Artigo 8

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.
2014, 116, 240254
240
Review Article
Inuence of ingredients that reduce oil absorption during
immersion frying of battered and breaded foods
Robert G. Brannan1, Eunice Mah2, Maria Schott3, Simin Yuan1, Katherine L. Casher1,
Andrew Myers1 and Christopher Herrick1
1
2
3
Applied Health Sciences and Wellness, Grover Center E334, Ohio University Athens, OH, USA
The Ohio State University, Human Sciences, OH, USA
Cincinnati Childrens Hospital and Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
Many popular foods are prepared by battering and breading a substrate followed by deepfat frying, also
known as immersion frying. However, these foods are high in calories and fat. This has led to research on
the reduction of fat absorption during immersion frying. This paper focuses on the use of functional
ingredients, usually proteins or nonprotein hydrocolloids, which can be incorporated into the batter and/
or breading, or applied as a postbreading dip to retard oil absorption. Protein ingredients from both
animal and plant sources have been applied as lms or in aqueous solutions to battered and breaded
foods. Nonprotein hydrocolloids such as cellulose derivatives, gums, calcium reactive pectins, and other
plantbased ours have also been utilized. Due to the applied nature of the process and the potential
economic impact, many of the ingredients and strategies presented here have been culled from the patent
literature. This paper also describes three theories of oil absorption into fried foods; the water
replacement mechanism, the coolingphase effect, and the surfactant theory, and reviews research that
reports the impact of oil absorption on the nutritional and textural properties of the battered and breaded
foods.
Keywords: Fried foods / Oil absorption
Received: December 18, 2012 / Revised: July 3, 2013 / Accepted: July 8, 2013
DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201200308
1 Introduction
Deepfat frying, also known as immersion frying, is the
process of cooking food by immersing it in a hot edible oil or
fat. The frying process is a rapidcook process that produces
products with wide consumer appeal due to their characteristic crust formation, color, avor, and texture. A perceived
drawback to foods prepared by immersion frying is the
increase in oil content in the nished product that leads to
high calorie and fat levels. For example, common battered
and breaded fried foods have increased oil contents compared
to their raw counterparts (Table 1). This has led to strategies
to create fried products with reduced oil content that retain
their desirable organoleptic qualities. These strategies include
the avoidance of frying in favor of other cooking methods,
usually baking, the application of coatings in nonfried
products that mimic the properties of fried foods, the
Correspondence: Dr. Robert G. Brannan, Applied Health Sciences and
Wellness, Grover Center E334, Ohio University Athens, OH 45701, USA
Email: brannan@ohio.edu
Fax: 17405932879
2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
manipulation of physicochemical factors of the foods being

fried, or the utilization of functional ingredients that cause a
reduction in oil transfer from the frying medium to the
products being fried. A discussion on the full range of these
strategies is outside the scope of this paper. Instead, this paper
will focus on ingredientbased factors that have been shown to
reduce oil absorption during immersion frying in coated
foods.
2 Overview of the immersion frying process

for coated products
Immersion frying is very complex due to the coupled heat and
mass transfer between the food and frying medium [1].
Commercially, immersion frying processes are either batch
or continuous operations with the following characteristics:
(i) substrates are prepared prior to coating by moisture
enhancement, marination, portioning, forming, etc; (ii)
coating is applied, usually in the order of a predusting step,
a battering step, and a breading step; (iii) coated product is
immersed in hot oil and partially or fully cooked; and (iv) the
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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2014, 116, 240254
Influence of ingredients that reduce oil absorption
241
Table 1. Fat, protein, and water content (g/100 g edible portion) of selected raw and battered, breaded, and fried foodsa)
Fat
Protein
Water
Food item
Raw
Battered,
breaded, and fried
Raw
Battered,
breaded, and fried
Raw
Battered,
breaded, and fried
Catfish
Chicken, dark meat
Chicken, light meat
Onions
Shrimp
7.59
4.31
1.65
0.10
1.73
13.33
18.04
18.11
18.69
12.28
15.55
20.08
23.20
1.10
20.31
18.09
20.32
21.91
4.46
21.39
75.38
75.99
74.86
89.11
75.86
58.81
48.99
45.70
37.09
52.86
a)
Values from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2012 [74].
cooked product is cooled before the next operation, which is

usually freezing.
2.1 The frying process

The frying process has been described in four stages [2].
The rst stage is known as the initial heating stage. During
this stage, the temperature of the surface of the food rises
to the boiling temperature of the surface water. This stage
is short, lasting for about 10 s, and is marked by negligible
loss of mass (water) and transfer of heat via natural
convection.
The second stage is known as surface heating. During this
stage, the heat transfer mechanism changes from natural
convection to forced convection as surface water vaporizes.
The change to forced convection increases the heat transfer
coefcient such that heat transfer into the food is faster. This
stage marks the beginning of crust formation.
The next stage is the falling rate stage and is the longest of
all the stages. Most of the moisture loss during the frying
process occurs during this stage as the core region
temperature approaches the boiling point of water. Toward
the end of this stage, the rate of vapor mass transfer steadily
decreases due to the reduced amount of remaining free water
and continued thickening of the crust that acts as a barrier for
rapid vapor release.
The nal stage is the bubble end point. This stage is
characterized by the apparent cessation of moisture loss
from the food during frying. This may be caused by the lack
of remaining liquid water in the sample or a reduction in
heat transfer to the crust/core interface. During this
stage, the thermal conductivity of the crust is low due to
its dryness and porosity, factors that decrease heat transfer

into the food.
Although the preceding frying steps describe the process
while the product is immersed in the oil, oil absorption
continues after the product is removed from the oil. The
mechanism of oil absorption during the cooling phase is
described in more detail later in this paper. Frying processes
produce items that may be fully or partially cooked, a.k.a. par
fried. These products are generally maintained frozen during
storage and distribution.
Before consumption, battered and breaded fried foods
must be rethermalized by the end user to nish the cooking
process or to heat fully cooked products to an acceptable
temperature. Rethermalization can be accomplished by
frying, oven baking, and microwave heating. Rethermalization by frying of parfried foods that had been stored frozen
caused more leaching of starch components and a higher oil
content compared to products that were freshly battered [3].
A comparison of reheated parfried, frozen French fries via
immersion frying and oven baking found that the lipid
content of fries that were refried showed an increase in fat
content as high as 71.5% compared to ovenbaked fries [4].
The increase of fat content for both methods of heating may
be due to the decrease of moisture content in the nal product
(Table 2). Textural differences have been reported between
battered and breaded chicken patties rethermalized by baking
and frying. Signicant differences were observed between the
two rethermalization methods, with baked samples requiring
more work to penetrate the crust and a higher overall hardness
than fried samples [5]. The totality of this research shows that
the nutritional and textural properties of fried foods can be
affected profoundly by rethermalization.
Table 2. Fat and moisture content of parfried French fries heated using different methods [4]
Component
Lipid
Moisture
Raw parfried
% wet basis
Immersion frying % wet basis

