thick. The main source rock intervals within

the lower Villeta Gp. are the Tetuan Limestone and the La
Luna Limestone, which are, respectively, 135 and 100 m
thick. They contain on average of 1 4% TOC, and its
hydrogen index varies between 100 and 650 mg HC/gC. with
most values exceding 200 mg. HC/gC. They contain mixed
kerogen with a predominance of algal marine organic matter
over terrigenous organic matter. Maximum TOC and
hydrogen index values occur in the distal calcareous pelagic
rocks of the western part of the area (Figs. 3b and 4).
Lithofacies maps of Tetuan Limestone and La Luna
Limestone (Fig. 3a) are similar, they show a predominance of
pelagic micritic limestone (western distal shelf facies) and
some detrital clays recording sediment input from an
eastward detrital source area (eastern proximal shelf facies).
Near to the San Francisco1 well there is a clayrich lobe
probably pro-deltaic in origin and in the northwest part of the
Girardot sub-basin a smaller clay or sand rich lobe recording
turbiditie deposition. TOC and hydrogen index maps
(Fig. 3b) of the lower part of the Villeta Gp. resemble
paleogeography indicated on the lithofacies maps (Fig. 3a):
Toward the northwest planktonic derived carbonates are
present with abundant organic matter, TOC values (between
1 and 4%). Hydrogen index values increases in this direction
reflecting that the distal pelagic part of the basin is
characterized by oxygen deficient condition at the sea floor
(distal shelf facies, cf. Sarmiento Rojas, 1989). Eastward
there is a decrease of organic matter richness, hydrogen index
and planktonic carbonate and a relative increase of clay
detritus input suggesting: proximity to a littoral zone
shallowing water and more oxygen at the sea bottom
probably due to bottom and surface water mixing produced
by storms (proximal shelf facies; cf. Etayo-Serna, 1994;
Sarmiento-Rojas, l989). In conclusion, strata deposited
during maximum flooding events within the lower part of

Table 2
Average source rock data for Lower Villeta Formation (Tetuan and The La Luna Limestone)
Petroleum system

Main source rock

Studied well

Average TOC
(%)

Average Tmax
(8C)

Average HI
(mgHC/gC)

Average S1
(mgHC/gR)

Average S2
(mgHC/gR)

Villeta-Tertiary
Girardot Sub-basin

Lower Villeta

Villeta-Caballos
Girardot Sub-basin

Lower Villeta

Villeta-Caballos
Neiva Sub-basin
Villeta-Monserrate
Neiva Sub-basin

Lower Villeta

Rosita-1
Pacande-1
Suarez-1
Chenche-1
Toy-1
Toldado-1
Pauto-1
Olini-1
Boreal-1
Tolima-1
Coyaima-1
Balcon-1
San Francisco-1
Los Mangos-1
Nilo-1
Santa Clara Sur-1
Tarqui-1

2.2
3.1
1.8
1.6
3.1
3.0
3.2
3.7
3.2
2.9
3.5
2.5
2.1
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.2

429
424
465
426
416
421
418
419
424
420
427
428
425
425
432
430
432

374
531
100
495
652
547
538
563
441
566
581
437
419
434
436
392
200

0.73
0.99
1.10
0.62
1.42
1.56
1.54
1.27
0.67
0.60
1.72
0.85
0.77
0.51
0.49
0.28
0.15

8.4
16.6
2.0
8.1
20.4
16.5
17.4
20.6
13.9
16.0
20.2
10.9
8.7
9.0
8.6
7.4
2.5

Lower Villeta

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

379

Fig. 4. Pyrolysis geochemical well profiles Coyaima-1 well modified from Ecopetrol-Icp (2000).

Villeta Gp. (Tetuan Limestone and La Luna Limestone) are

rich in marine organic matter (kerogen type II.). In the UMV,
organic rich strata tend to be deposited close to maximum
flooding events (e.g. Curiale, 1992; Pasley et al., 1991).
3.2. Crude oil geochemistry
Seventy oil samples from different reservoirs of the basin
(Table 3), were characterized. The API gravity of these oils
ranges from 19.1 to 36.48, the heavier of them showing
partial removal of n-alkanes and isoprenoids but absence or
scarce presence of 25-norhopane (norhopane/hopane ratio
, 0.05), indicative of moderate biodegradation, generally
toward the western part of the basin.
The sulfur varies from 0.31 to 2.81%. The sulfur content
is commonly used to support oil oil correlation. According
to Peters and Moldowan (1993), many high sulfur kerogen
and oils originate from clay poor marine rocks (e.g.
carbonates) deposited under highly reducing conditions.
Conversely in marine siliclastics rock, metals may outcompete organic matter for reduced sulfur, leading to lowsulfur kerogen and oil.
Certain biomarker ratios of UMV oils are characteristic of
VSM oils (Table 3). For example, hopanes predominate over
tricyclic terpanes, signifying according to Ourisson et al.
(1982) an important bacterial input on the kerogen. The
gammacerane/C30 hopane ratios reach values up to 0.25,