(% difference compared to raw product)
Oven baked % wet basis

(% difference compared to raw product)
11.2
63.0
19.2 (71.5)
50.4 (20.0)
13.8 (23.2)
37.8 (40.0)
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2.2 Substrates
Immersion frying processes are used to prepare a variety of
coated substrates. Fresh substrates such as poultry and meat
products produce popular items like fried chicken, chicken
ngers, and country fried steaks. Fresh poultry and meats are
often moisture enhanced before being breaded, which
presents challenges to the processor due to moisture
migration from the product into the oil, increasing the
potential for subsequent oil degradation and, as is explained
in Section 3.3 of this paper, increased oil absorption.
Vegetables and cheese also are often used as substrates for
coated fried foods. Frozen substrates, such as cut sh or co
extruded items, may be predusted prior to freezing to mitigate
the effects of ice on the product surface during the breading
process. Formed substrates utilizing poultry, meat, and
vegetable matrices also are common and are used to produce
deep fried foods of various shapes and sizes. Less commonly,
precooked substrates such as steamcooked bonein chicken
or ravioli are breaded and fried.
2.3 Coating systems

Three steps typically characterize the application of the batter
and breading coating system, although depending on the
desired product attributes, manufacturers intentionally may
exclude a step. The rst step involves the application of a
predust composed of granulated coatings of our, ne
particle breading, or a combination of both, which is applied
directly to the substrate being coated. Predusts are used on
products that exhibit high surface moisture and act by
forming an absorbent layer between the substrate and the
batter. Manufacturers often omit the predust step, especially
if surface moisture can be controlled through formulation.
The second step is the application of a batter. Batters are
viscous suspensions of solids, usually our, in liquid that
usually are applied by dipping of the substrates or by another
method such as spraying. Batters have many functional uses,
including creating a binding layer between the substrate and
the breading, carrying ingredients such as seasonings, and/or

providing a crispy/crunchy outer coating during frying. The
viscosity of the batter is a key variable that affects the quantity
and quality of batter pickup by the substrate, the coverage of
the coating system, and the nal texture of the product. Batter
viscosity is affected by temperature, solids to water ratio,
mixing time and speed, and formulation. Tempura batters are
specialized batter systems that are leavened to provide a
characteristically puffed end product.
After the battering step, breadings are applied. Breadings
are thermally processed, granular cereal coatings to which
seasonings and other inclusions may be added. Breadings are
used to provide texture, avor, color, and appearance. There
are four general categories of bread crumbs, namely cracker
meal, American bread crumbs (ABC), Japanese style crumbs
(JCrumb) or panko, and our coaters. Characteristics of
the four breadings are described in Table 3.
3 Theories of oil absorption

Theoretical mechanisms that describe oil absorption into
immersion fried foods depend on the assumption that oil
migration into the product occurs via empty pores or
capillaries that exist in the substrate and crust. There are
three proposed mechanisms explaining oil uptake in fried
foods, water replacement, coolingphase effect, and surfactant
theory of frying [2].
3.1 Water replacement

According to the water replacement mechanism, oil absorption
is the result of the replacement of evaporated water with
cooking oil during the frying process. When food is immersed
in hot oil, conversion of surface water to steam is nearly
instantaneous, causing pores to form on the surface of the
food (Fig. 1). When the pores create a large enough void, very
low positive vapor pressure allows oil to enter the food.
However, the transfer of oil described by this mechanism is
Table 3. Attributes of breading types commonly encountered in battered and breaded fried foods [5]
Type of breading
Characteristic
Granulation
Porosity
Structure
Frying application(s)
Durability during
processing and storage
Economy
Other characteristics
Cracker meal
American bread crumb
Japanese bread crumb
Fine
Dense
Flat flake
Full fry
Rugged
Medium
Open
Granular flake
Full fry par fry/oven finish
Fairly rugged
Coarse
Airy
Splinter flake
Full fry par fry/oven finish
Fragile
Very fine
Dense
Very fine, grainy
Full fry
Rugged/dusty
Economical
Conventional applicator
can be used to apply
Intermediate cost
Freeflow breading
applicators needed
Higher cost
Specialized
applicators needed
Economical
Flour/predust
applicators needed
Flour coatings
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liquid and surface, and r is the inner radius of the pores [9].
Taking into account the capillary pressure (Pc) across
the area of contact of the liquid with the surface (pr2),
the driving force for oil absorption (capillary force, Fc)
reduces to Eq. 2.
F c 2prg lg cosu
Figure 1. Development of pores in wheatbased batter during

different frying times [87]. Used with permission.
restricted to large voids near the surface of the food, usually

only in the crust region. While this mechanism describes a
direct relationship between water loss and oil uptake during
the frying process [6, 7], studies have shown that oil
absorption also occurs during the cooling phase [6]. Thus,
the water replacement mechanism alone is inadequate in
explaining oil absorption in fried foods.
3.2 Coolingphase effect

The coolingphase effect describes oil absorption that occurs
after the food is fried and removed from the hot oil. As the
food is cooling, the internal pressure of the pores developed
during frying decreases due to water vapor condensation. The
sudden drop in pore pressure creates a vacuumeffect that
sucks oil adhered to the surface into the pores. Oil intake
described by this mechanism is restricted to the immediate
crust and product surface and is largely dependent on crust
microstructure [6] and oil viscosity [2].
The theoretical basis for this theory is based on the notion
that oil uptake is a surface phenomenon which can be
explained using surface chemistry, particularly wetting,
capillary penetration, and displacement [6]. Wetting can be
dened as the afnity of a uid for a solid. A uid with low
afnity will form beads on the surface of the solid and a uid
with high afnity will form a lm on the surface [8].
Wettability is dependent on the contact angle, interfacial
tension, and the radius of the pores. The relationship between
these properties and capillary pressure is shown in Eq. 1,
Pc
2g lg cosu
r
where Pc is the capillary pressure, glg the interfacial tension

between the liquid and gas, u the contact angle between
The wetting agent (in this case the frying medium) will
continue to enter pores until an opposing force matches that
of the capillary force. In a system being fried, the opposing
force is usually the force of the trapped vapor in the pore.
Thus, a higher capillary force would result in better wetting
(i.e., more oil absorption) by the oil. As shown by Eq. 2, this
process is dependent on the interfacial tension between the
gas or air and liquid, the contact angle between the surface
and the liquid, and the radius of the pore. If the contact angle
is greater than 90, the liquid does not wet the solid and tends
to move across the surface and not enter the capillary pores.
Oil is also likely to enter a pore if the radius of the pore is large
and/or if the interfacial tension is low. Interfacial pressure
between oil and air increases as temperature decreases and
causes surface oil to ow rapidly into pores [10]. Research
about the relationship between the amount of oil after frying
that remained on the surface versus penetrated the surface
showed that the balance between these two oil categories
is dependent on capillary suction and drainage along the
surface of the product [11]. These authors surmise that the
microstructure (e.g., mean pore size, connectedness, permeability) of the crust region is the single most important
productrelated determinant of the nal oil uptake into the
food.
A more straightforward model to describe the physical
relationship that drives this process has been proposed [12],
as shown in Eq. 3,
DP 2gSV gSL=r
where DP is the pressure change that drives the uid into

the pores, gSV the solid/vapor interfacial tension, gSL the
solid/liquid interfacial tension, and r is the pore radius.
These authors suggest that to decrease DP, i.e., to reduce
the driving force for oil absorption into the product, the
interfacial tension at the solid vapor interface should
be minimized and, if possible, the interfacial tension of
the solid liquid interface should be maximized, taking into
consideration that fact that this assumes that r is not
changed by the process. This suggests that ingredients
that decrease interfacial tension may be candidates for oil
inhibition.
It should be noted that the theoretical mechanisms
provided above represent one stream of thought with respect
to the forces involved in oil uptake during frying. Signicant
scientic disagreement exists over the most important forces
to be used to create an ideal model of oil uptake. Many of
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these disagreements are discussed in an excellent review by

Ziaiifar et al. [13].
Regardless, studies have shown that oil absorption is the
highest during the cooling phase, although these studies also
show that the cooling phase mechanism does not account for
all of the oil absorbed during the frying process. For example,
in fried tortillas 80% of the oil is absorbed during the cooling
phase [10], while in potatoes, oil uptake during frying
accounts for about onequarter of the total oil uptake while oil
uptake during the cooling phase is estimated to be 70
80% [14, 15].
3.3 Surfactant theory of oil absorption

As shown in equations Eqs. 13, there is strong theoretical
evidence that oil absorption during the frying process is
largely dependent on oil and water interfacial tension and
contact angle [2, 12]. During frying, the oil degrades and this
dynamically changes the composition of oil from triglycerides
to a mixture of more polar compounds (e.g., diglycerides,
monoglycerides, free fatty acids, and glycerol). These polar
breakdown compounds are surface active and act as wetting
agents that serve to lower the interfacial tension between the
oil and the water [2]. This is the basis of the surfactant theory,
which attributes increased oil uptake to the constant
generation of surfactants, especially in aging oil.
In support of this mechanism, it has been observed that
these breakdown compounds (especially monoglycerides)
cause a signicant decrease in interfacial tension in oil/water
systems between frying oil and water due to their degree of
unsaturation and molecular structure [1618]. In a study on
the effect of monoglycerides of differing degrees of saturation
on interfacial tension in oil and water systems, it was found
that interfacial tension decreased with an increase in the
degree of saturation [19]. They concluded that monostearin,
which has no double bonds, can align at the interface more
compactly due to an absence of a kink in the structure as
compared to monoolein and monolinolein, which have one
double bond and two double bonds, respectively. The theory
was investigated by frying 20 g of frozen French fries for 3 min
every hour for a total of 40 h and monitoring the interfacial
tension of the frying medium and water. As shown in Table 4,
interfacial tension showed a marked decrease within the rst
Table 4. Effect of frying time at 180 5C on surface tension,
interfacial tension, and apparent contact angle of canola oil [2]
Frying
time (h)
0
10
20
30
40
Surface
tension (mN/m)
Interfacial
tension (mN/m)
uap ()
32.6 0.2
32.6 0.2
32.5 0.2
32.5 0.1
32.6 0.1
24.4 0.3
16.5 0.2
15.0 0.2
14.3 0.3
13.0 0.2
63.4 0.1
63.8 0.2
63.3 0.1
63.2 0.1
63.3 0.6
10 h [2]. This is especially signicant in light of the fact that

most processors will seed their new frying oil with an
amount of older oil, thereby creating conditions in which
preformed polar materials are already present in the oil.
3.4 Summary of oil absorption mechanisms

None of the mechanisms, taken alone, adequately explain the
complexity of oil absorption in fried foods. Many studies
show that most of the oil absorption occurs during the cooling
phase, while others show that some of the oil is taken up
during frying (water replacement) and still others describe a
correlation between degradation of oil and oil uptake
(surfactant theory). All of these mechanisms do show the
strong dependence of oil absorption on microstructure and
surface characteristics of the products.
4 Ingredients that inhibit oil absorption