indicating a marine-saline depositional environment (Moldowan et al., 1985). Oleanane, an Upper Cretaceous/Tertiary
indicator derived from upper plants (Peters & Moldowan,
1993; Ten Haven et al., 1988), is present in very low
concentration (oleanane/hopane ratio less than 0.02). The
C34/C35 hopane ratios are higher than 0.5 and the diasterane/
regular sterane ratios lower than 1.25. Both biomarker ratio
values indicate a depositional environment with carbonate
input/and anoxic conditions (Peters and Moldowan, 1991;
Mello et al., 1988; Peters and Moldowan, 1993).
3.2.1. Oil families
An approach to the grouping of oils was achieved by
statistical methods of hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA),
crossplots (Fig. 5), GC fingerprint, hopane and sterane
fragmentograms (Fig. 6). The HCA dendogram was
constructed using source related biomarker ratio averages
converted to indexes (Table 2). According to the cluster
analyses (Fig. 5a), two oil families were identified. The oil
Family I constituted by the oils from the Andaluca-1,
Balcon-1, Providencia-1, Hato Nuevo-1, Pacande-1, Totare7 and San Francisco 114 wells; and the oil Family II
composed by the oils from the Chenche-1, Purificacion-2,
Dina K-15, La Jagua-1, Toldado-1, Santa Clara-1, Dina T12, Los Mangos-1, La Canada-6 and Gigante-1 wells and
the oil seep La Canada. Fig. 5b shows the oil family II as

380

Table 3
Bulk geochemical parameters and some biomarker ratios and indexes for oils
Interval

Formation

GammaOleanane/
C35/C35 C23Tricyclic/ C29S/S C29aa/aa C25
8API
Sulphur Pristane/ Diasterane/ Tm/Tm C28BisnorNorhopane/
hopane/
C23Tri C30 R
bb
Olea C30 cerane/Gam C34
gravity (%)
Phytane Esterane
Ts
C30Hopane
C28Bis C30 Hopane
C30
Hopanes Hopane
Hopane
Hopane

Andaluca-34
Balcon-1
Hato Nuevo-1
Pacande-1
Providencia-1

1806-1829
9631-9716
6204-6691
5930-6490
5380-5700

33
33.7
36.4
27.9
28

0.38
0.34
0.31
0.86
0.42

2.4
1.7
2.19
1.17
1.66

1.12
1.25
1.06
1.18
0.91

0.64
0.01
0.42
0.52
0.44

0.03
0.03
0.02
0.08
0.02

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02

0.10
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.10

0.36
0.36
0.33
0.40
0.30

0.21
0.25
0.17
0.29
0.28

0.33
0.37
0.32
0.39
0.3

0.32
0.31
0.34
0.36
0.35

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01

San Francisco
114
Totare-7
Chenche-1
Dina K-15
Dina T-12
Gigante-1
La Canada-6
La Jagua-1
Los Mangos-1
Man Bloque
Colombia
Man Hda El
Darien
Man La Canada
Man San
Francisco
Purificacion-2
Santa Clara-1
Toldado-1

1835-1845

Doima
Caballos
Caballos
Villeta
VilletaCaballos
Tetuan

26.6

0.51

1.63

0.81

0.49

0.03

0.01

0.09

0.34

0.23

nd

nd

0.01

5262-5320
2500-3000
Oil seep

Honda
Doima
Monserrate
Honda
Monserrate
Caballos
Honda
Caballos
Caballos

21.9
32.1
21.3
20.3
23.5
21
21.2
21
nd

0.83
0.75
1.07
1.8
1.32
2.22
0.82
1.89
2.55

1.59
1.16
1.17
1.2
1.36
1.1
1.7
1.1
Biode.