Since the characteristics of the surface of the fried product are
important in determining the amount of oil that enters the
product in accordance with the coolingphase mechanism,
functional ingredients that reduce oil absorption in fried
foods may act to alter the crust microstructure. In addition,
they must act on the batter and breading because these are
critical in determining the amount of oil absorbed in a
particular food since they make up most of the surface of the
fried product. When batter is fried, a microstructure
consisting of many pores develops (Fig. 1). The characteristics of the pores, including size, depth, and number, are
determined by the properties of the batter. Ingredients may
also work with other factors that can affect oil uptake, such as
frying oil quality, repeat frying, low frying temperatures,
composition, frying oil/product volume ratio, frying temperature, and product thickness.
A variety of ingredients have been employed in various
forms to reduce or inhibit oil absorption in fried foods. Many
were developed as proprietary processes and as such are
found in the patent literature. The reader is advised that the
patents cited hereafter and listed in Table 5 likely is not an all
encompassing list due to the difculty in identifying search
terms with which to cull the patent database. Table 5 also
describes claims that may not have been subjected to the rigor
of peer review.
Ingredients used to inhibit oil absorption in battered and
breaded foods typically are either proteins or nonprotein
hydrocolloids. The mechanisms by which these ingredients
are responsible for oil inhibition are varied and include the
creation of a barrier through which moisture release and
subsequent oil absorption is reduced, an increase in water
holding in the product which reduces the likelihood of steam
escape during frying, the alteration of surface hydrophobicity
of the product being deep fried, and/or the formation of a
thermallyinduced gel.
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Table 5. Review of patents with claims of reduced oil absorption in battered and breaded foods
Claim
Functional ingredient(s)
Special considerations
31% Reduction in fat content of fried

potato chips
Potato and corn starch slurry (40% solids)
Potato substrate contains less than 3%

moisture
1536% Reduction in fat content in fried

food
An improver (egg white, whey protein,

wheat protein) was added

food
Polysaccharide powder (alginic acid preferred) average particle size 20 mm or

less
Whey protein concentrate (255% protein
by weight)

chicken strips
Whey protein concentrate (15% total

solids, 80% alactablumin)
Chicken marinated in solution before

being battered
Reduction in oil content of 1070%
Extracted proteins from muscle of various

species
Protein extraction method documented in

US Patent # 6,005,073
Efficiently retards oil absorption during

frying
Alginic ester (0.013%, at least 20%

esterified)
Mixed into batters, products can be

immediately fried
Significantly impedes the absorption and

adsorption of frying oil
Calcium reactive pectin
Low oil uptake frying batters
Pregelatinized rice flour, phosphorylated

ride starch, pregelatinized acetylated
rice starch
Polydextrose
Breading is enriched with calcium, then

product is subjected to a pectin dip.
Products can be immediately fried
Included in the batter
Reduction in fat content from 25.3 to

13.9%
An oil absorption and moisture transmission retarding, crunchy coating
Calcium (0.15% in predust)

Pectate (0.18% in batter)
Resists absorbing oil during deep fat frying
Calcium reactive pectin
26.9% Reduction in oil
Sodium casienate
Forms a layer of hydrophobic protein

having excellent barrier properties to hot
oil
Protein latex (510%), I.E. hydrophobic

prolamines such as zein, kafirin, gliadin,
hordein
17% Weight reduction in oil content
Protein latex (10%), I.E. hydrophobic

prolamines such as zein, kafirin, gliadin,
hordein
Starch, methyl cellulose, xanthan gum
Substantial imperviousness to cooking oil

absorption
30% Reduction of oilpickup in battered
chicken strips and 35% in battered fish
fillets
Substantial imperviousness to the absorption of cooking oil when the product is
contacted with cooking oil on further
cooking
5259% Less fat absorbed
Substantial imperviousness to the absorption of cooking oil when the product is

contacted with cooking oil on further
cooking
Oil absorption reductions upon frying of
2535%
Oxidoreductase added to reduce browning
Results shown in thick, donut batter.

Results as a coating are not reported
Calcium and pectate must come in contact
and dwell for sufficient time to produce
calcium pectate
Breading is enriched with calcium, product
is then subjected to a pectin dip.
Products can be immediately fried
Must have a 45 min residence time
Protein must be fused and set during a

drying step. Process described for potato slices, not for battered and breaded
items
13 min drying cycle. Process described
for potato slices, not for battered and
breaded items
Process involves as many as six surface
coatings to achieve results
Cellulose fiber (3%)
Added into batter, products coated then

immediately fried
Starch, methyl cellulose, xanthan gum,

silicone oxide derivatives
Sequentially baking barrier layers provide

structure impervious to oil absorption
Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (10%, 27
30% methoxyl, 412% hydroxypropyl
substitution)
Starch, methyl cellulose, xanthan gum
Incorporated into the batter. Food items

can be immediately breaded and fried
Gelatin (2535% solutions)
Process involves as many as six surface

coatings to achieve results. Inhibits oil
on rethermalization steps
Must be sprayed on and dried to form a
film
Year, Patent #, citation

2012
US Patent #8,163,321
[75]
2011
[76]
2011
[77]
2009
US Patent # 7,494,677
[78]
2007
[34]
2002
[79]
2001
US Patent # 6,261,618
[51]
2001
[54]
1999
[80]
1998
[52]
1997
[50]
1996
[33]
1993
[12]
1992
[81]
1991
[82]
1991
[47]
1990
[83]
1990
[42]
1989
[84]
1985
[34]
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246
An extensively studied ingredientbased process for

reducing oiluptake in deep fried foods is coating the surface
of the food to be fried with edible lms made from either
proteins or nonprotein hydrocolloids. Films have been
applied by spraying, immersion, or direct application. The
main advantage to using edible lms is that the physical and
mechanical properties can be manipulated for each application, and extensive research has shown the efcacy of edible
lms as inhibitors of oil pickup. However, when used as
barriers to oil uptake in deep fried foods, edible lms must be
applied in liquid form and then dried. The drying process,
which can take up to several minutes, would present serious
operational challenges to industrial deep frying operations.
Ingredients that do not form lms usually are incorporated
into the batter or applied as a post breading dip. Unlike edible
lms, these processes allow battered and breaded products to
be immersed immediately in oil.
4.1 Proteins
Ingredientbased oil inhibition strategies have focused on
proteins because of their lmforming and thermal gelation
properties. Individual proteins and protein mixtures from
both animal and plant sources have been incorporated into
batters, used as postbreading dips, and applied as edible
lms.
In order for a protein to undergo gelation, it must rst go
through denaturation. Denaturation is used to describe a
reversible or irreversible change of molecular structure of a
protein without cleavage of covalent bonds except for the
disulde bridges. This can be initiated by changes in
temperature and pH, increases in the interface area, or the
addition of organic solvents, salts, urea, guanidine hydrochloride, or detergents. During denaturation, side chains of
the amino acid are exposed and undergo intermolecular
interactions. They form small spherical aggregates which
combine into linear strands that interact to create a gel
network [20]. The ratio of the rate of denaturation with the
rate of aggregation determines the gel characteristics. If the
rate of aggregation is slower in comparison with the rate of
denaturation, the resulting gel will be a ner network of
protein chains, less opaque, and less capable of holding on to
water due to smaller voids between molecules [21].
Gelation of protein is affected by factors that inuence the
rate of denaturation and aggregation, such as temperature,
concentration of protein, pH, and ionic strength. Temperature and heating rate can affect both the rate of denaturation
and the rate of proteinprotein interaction. The temperature
above which a gel will not form is known as the critical
gelation temperature, which is directly proportional to
heating rate [22]. While there is a critical (maximum)
gelation temperature, there is no indication for the existence
of a minimal temperature of gelation [23]. However, below
critical gelation temperatures, the time required for the
formation of the gel will decrease [23]. Generally, the elastic
properties of the gel network vary depending on protein

concentration [24]. The critical protein concentration for
gelation is dependent on pH and ionic strength. For example,
the critical concentration for blac is a minimum at the
isoelectric point (5.1) and is independent of ionic strength. At
other pH values, the critical protein concentration varies
inversely with ionic strength [20]. As mentioned before, pH
can have a marked effect on the structure of proteins. At pH
levels far away from the isoelectric point, the protein is highly
charged. Hence, the association or aggregation of the protein
molecules is difcult to achieve due to electrostatic repulsion
even upon heating. However, aggregation and gelation can
occur at high enough protein concentrations and/or high ionic
strength [20]. Differences in gel structure not only are
inuenced by electrostatic interactions, but also may be due
to the dependence of rate of denaturation and aggregation
on pH level. Thus, pH of the protein solution can be adjusted
to achieve proper balance between the rate of denaturation
and aggregation that is needed for gel formation.
Salts in general can affect the structure of protein
molecules as well as the nature of proteinwater interactions
by changing the ionic strength of the protein solution [25].
These effects inuence both the solubility of protein and their
rate of thermal denaturation. As with temperature and
concentration, there is generally an optimal level of salt that
favors gel formation. The lack of gelation at low salt
concentration at neutral pH may be due to the high
electrostatic repulsion between highly negatively charged
molecules [26]. However, salt only has a signicant effect
on properties of protein gels when it is added prior to
heating [27].
4.1.1 Animal proteins

A variety of animal proteins, including milk proteins,
extracted myobrillar proteins, gelatin, collagen, and egg
albumin, have been used as oil absorption inhibitors.
Addition of 1 and 3% whey protein isolate to batter of
chicken nuggets caused a reduction of oil pickup in the
nuggets, which the researchers speculate may be due to
reduced porosity of the product caused by heatinduced
crosslinking of the proteins [28]. Studies from our laboratory
have shown that whey protein isolate (2.510%), when used
as a postbreading dip in ground chicken patties, reduced oil
absorption by as much as 37.5% compared to an untreated
control [29], although the chicken patties with reduced oil
were generally harder and crunchier [30]. Unpublished
results from our laboratory indicate that blactoglobulin is
probably the protein in whey protein that is responsible for its
oil inhibiting properties. Whey protein isolate was conrmed
to be effective as a postbreading dip in breaded chicken
breast strips by reducing oil uptake by 30% [31]. Egg albumin
has been employed successfully as a postbreading, prefrying
dip in chicken patties to reduce oil absorption by up to
27% [32]. Sodium caseinate (10%) has been reported to
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decrease oil absorption by 17% in battered and breaded sh

patties, however a 45 min refrigerated dwell time was required
before the patties were fried to allow lm formation [33].
Soluble proteins extracted from muscle of various species,
i.e., chicken or sh, reduced fat pickup by 1070% when used
as a postbreading dip [34]. Reduction in oil absorption after
frying of 25% have been reported using 10% solutions of
gelatin to which battered and breaded sh were dipped
immediately before parfrying to form a thermallyinduced
protein gel [35]. When included into batter to which chicken
was dipped and then fried, egg albumin was shown to inhibit
the absorption of oil compared to a control that does not
contain albumin, although the fried product was more soggy
than the control [28]. Collagen solutions (2%) have been
used as a pretreatment for fried potato slices to retard oil
pickup by as much as 44% [36], although the application has
not been reported for battered and breaded products.
4.1.2 Plant proteins

Proteins from barley, corn, sorghum, soy, and wheat have
been reported to inhibit oil absorption in batter and breaded
fried foods. Soy protein isolate (1 and 3%) inhibited oil
absorption to a small degree in battered chicken nuggets [37]
perhaps due to the fact that it increased the water holding
capacity of the batter vefold compared to the ourbased
control. Zein, kafrin, gliadin, and hordein (from corn,
sorghum, wheat, and barley, respectively) have been used
to create protein latexes (i.e., lms) that have been reported to
reduce oil uptake of coated potato slices [12, 38]. Films from
soyprotein isolates reduced oil absorption in disks prepared
from doughnut mix by 41% [39].
4.1.3 Plasticizers
A plasticizer is routinely added to proteinbased lms in
order to increase the mobility of protein molecules [40], has
the potential to enhance the reduction of fat absorption
during frying by making the lm more exible. Research has
shown that the addition of a plasticizer to a protein lm
reduces the likelihood of hard brittle lm formation that can
occur when a protein is used as the sole ingredient for the
production of edible lms [41]. The use of plasticizers has
been explored in conjunction with soy protein isolates and
egg albumin. The addition of a plasticizer (3% glycerin or
0.05 gellan gum) caused an additional 1415% decrease
in fat absorption in a model system (doughnut disks)
compared to the system in which no plasticizer was
present [39]. Our lab attempted to determine if corn and
oat ber would be suitable plasticizers for egg albumin dips.
The results from our study show that the properties of
egg albumin that have the potential to be oilretarding were
not enhanced in the presence of corn and oat ber,
suggesting that they were not acting as plasticizers affecting
thermogelation [26].
247
4.2 Nonprotein hydrocolloids

Reduction of oil uptake in fried items also has focused on
nonprotein hydrocolloids from different sources. Research
in this area largely has focused on both hydrocolloid addition
into batter formulations and application of hydrocolloid
solutions to the exterior of the breaded product, i.e. lms,
before deep frying. Three mechanisms have been reported to
account for the oil inhibiting action of hydrocolloids: lm
formation, increasing surface hydrophobicity, and thermally
induced gel formation.
4.2.1 Cellulose gums