1.21
0.41
0.6
0.55
nd
0.59
0.68
0.45
nd

0.49
0.55
0.58
0.62
0.59
0.66
0.58
0.65
0.57

0.07
0.15
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.13
0.03
0.09
0.15

0.02
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.06

0.07
0.14
0.11
0.12
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.06

0.38
0.43
0.43
0.44
0.46
0.45
0.41
0.46
0.49

0.32
0.29
0.31
0.42
0.46
0.46
0.30
0.40
0.48

0.39
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.36
0.3
0.31
0.26
nd

0.32
0.29
0.31
0.31
0.35
0.32
0.3
0.3
nd

0.04
0.03
0.05
0.05
nd
nd
nd
0.04
nd

Oil seep

nd

nd

2.51

Biode.

nd

0.59

0.08

0.02

0.05

0.45

0.57

nd

nd

nd

Oil seep
Oil seep

Bas-Villeta nd
Villeta Ir.
nd

1.57
0.98

Biode.
Biode.

0.72
nd

0.49
0.52

0.07
0.03

0.01
0.01

0.20
0.09

0.39
0.40

0.25
0.29

0.3
0.32

0.25
0.27

nd
nd

Guadalupe
Caballos
Caballos

0.63
1.43
2.81

1.25
1.5
1.39

0.36
0.68
0.74

0.57
0.55
0.68

0.15
0.04
0.11

0.03
0.03
0.01

0.15
0.14
0.07

0.40
0.32
0.45

0.34
0.28
0.32

0.31
0.32
0.33

0.28
0.31
0.33

nd
0.02
0.01

4557-4678
6000-6405
1890-2568
13140-13306

2714-2747
5360-5789
nd: no data

34.2
19.1
17.4

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

Well/seepage

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

381

Fig. 5. Crude oil geochemistry. (a) Cluster analysis for oil families based on biomarker indicators of depositional environment, (b) Oiloil correlation based on
indicators of depositional environment. (c) Oil-source rock correlation based on indicators of depositional environment. (d) Oil to source rock correlation based
on maturity parameters.

derived from a source rock deposited in more marine-anoxic

conditions than the oil Family I.
Oil Family I is characterized by a higher pristane/phytane
ratio (1.17 to 2.4), lower content of sulfur (0.31 0.83%),
relatively more abundant diasteranes (diasteranes/steranes
ratio from 0.81 to 1.25), presence of diahopane and low
C29/C30 hopane ratio. This oil family originated from a
source rock largely argillaceous with some minor carbonate,
deposited in a dysoxic marine environment. Crude oils of
this family are located on areas where source rock intervals
of the Villeta Gp. are clay-rich (Figs. 3 and 7).
Oil Family II has a rather lower pristane/phytane ratio
(less than 1.7), higher content of sulfur (0.63 2.81%),
relatively lower diasteranes/steranes ratio (0.41 0.74),
higher steranes/hopane ratios and more amounts of
gammacerane and bisnorhopane than oil Family I. These
features suggest an origin from a more calcareous source
rock than oil Family I, deposited in anoxic marine
environment.

the lithological character of the source rock, the type of

kerogen and the interpreted depositional environment. A
good match is not observed between the data from La Luna
unit bitumens and the identified oil families (Fig. 5c).
Regarding the maturity deduced from sterane isomerization (Fig. 5d), the bitumens from La Luna and Tetuan rock
units have not reached the peak of oil generation (Fig. 5d).
However, it is important to point out that five samples from
the Tetuan unit show the same maturity level as the oils
indicating good correlation in terms of maturity rank. The
oils in general appear to be moderately mature, indicating a
possible correlation with early mature source rock.
Tetuan unit extracts from the Rosita-1 and Balcon-1
wells correlate with oil family I (Fig. 5c), and show the same
maturity level of these oils (Fig. 5d). Tetuan unit extract
from the Nilo-1 well correlates with oil family II (Fig. 5c)
and shows a maturity level close to that of the oils (Fig. 5d)

3.2.2. Source rock to oil correlation

The terpane and sterane data (Tables 3 and 4 and Fig. 5c)
indicate a good correlation among the two oil Families and
some Tetuan unit extracts. The similarities are associated to

Source rock maturity measurements are on samples

recovered from wells drilled on structural highs and
outcrops, where the Villeta Gp is dominantly immature
(pyrolysis Tmax Iess than 435 8C). Mature source rock is

3.3. Pods of active source rock and petroleum systems

382

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

Fig. 6. Gas chromatograms (GC), m=z 191 and m=z 217 mass chromatograms from oils representatives of Family I and Family II.