Hydroxymethyl, hydroxypropyl, and carboxymethyl gums of
cellulose have been successfully employed as oil inhibitors
fried foods. Prehydrated hydroxymethylcellulose (10%)
incorporation into batter resulted in greater than 52%
inhibition of fat uptake in battered chicken [42]. Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose has also been reported to be effective
in decreasing oil absorption when added to chicken
batters [43] and as a lmforming agent on a potatobased
model system [44]. Fried products exhibited 50 and 91%
reduction in oil pickup when coated with edible lms from
hydroxypropyl cellulose and methyl cellulose, respectively [45]. In tortilla chips, a 40% reduction in oiluptake during
frying was obtained using high viscosity carboxymethyl
cellulose [46]. Addition of cellulose ber to commercially
available batter mixes caused a 30% reduction of oilpickup in
battered chicken strips and 35% in battered sh llets [47].
4.2.2 Other gums

In a survey of different gums in a chickpea model system,
it was shown that the ability to reduce oil uptake in a
chickpea our model decreases in the following order:
gum arabic>carrageenan>gum karaya>guar gum>carboxymethylcellulose>hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, and that
some gums (xanthan, gum ghatti, gum tragacanth, locust
bean gum) were shown to have little or no effect on oil
reduction in the chickpea models [48]. In chicken nuggets,
however, both xanthan gum and guar gum reduced oil
absorption when incorporated into the batter [43]. Curdlan (a
polysaccharide of Dglucosyl residues connected by b1,3
linkages) added at 0.5% to batters signicantly reduced oil
uptake and moisture loss after frying [49], apparently due to
the increase in waterholding capacity by trapping moisture in
the batter thus preventing moisture replacement by oil during
frying.
4.2.3 Calcium reactive pectin

A novel method of preparing battered and breaded fried items
takes advantage of the ability of aqueous calcium to set pectin
gels. The calcium component and the pectin component can
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248
be incorporated separately into any of the three distinct stages

of the coating system, namely the predust, the batter, or
the breading, and then hydrated as the wet coating system
is applied. Inhibition of oil absorption to varying degrees
has been reported in systems utilizing calcium reactive
pectins featuring a variety of substrates [5052]. Kerry
Ingredients (Beloit, WI, USA) has commercialized a patented
version of this process, called Fry Shield.
This phenomenon was also observed in batters prepared
from rice ours that contained small amounts of pectin as a
byproduct, because addition of calcium chloride resulted in a
decrease of oil absorption [53]. However, these researchers
also showed that excess calcium chloride increased oil
absorption and speculated that this was caused by changes
in batter pH causing increased oil degradation. Thus, the
ratio of calcium to pectin should be controlled to avoid excess
calcium, a situation that would lead to deleterious effects on
the oil and increased oil absorption as explained by the
surfactant theory of oil absorption described previously.
4.2.4 Other nonprotein hydrocolloids

Viscous batters produced with rice our caused less oil
absorption and better texture compared to wheat our in
battered chicken drumsticks [54]. These researchers suggest
that since gluten has high oil absorption capacity, utilizing
ours that have low gluten, i.e. nonwheat ours, will result in
decreased oil absorption. In support of this speculation, these
researchers later showed that reduction in oil pickup in
battered chicken drumsticks (58%), okra cutlets (58%), and

deshelled shrimp (29%) was observed by replacing wheat
our with rice our [54]. Also, addition of cellulose ber
to commercially available batter mixes caused a reduction of
oilpickup of 30% in battered chicken strips and 35% in
battered sh llets [47].
5 Impact of oil absorption

The frying process produces desirable products due to their
characteristic crust formation, color, avor, and texture. The
production of lower fat versions of these products would
be very desirable. However, the organoleptic properties of
fried foods can be affected by oil absorption, as can certain
nutritional properties. It is obvious that reduction in oil
absorption will affect the total fat, calories, and percent
calories from fat. In most cases, reduction in total fat is
accompanied by an increase in moisture. These changes are
welldocumented earlier in this paper and are shown for a
variety of products in Table 1.
5.1 Impact of oil absorption on nutritional quality

The Institute of Medicines (IOMs) Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for fat intake for adults is
2035% of total calories per day. As shown in Table 6, the
predicted minimum oil reduction necessary to reduce the
percentage of calories contributed from fat to below 35%
Table 6. Theoretical total fat (g), calories, and calories from fata) for 100 g breaded and fried catsh, chicken dark meat nugget, onion ring, or
shrimp with reduced oil absorption
Percent oil reductionb)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
fat
13.3
229
52%
10.6
205
47%
7.9
181
39%
5.3
157
31%
2.6
133
18%
fat
18.0
291
56%
14.4
258
50%
10.8
226
43%
7.2
193
34%
3.6
161
20%
fat
18.6
332
51%
14.9
298
45%
11.2
264
38%
7.4
231
29%
3.7
197
17%
fat
12.2
242
46%
9.8
219
40%
7.36
197
34%
4.9
175
25%
2.4
153
14%
Product
Catfish
Total fat
Calories
% Cals from
Chicken dark
Total fat
Calories
% Cals from
Onion ring
Total fat
Calories
% Cals from
Shrimp
Total fat
Calories
% Cals from
Minimum oil
reduction to achieve
35% cals from fat
51.0%
57.5%
47.5%
36.0%
a)
Initial values (0% oil reduction) from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2012 [74].
Percent oil reduction assumes equal mass replacement of oil with water.
b)
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249
ranges from 36 to 57%. This example is illustrative of the

point that a signicant amount of oil reduction in fried foods
must occur to create a product that meets or exceeds the
AMDR for percent calories from fat.
Aside from fat and calories, oil absorption will affect the
fatty acid composition and levels of cholesterol, ber, protein,
and vitamins. The content of potentially carcinogenic
compounds in fried foods may also be affected as a
consequence of oil uptake. Thus, a decrease in oil absorption
in battered and breaded fried foods may enhance or in some
cases worsen the nutritional quality of the food.
Table 8. Total trans fatty acids (mg/140 g) for potatoes that were
prefried and fried for 8 and 20 cycles in either extra virgin olive oil
(EVOO), high oleic acid sunower oil (HOSO), or sunower oil [58]
5.1.1 Fatty acid composition
potatoes has been shown to increase with increasing frying

time (Table 8), the formation of trans fatty acids in cooking oil
was less than 5 mg/g of oil [58]. Furthermore, compared to
the average daily intake of trans fat in the US of 5.8 g, the
amount of trans fatty acids that is contributed per serving of
potato is very low. In addition, most of the trans fatty acids
in the American diet comes from baked goods. A reduction
in oil absorption in battered and breaded fried products will
prevent to some degree the uptake of trans fatty acids that
intentionally are present in the frying oil.
Factors that determine changes in the fatty acid composition of the fried food include initial fat and moisture content
and surface structure. For foods with a high initial fat
content, little change in the fatty acid composition occurs
because fat uptake is very limited or nonexistent [55].
However, for foods with low initial fat content, the fatty
acid composition of the absorbed fat reects that of the
frying oil [55], a phenomenon observed in lean sh,
which absorbed more of the frying oil and thus exhibited a
similar fatty acid composition as the frying oil [56]. These
researchers also observed that the fatty acid prole of the
breading also is affected by frying. Increased palmitic acid
content has been observed in fried foods of both vegetable
and animal origin (Table 7). The ratio of PUFA to saturated
fatty acids increased during the frying of pork loin in
sunower oil and remained unchanged when fried in olive
oil, butter, or pork lard [57]. Foods fried in lard exhibited a
signicant increase in palmitic acid content due to the fact
that lard naturally contains high amount of palmitic acid.
Thus, decreased oil absorption is likely to prevent some of
the benecial effects of oil transfer caused by migration of
the frying oil into the product, although the overall benet
of reduced fat may compensate for any gains in fatty acid
composition.
5.1.2 Trans fatty acids

Many oils for frying contain trans fatty acids due to the
presence of partially hydrogenated oils. Trans fatty acids can
also be a product of the degradation of frying oil due to the
exchange of fatty acids between food and oil and high
temperatures. Although trans fatty acid content of fried
Oil
Frozen prefried
(% increase)
After 8cycles
(% increase)
After 20 cycles
(% increase)
45.2
20.8
45.2
56.9 (25.88)
38.7 (86.06)
71.28 (57.70)
124.3 (175.00)
86.4 (315.38)
129.0 (185.40)
EVOO
HOSO
SO
5.1.3 Cholesterol content

Similar to changes observed in the fatty acid prole of fried
foods, cholesterol content reects the initial ratio of
cholesterol of the food and the cooking oil. When plant
foods are fried in animal fat, cholesterol is taken up by the
product [55]. However, a signicant decrease of cholesterol
has been observed in freshwater sh when fried in vegetable
oil [56]. Cholesterol probably is eluted into the frying oil that
initially had no cholesterol. Thus, blocking oil absorption in
battered and breaded fried foods, especially highcholesterol
meat products, may cause the retention of the endogenous
cholesterol in the product.
5.1.4 Protein
Oil absorption during frying has been shown to affect the
amino acid prole of the fried food [59]. For example, as seen
with other cooking methods, a signicant reduction was
observed in the amounts of taurine, creatine, glycine, and
alanine in fried cod compared to raw [60]. However, as shown
in Table 1, changes that occur in bulk proteins in battered and
breaded foods compared to raw are not noteworthy, but
Table 7. Comparison of palmitic acid enrichment factor (percent ratio of palmitic acid to total triglycerides) between raw and fried
products [85]
Raw food
Fried food
Peanut
Tempeh
Beef
Chicken
11.25 0.23
66.15 2.79
22.04 1.11
299.15 3.99
57.35 0.16
185.32 0.45
50.00 0.18
200.21 1.78
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250
protein percentages will be affected slightly by oil absorption,

moisture loss and the application of a batter and breading.
5.1.5 Fiber content

Deepfat frying signicantly increases both the resistant
starch and waterinsoluble ber content of fried foods [61].
Since one of the main processes undergone by starch is
retrogradation which can result in the formation of resistant
starch [62], deepfat frying signicantly increases the overall
dietary ber content of fried foods by thermally increasing the
percentage of resistant starch. A formulation that has higher
amylose content would lead to more resistant starch [62]. As
shown in Fig. 2, resistant starch content in a corn starch patty
increases with increasing amylose content [62]. This effect is
particularly noticeable in foods containing a high amount of
carbohydrates [55]. Hence, the increase of ber content in
battered and breaded fried products would depend on the
composition of the crust, which can be affected by ingredients
used to inhibit oil absorption. Also many ingredients that are
used to inhibit oil absorption in fried foods are nondigestible
carbohydrates, i.e., ber.
5.1.6 Fat soluble vitamins

Research on the bioavailability of vitamin A during frying is
conicting. On one hand, the bioavailability of vitamin A may
be enhanced by the presence of dietary longchain triglycerides, as would be consumed in fried foods rich in vitamin
A [63]. Further, deepfrying of uncoated carrot chips
increased the bioavailability of vitamin A [64]. On the other
hand, there was no difference in vitamin A content or activity
between raw and fried sweet potato, sweet bell peppers, and
tomato [65]. In addition, leeching of vitamin A into cooking
oil from food products suggests that vitamin A retention in
boiled vegetables is higher than in deepfried vegetables [66].

It appears that a reduction in oil absorption in battered and
breaded foods may cause retention of endogenous vitamin A.
Vitamin E levels in fried foods can be enhanced due to
uptake of vitamin E from vegetable oil by the fried food, as
shown in Table 9. This form of fortication has been observed
in potatoes (Table 10), as research has shown that the uptake
of vitamin E by the product decreases the vitamin E content in
the frying medium [55]. Thus, reduction in oil absorption
in battered and breaded foods may cause the retention of
endogenous vitamin E but mitigate the fortication effect of
vitamin E transfer from the frying oil into the product.
5.2 Impact of oil absorption on textural properties