only indicated in a few wells (e.g. Apicala-1, Suarez1, and

Villarrica1) located in the northeastern and eastern part of
the basin toward the Eastern Cordillera. Although in most of
the UMV the source rock intervals are predominantly
immature Tmax data indicate mature samples in local
depocenters or below thrust sheets mainly in the lowermost
part of the Villeta Gp. (Fig. 4). These data and maturity
modeling using the BASINMOD software suggest that the
UMV oil source rocks reached maturity by Sediment and/or
tectonic burial.
3.4. Burial due to normal sediment accumulation
This mechanism was responsible for organic maturation
in depocenters where sediment thickness reached a
maximum prior to any tectonic burial. We identified the
following pods of active source rock in this category (Figs. 7
and 8):
(1) Villarrica active source rock pod. (Fig. 7). Located in
the most northeastern part of the study area in the present
day Eastern Cordillera near the Villarrica1 well, mainly east
of the Magdalena thrust fault. The northern part of this area

was a significant Cretaceous depocenter. Subsidence in this

part of the basin was driven by Early Cretaceous rifting
(Sarmiento-Rojas, 2001). The highest measured maturity
levels on the northern part (468 506 8C Tmax values in the
Villarrica-1 well), and lowest porosity values measured on
Lower Cretaceous sandstones, are evidence of a more
intense organic and inorganic diagenesis here compared to
other parts of the basin. The burial history chart for the
Suarez-1 well (Fig. 9a) shows that in this kitchen, source
rocks reached the oil window during the Paleocene, and that
a
significant
thickness
of
overburden
rock
(. 3048 m 10.000 ft) has been eroded since the Miocene
as indicated by mature rocks very close to the surface.
According to lithofacies distribution maps of the lower
part of Villeta Gp. (Fig. 3a) the active source rock is clayrich in the northern part of this pod. Oils from the Totare,
Pul, Toqui-toqui and Pacande oil fields present biomarker
characteristics of oils derived from siliclastic source rock,
indicating that these Family I oils were probably derived
from this clay-rich northern part of the Villarrica pod.
Tetuan unit extracts from the Rosita-1 well geochemically
correlate to the oil family I and has the same maturity

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

Fig. 7. Petroleum systems map of the UMV.

383

0.15
0.32
0.42
0.12
0.35
0.14
0.41
0.44
0.23
0.42
0.15
0.12
0.30
0.24
0.40
0.28
0.34
0.22
0.17
0.14
0.18
0.29
0.33
0.13
0.36
0.24
0.33
0.21
0.27
0.15
0.48
0.41
0.32
0.53
0.37
0.46
0.38
0.44
0.33
0.47
0.50
0.54
0.42
0.52
0.29
0.12
0.10
0.04
0.09
0.08
0.09
0.06
0.07
0.09
0.08
0.12
0.07
0.08
0.11
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.67
0.57
0.33
0.89
0.51
0.66
0.43
0.53
0.53
0.64
0.84
0.69
0.58
0.71
0.64
1.25
1.27
1.40
1.04
1.72
1.08
1.51
0.97
1.69
2.49
1.51
1.30
0.81
0.82
1.31
Tetuan
Tetuan
Tetuan
Tetuan
Tetuan
Tetuan
Tetuan
Tetuan
Tet-Bamb
Tet-Bamb
Bambuca
La Luna
La Luna
La Luna
La Luna
Mangos-1
Nilo-1
Rosita-1
Tolima-1
Balcon-1
Boreal-1
Cambulos-1
Coyaima-1
Chanche-1
Tarqui-1
Miravalle-1
Balcon-1
Balcon-1
Coyaima-1
Tarqui-1

0.34
0.64
1.25
0.33
1.31
0.37
1.59
1.38
0.40
0.71
0.38
0.18
0.59
0.45
1.96

0.93
0.77
0.68
0.91
0.72
0.90
0.68
0.73
0.81
0.66
0.92
0.94
0.77
0.80
0.70

0.90
0.91
0.72
0.79
0.60
0.78
0.85
0.84
0.61
0.86
0.73
0.86
0.80
0.86
0.51

0.33
0.01
0.02
0.16
0.02
0.24
0.01
0.06
0.12
0.05
0.06
0.31
0.01
0.23
0.01

C29S/S
R
C23Tricyclic/
C23Tri C30
Hopane
C35/C35 C34
Hopanes
Gammacerane/
Gam C30
Hopane
Oleanane/
Olea C30
Hopane
C28Bisnorhopane/C28Bis
C30Hopane
Tm/Tm
Ts
C23Tricyclic/
C23Tri C24
Tetracyclic
C27Sterane/
C27 C29
Sterane
Diasterane/
Sterane
Pristane/
Phytane
Formation
Well

Table 4
Biomarker indexes for extracts

0.16
0.23
0.35
0.20
0.30
0.19
0.35
0.32
0.22
0.35
0.18
0.18
0.21
0.20
0.34

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

C29 aa/aa
bb

384

level as the oils. However, the Tetuan unit in this well is

early mature and could not have generated an important
volume of oil. Oils of the Family I probably originated
from a similar but more mature facies eastward in the
Villarrica pod.
Lithofacies maps also show carbonate-rich source rock in
the southern part of this pod. Oils from the near
Purificacion-2, Chenche-1 and Toldado-1 wells correlate
with carbonate-rich source-rock as indicated by biomarker
analyses, (oil Family II). These oils probably were derived
from the southern carbonate-rich part of the Villarrica pod.
(2) Neiva syncline active source rock pod (Fig. 7).
This pod is located in the Tertiary depocenter where
Miocene sediments reach their maximum thickness.
These Miocene sediments were deposited when the
basin acquired an intermontane character. Tmax pyrolysis
data from the Libano-1, Nilo-1, Tarqui-1 and Altamira-1
wells near this area indicate intervals of early mature
source rock in the lower part of the Villeta Gp. (Fig. 7).
Oil generation modeling (Fig. 9d) indicate that the lower
part of Villeta Gp. reached the top of the main oil
window at 3505 m (11,500 ft) depth during the beginning
of the Miocene, and the top of the late oil window at
3962 m (13,000 ft) depth, during the Middle Miocene.
The bottom of the late oil window was reached at
4572 m (15,000 ft) depth at the end of Miocene.
Lithofacies distribution maps (Fig. 3a) show a dominantly carbonate source rock in the southern part of this
pod. Geographic proximity of the Gigante, Los Mangos,
Yaguara and La Canada oil fields to this pod, and the
existence in these fields of oils derived from a
dominantly calcareous source rock, as indicated by
biomarker studies (oil family II) suggest that these oils
were generated from the Neiva syncline pod. Tetuan unit
extracts from the Nilo-1 well geochemically correlate to
the oil family II and show maturity level close to that of
the oils (Fig. 5c and d).
3.5. Paleo-normal sedimentation burial and burial due to
Tectonic stacking of thrust sheets
Volumetrically most of the oil discovered in the UMV
is derived from carbonate rich source rocks (oil Family II,
Table 1), which are mainly distributed in the western part
of the basin (Fig. 3a). Maturity data in this western area
indicates that normal sediment accumulation burial was
not enough to generate oil. In order to explain the
significant volumes of oil derived from carbonate rich
source rocks in this area, we propose that generation
probably occurred below thrust sheets in the western part
of the basin (Fig. 4). Burial due to tectonic thrust sheet
stacking has been demonstrated in the Coyaima area.
There, rock samples from the hanging wall of thrust faults
(Cucuana back thrust, samples collected in Tetuan,
Toldado and Coyaima wells) are immature, whereas
outcrop samples (collected along Coyaima-Ataco road)

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

385

Fig. 8. Schematic structural cross-sections of the UMV Petroleum systems at their critical moment. The structural interpretation from seismic lines has been
taken from Ecopetrol et al. (1998).

from the footwall of the same thrust faults are mature.

Vergara (1994) also reported mature footwall outcrop
samples from this area. The presence of mature source rock
at surface (Fig. 4) indicates erosion of important thicknesses
of overburden, probably as a result of local uplift and
exhumation on the crest of growing structures. Taking into
account that most wells have not penetrated the footwall

block of thrust faults, there are few samples available to

demonstrate pods of active source rock in the most of the
UMV. However, biomarker data from source rock extracts
mainly from the lowermost part of the Villeta Gp. (i.e.
Rosita-1, Coyaima-1, Ilona-1, Balcon-1, Libano-1, Nilo-1,
Tarqui-1 and Alltamira-1 wells) show the same maturity
level of correlatable oils (Fig. 5) demonstrating at least local

386

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

Fig. 9. Burial history charts of the petroleum systems of the UMV. (a) Villeta-Honda(!) petroleum system associated with the Villarrica kitchen, (b) VilletaCaballos(!) and Villeta-Monserrate (!) petroleum systems associated with the Neiva syncline kitchen, (c) Villeta-Caballos (.) petroleum system associated with
the Coyaima kitchen, (d) Villeta-Caballos (!) petroleum system associated with the San Francisco kitchen and Villeta-Monserrate (!) petroleum system
associated with the Chusma kitchen.

generation of hydrocarbons. Based on these local data and on

structural seismic interpretation and maturity modeling using
the fault option of BASlNMOD, we predict the existence of
pods of mature source rock where source rock reached
maturity due to thrust sheet stacking in the following places
(Figs. 6 and 7).