Any nutritional advantage gained by decreasing oil absorption
in battered and breaded fried foods will be for naught if the
products are not readily acceptable by consumers. Since a
major attribute of battered and breaded fried foods is crunchy
texture, impact on texture is an important factor to consider.
5.2.1 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the change of volume during food processing and
can be divided into three categories: (a) apparent shrinkage,
the amount of change from initial apparent volume, (b)
isotropic shrinkage, described as the uniform shrinkage in all
dimensions of the materials, and (c) anisotropic shrinkage,
Table 9. Vitamin E level in 100 g potato products [86]
Potato products
Vitamin E (% RDA)
Raw potatoes
French fries (vegetable oil)
French fries, frozen (corn oil)
French fries (from raw in corn oil)
0.6
3.9
32.7
49.0
Table 10. Effect of frying on alpha and gamma tocopherol content in

the frying oil and fried potato product [55]
Figure 2. Resistant starch content (% of total starch) in corn starch

patty with different amylose content [62]. Used with permission.
Tocopherols in oil
(mg/100 g)
Tocopherols in fries
(mg/100 g)
Sample
Alpha
Gamma
Alpha
Gamma
Uncooked
Day 1 (initial)
Day 1 (final)
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
10.60
8.37
7.26
6.79
6.27
6.35
57.24
50.62
45.42
40.20
35.77
35.39
0.06
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.36
1.27
0.89
1.31
1.03
1.28
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nonuniform shrinkage in different dimensions [67]. Foods

that are fried show shrinkage that is dependent on frying time
and temperature, and this shrinkage is usually has been
attributed to moisture loss [68, 69]. One must be careful
when assessing shrinkage because during frying there are
factors that may cause shrinkage in one dimension that cause
expansion in another. For example, Fig. 3 shows that during
frying the radius of tortilla chips decreased but that the
thickness increased due to gas bubble expansion inside
the chip [70]. Since both shrinkage and oil absorption
are dependent on moisture content, it is likely that ingredients
that affect the moisture loss during frying will affect both
processes.
5.2.2 Texture
Crunchiness is a desirable textural property in fried foods.
Crunchiness is the result of an overall effect of various
structural and chemical manipulations that occur during
frying. The crunchiness of tortilla chips have been shown to
increase as moisture decreased, porosity increased, and pore
size distribution increased [71]. Crunchiness of fried foods is
lost rapidly [72] and may be caused by weakening of the solid
matrix due to uptake of water from the moist core and/or the
surroundings [72, 73] or increased oil absorption into the
crust. Weakening of the matrix via water absorption is not
unique to fried foods, as loss of crispness is marked by water
content which exceeds the monolayer value [73]. Water
water interactions break macromolecular interactions that
form the crystallinelike structure and the addition of water
above the monolayer makes macromolecules mobile and may
slip when force such as biting and chewing is applied. It has
been reported that the presence of oil within the solid matrix
of the crust did not affect the mechanical characteristic of the
fried food, i.e., overall hardness, but signicantly decreased
the loudness and acoustic energy released [71]. Factors that
have been reported to affect objective texture measurements
251
of fried boneless chicken coated with different batters and

breadings include substrate composition, breading type, and
shape [5].
6 Conclusions
The amount of oil taken up by battered and breaded fried
foods during immersion frying can occur during the frying
process via water replacement or immediately after frying due
to the cooling phase effect and the degree of oil absorption is
dynamically affected by the ever degrading oil, as described
by the surfactant theory. In order for ingredientbased oil
inhibition treatments to be effective, they must reduce
calories from fat to an acceptably low level, which many
health professionals consider to be below 35% calories from
fat per serving. In most cases, this would call for a reduction in
fat content of at least 50% compared to the fried, battered and
breaded food. A variety of ingredients have been employed
that retard oil absorption to varying degrees during immersion frying of battered and breaded fried foods. The majority
of these ingredients are lmforming or aqueous solutions of
proteins or nonprotein hydrocolloids that are either added
to the batter or breading, or applied as a postbreading dip.
Many of these ingredientbased processes are reported in
the patent literature so they have not been peer reviewed.
Filmforming ingredients may not be practical in modern
manufacturing facilities because of the set time required for
lm formation, but aqueous solutions composed of one or
more ingredients applied in a batter or as a postbreading dip
may hold promise.
Reduced fat battered and breaded fried products would be
expected to receive a generous reception by consumers if, as
for most reduced fat products, they are deemed acceptable.
This requires that in addition to the fat reduction, researchers
and manufacturers focus on avor, color, and texture,
especially under common rethermalization conditions. Further, issues such as shelf life, especially lipid oxidation, and
packaging will need to be taken into consideration.
The authors have declared no conict of interest.
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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.

2014, 116, 240254

manipulation of physicochemical factors of the foods being

2 Overview of the immersion frying process

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2014, 116, 240254

Influence of ingredients that reduce oil absorption

Values from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2012 [74].

cooked product is cooled before the next operation, which is

2.1 The frying process

its dryness and porosity, factors that decrease heat transfer

Immersion frying % wet basis

Oven baked % wet basis

2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2014, 116, 240254

2.3 Coating systems

the breading, carrying ingredients such as seasonings, and/or

3 Theories of oil absorption

3.1 Water replacement

American bread crumb

Japanese bread crumb

2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2014, 116, 240254

Influence of ingredients that reduce oil absorption

Figure 1. Development of pores in wheatbased batter during

restricted to large voids near the surface of the food, usually

3.2 Coolingphase effect

where Pc is the capillary pressure, glg the interfacial tension

where DP is the pressure change that drives the uid into

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2014, 116, 240254

these disagreements are discussed in an excellent review by

3.3 Surfactant theory of oil absorption

2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

10 h [2]. This is especially signicant in light of the fact that

3.4 Summary of oil absorption mechanisms

4 Ingredients that inhibit oil absorption

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2014, 116, 240254

Influence of ingredients that reduce oil absorption

31% Reduction in fat content of fried

Potato and corn starch slurry (40% solids)

Potato substrate contains less than 3%

1536% Reduction in fat content in fried

An improver (egg white, whey protein,

535% Reduction in fat content in fried

Polysaccharide powder (alginic acid preferred) average particle size 20 mm or

34% Reduction in fat content in fried

Whey protein concentrate (15% total

Chicken marinated in solution before

Reduction in oil content of 1070%

Extracted proteins from muscle of various

Protein extraction method documented in

Efficiently retards oil absorption during

Alginic ester (0.013%, at least 20%

Mixed into batters, products can be

Significantly impedes the absorption and

Calcium reactive pectin

Low oil uptake frying batters

Pregelatinized rice flour, phosphorylated

Breading is enriched with calcium, then

Reduction in fat content from 25.3 to

Calcium (0.15% in predust)

Resists absorbing oil during deep fat frying

Calcium reactive pectin

26.9% Reduction in oil