(3) Coyaima active source rock pod (Figs. 7 and 8). This
effective source rock pod is located in the footwall block of
the Cucuana thrust fault, near Coyaima, where the analysis
of outcrop samples indicated mature source rock. A source
rock extract from the lowermost part of the Villeta Gp.
below the thrust sheets shows the same maturity level as

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

the oils as indicated by biomarker data (Fig. 5d). Maturity

and oil generation modeling of a representative section of
this area (Fig. 9b), with a structural repetition of all
Cretaceous and Tertiary stratigraphic units up to Potrerillo
Fm. indicates that the lower part of Villeta Gp. reached the
top of the oil window at 2926 m (9600 ft) depth, during the
Miocene. Lithofacies distribution maps (Fig. 3a) indicate
relatively calcareous source rocks in the pod that may have
generated some oil.
(4) San Francisco active source rock pod (Figs. 7 and 8).
Source rock lithofacies distribution maps (Fig. 3a) in the San
Francisco area show a predominance of shale. Tmax pyrolysis
data from the lowermost part of Villeta Gp below thrust sheets
in this area (Ilona-1 and Balcon-1 wells) indicate local pods of
early mature source rock. An extract from a rock sample from
the Balcon-1 well below a thrust sheet shows the same
maturity level as geochemically correlated family I oils in this
area. Oils from the Andaluca, Balcon, Hatonuevo, La Jagua
and San Francisco oil fields as well as San Francisco oil seep
have been classified as oil Family I, derived from a shale,
indicating the existence of a petroleum system related to the
San Francisco pod (Table 1 and Fig. 7). The present-day
source rock depth as estimated from seismic lines is shallower
than the calculated top of the oil-generative window,
suggesting that generation occurred in this area below an
overburden rock thickness that latter was eroded. Also, thrust
sheets of the San Francisco and Chusma thrust faults may
have contributed to source rock maturity.

387

volumetrically less important reservoir rocks (Fig. 2). These

reservoir rocks are lithic feldspathic sandstones (24 34%
quartz, 14 28% feldspar and 38 62% lithic fragments),
with porosity values from 4 to 20%. Those rocks show
secondary porosity, primary porosity and micro-porosity.
The presence of unstable minerals makes these rocks
susceptible to formation damage (Houseknecht, 1991).
3.7. Seal rock
Volumetrically, shales and fine-grained limestones of the
Villeta Gp. are the most important seal rocks for the oil
accumulated within Caballos Fm. Mudstones of the Guaduala
Fm. are seal rocks for oils accumulated in the Monserrate Fm.
Other minor important seal rocks are mudstones of the Honda
Fm. and other Tertiary rock units (Fig. 2).
Seal rocks of the Villeta Gp., Guaduala Fm. and Tertiary
rock units, in some places have been truncated during
erosion events genetically related to the Lower Eocene and
Miocene unconformities. In addition, the seal capacity of
these rocks has been reduced by faulting, resulting in local
but no regional seals over all the UMV.
3.8. Overburden rock
Overburden rock includes all Cretaceous and Tertiary
stratigraphic units overlying the lower part of the Villeta Gp
(Fig. 2) and thrust sheets locally. Overburden rock thickness
are shown in the burial history charts (Fig. 9c)

3.6. Reservoir rock

3.9. Petroleum traps
Most of the discovered oil of the UMV is reservoired in
the Caballos Fm., which is the main reservoir rock unit
(Table 1, Fig. 2). The best quality reservoir rock occurs
within the upper part of the formation. Reservoir rock is
dominantly quartz arenite containing more than 95% quartz.
The porosity distribution is normal with an average greater
than 12% (10 25%), Except for some sandstone bodies
where dissolution of unstable minerals contributes to a high
percentage of the total porosity, the dominant porosity of the
Caballos Fm. is primary intergranular (Alba Gladys Mesa,
personal communication). Permeability values range from
100 mD to 4 Darcies (Houseknecht, 1991).
The second most important reservoir rock unit by volume
of oil in place in the UMV is the Monserrate Fm. (Fig. 2). It
is the main reservoir rock of the oil generated in the San
Francisco, Neiva syncline and Villarrica (Pul oil field)
active source rock pods. The reservoir rock is quartz arenite
containing more than 96% quartz, dominantly monocrystalline. Porosity values range from 13 to 28%. Primary
porosity predominates. Permeability values vary from
10 mD to almost 8 Darcies (Houseknecht, 1991).
Reservoir rocks of the Totare and Toqui-toqui oil fields
containing oils generated from the Villarrica active source
rock pod, are the Honda Fm. and the Doima Fm.
respectively. These formations and the Chicoral Fm. are

Almost all traps are structural or have a strong structural

component The biggest oil field, San Francisco, is an anticline;
other oil fields are trapped by faulted anticlines, faults and/or
unconformities. Oil fields with the Honda Gp. as a reservoir
have a stratigraphic component due to the lenticular character
of the reservoir rock. Except for the La Canada field, all oil
fields are full to spill point (Buitrago, 1994).
Structural traps formed by deformation associated with
the development of the fold and thrust belts of the eastverging Central Cordillera thrust system during Paleogene
and the west-verging Eastern Cordillera thrust system
during several events occurred during Cenozoic time,
although the most intensive deformation seems to have
been in the Miocene. It is possible that Paleogene structures
were been rejuvenated during the Miocene. Traps that store
oils derived from the Neiva sub-basin were formed since
Paleogene or mainly during Miocene depending on their
relation to the Central Cordillera thrust system or to the
Eastern Cordillera thrust system respectively (Butler &
Schamel, 1988).
Traps that store oils generated from the Villarrica active
source rock pod (Totare and Toqui-toqui oil fields), were
formed during the Miocene, as indicated by the presence of
Miocene reservoir and seal rocks (Honda Gp.). If the oil

388

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

generation and migration peak occurred during Paleocene,

as indicated by the maturity modeling results (Fig. 9a),
such oils would have been trapped in structures existing
during the Paleocene and the existing reservoir rock at that
time probably was Monserrate Fm. (e.g. Pul oil field;
Table 1). Later during the Miocene deformation event,
these oils would have re-migrated from their original traps
to the present day traps and the new reservoir rocks were in
the Tertiary units. This hypothesis needs to be tested with
better data from the above mentioned oil fields and from
the oil source rocks of the Eastern Cordillera. However,
this hypothesis is necessary to explain the existence of
these oil fields, otherwise the timing condition would not
be satisfied.
3.10. Petroleum systems and migration pathways
We propose four petroleum systems in the UMV:
1. Villeta (Tetuan-La Luna)-Tertiary (!) petroleum system
in the Girardot sub-basin. Family I oils were derived
from clay-rich source rocks from the Villarrica pod as
suggested by geochemical correlation between extracts
from the Rosita-1 well from this pod and oil family I oils.
2. Villeta (Tetuan-La Luna)-Caballos () petroleum system
in the Girardot sub-basin. Family II oils were possible
derived from carbonate rich source rock from the
Villarrica and Coyaima pods.
3. Villeta (Tetuan-La Luna)-Caballos (!) petroleum system
in the Neiva sub-basin. Family I oils were derived from
clay-rich source rocks from the Neiva syncline and San
Francisco pods, as suggested by geochemical correlation
between oils and source rock extracts from Balcon-1
well.
4. Villeta (Tetuan-La Luna)-Monserrate (!) petroleum
system in the Neiva sub-basin. Family II oils probably
were derived from carbonate-rich source rocks from the
Neiva syncline and San Francisco pods as suggested by
geochemical correlation between oils and source rock
extracts from the Nilo-1 well.

the top of Pleistocene rocks, as overburden rock responsible

for maturity of the source rock (Fig. 2). If at least locally
older rock units (i.e. Saldana Fm.) are included in the thrust
sheets responsible for sub-thrust oil generation, these
units and the Yav Fm. should also be included in
the stratigraphic extent of the petroleum systems. In the
Villarrica area the petroleum system also includes Lower
Cretaceous shales older than the Caballos Fm. The pyrolysis
data from this region demonstrate that some stratigraphic
intervals within these rocks are at least locally active
source rocks.
Figs. 7 and 8 show the petroleum systems geographic
extent and the pod of active oil source rock of each system.
The map also shows lateral migration pathways, which in
general are short, not greater than 40 km. Within heavily
faulted areas, such as the thrust belts of the UMV, faults
such as thrusts ramps or strike slip faults, may behave as
vertical oil migration channels inhibiting lateral migration
on long distances (Demaison & Huizinga, 1994). Lateral
up dip migration pathways tends to be normal to structures.
Oils reservoired in Monserrate Fm. or in Tertiary
formations, migrated up from the Villeta Gp. Oils
reservoired in Tertiary rocks migrated following faults on
areas where Guaduala Fm. seal was not eroded. Oils
reservoired in the Caballos Fm., probably migrated from
Villeta Gp. shales in the footwall thrust fault block toward
the Caballos Fm. sandstones in the hanging wall (Figs. 7
and 8). Oil generated in the Neiva syncline laterally
migrated outward from the active source rock pod, then
upward through thrust fault ramps toward traps of the two
thrusts systems of the area (Fig. 8). Oils accumulated in the
Totare and Toqui-toqui oil fields, generated in the
Villarrica kitchen possibly migrated to Paleocene traps
and latter during the Miocene deformation event remigrated to their present day traps.
The relatively low gas/oil ratio of the producing fields,
suggests that oil expulsion and migration occurred as soon
as source rock reached the critical oil saturation to expel
without any delay or inhibition.
3.11. Events chart

Because there are lateral changes in source rock

lithofacies (clay-rich to carbonate-rich) within a single
active source rock pod, different oil families were generated
within the same pod.
Comparison between lithofacies distribution of the lower
part of Villeta Gp., geochemical signature of source rock
extracts, oil family distribution and geochemical signature,
allows a correlation between oils and pods of mature source
rocks for each petroleum system. According to these results
the certainty levels can be recognized as known (!), except
for the petroleum system Villeta (Tetuan-La Luna)Caballos which level of certainty can be defined as
hypothetical ().
The stratigraphic extent of the petroleum systems
(Figs. 2, 8 and 9) includes from the Caballos Fm. up to

Petroleum systems events charts (Fig. 10) show elements

and processes responsible for oil field formation, which
occurred during the Cretaceous and Tertiary. Trap formation occurred before or during hydrocarbon generation
satisfying the timing condition. For the Villarrica kitchen
we assume an initial filling of traps during the Paleocene
and remigration to present day traps during Miocene.
Tertiary, largely Miocene to recent deformation and
erosion events have drastically affected the UMV in such
a way that probably a huge amount of hydrocarbons has
been degraded at surface, especially on these areas where
Cretaceous rocks crop out. As an example on the Yaguara
field structure, Monserrate Fm. sandstone at surface is
saturated with tar providing evidence of the previous

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

389

Fig. 10. Events chart of the UMV petroleum systems.

existence of an oil accumulation which was destroyed by

erosion (Buitrago, 1994).

4. Conclusions
This study identified four petroleum systems. The main
source rock intervals are the lower Villeta Gp. Tetuan
Limestone and the La Luna Limestone which are,
respectively, 135 and 100 m. thick, their TOC values
range from 1 to 4%, dominantly II type marine kerogen.
The main reservoir rocks are the Caballos Fm. (Albian) and
Monserrate Fm. (Maastrichtian) quartz arenites. The main
seal rocks are the Villeta Gp. (Cretaceous) shales and the
Guaduala Fm. (Paleocene) mudstones. Overburden rock
includes all the Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rocks
overlying the source rock and where burial was due to thrust
sheet stacking also includes the Yav Fm. (Aptian), Saldana
Fm. (Jurassic), or older rock units included in the thrust
sheets. Traps are structural, generally faulted, and were

formed during Eocene to Miocene deformation events.

Crude oils samples are classified in two families: (1) Oil
family I derived from clay-rich shales deposited in dysoxic
environments, (2) Oil family II derived from dominantly
calcareous rocks deposited in dominantly anoxic environments. Lithofacies distribution of the Villeta Gp., oil
families distribution and oils-source rock correlation allows
to define their certainty level as known expect for the
petroleum system two which should be defined as
hypothetical. Lateral up dip migration distances are short
and faults could serve as vertical migration channels. Except
for the northeast part of the basin where the critical moment
occurred during the Paleogene, the critical moment of
petroleum generation, expulsion and migration occurred
during the Miocene as soon as source rock reached critical
oil saturation to expulsion. The temporal extent of
petroleum systems is Albian to Recent. Probably huge
volumes of hydrocarbon have been degraded at surface as a
result of deformation and erosion events that occurred
during the Tertiary largely in the Miocene.

390

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 373391

Acknowledgements
Special thanks to the Geologist Blanca Nubia Giraldo for
her contribution to the analytical work. L.F: Sarmiento and
A Rangel would like to thank to Ecopetrol for permission to
publish this work. We are grateful to Dr L. Maggon and
reviewers for helpful suggestions and constructive review.

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