Me464-Sys Dyn & CTRL Spring-2013 Dr. Shaukat Ali

ME464-Sys Dyn & Ctrl Spring-2013
Dr. Shaukat Ali
Chapter 7
The Root Locus Method
Dr. Shaukat Ali
Outline
Introduction
The root locus concept
The root locus procedure
PID controllers
Dr. Shaukat Ali
7.1: Introduction
The root locus is a powerful tool for design and analysis of
feedback control systems.
The transient performance of a feedback control system is directly
related to the location of the poles in the s-plane.
As we change one or more system parameters, the location of
poles in s-plane changes.
Therefore, it is necessary to determine how the poles move in the
s-plane as the parameters are varied.
Root locus (RL):

It is the path of the roots of the characteristic equation
traced out in the s-plane as a system parameter is changed.
For example: changes in the parameters of a controller
This is crucial because one can adjust the system response to get
the desired performance through proper selection of controller
parameters.
Dr. Shaukat Ali
7.1: Introduction
Root Locus Method:
A graphical method for sketching the locus of roots in the splane as a parameter is varied.
This method gives a qualitative information about the
stability and performance of the system.
Dr. Shaukat Ali
7.2: The Root Locus Concept

Root locus:
It is the path of the roots of the characteristic equation
traced out in the s-plane as a system parameter is changed.
Example:
G s
T s
1
s s 10
K
s 10 s K
q s s 2 10 s K 0
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Pole location as a function of gain
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Root locus:
As K varies the location
of the poles is changed.
Hence root locus shows
the changes in the
transient response as the
parameter K is varied.
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Remarks:
For K<25, the system has distinct real roots, and hence is:
Overdamped
For K=25, the system has equal real roots, and hence is:
Critically damped
For K>25, the system has complex roots, and hence is:
Underdamped
In underdamped case the real parts of the poles are always

the same regardless of the value of the gain. This means that
the settling time remains the same.
Note: for higher order systems, this analysis is not

practical.
Dr. Shaukat Ali

The performance of a control system is described by the
closed-loop transfer function:
Y s N ( s )
T s
R s D ( s )
The roots of the characteristic equation determine the modes
of response of the system.
Example:
T s
KG s
1 KG s
1 KG s 0
Dr. Shaukat Ali
Characteristic equation:
1 KG s 0
Where K is a variable parameter.

The characteristic roots (poles) of the system must satisfy
this equation.
The characteristic equation is a function of s j
1 KG s 0
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Complex number algebra:
In polar form:
Magnitude/absolute value
s
x y
2
Imaginary
Angle/phase
1 y
x
tan
1 y
tan
tan 1 y
x
s
NAN
if x 0
Real
if x 0, y 0
if x 0, y 0
if x 0, y 0
s plane
if x 0, y 0
if x 0, y 0
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Complex function:
The function of a complex number is also a complex number
F s s a
In case of control systems:

m
F s
s zi
i 1
n
s p j
j 1
The magnitude
m
F s
s zi
i 1
n
s pj
zero lengths
pole lengths
j 1
Dr. Shaukat Ali

The phase or angle:
F s
zero
angles
s z s
i
i 1
Example:
pole
angles
pj
j 1
s 1
F s
s s 2
Find F(s) at the point s=-3+j4
Dr. Shaukat Ali

KG(s) is a function of s and hence is a complex number
KG s 1
KG s 1 j 0
In polar form
KG s KG s 1 j 0
Therefore:
KG s 1
KG s 180 k 360 180 (1 2 k ) 180 , 540 ,
k 0 , 1, 2 , 3,
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Conclusion:
A pole of a system causes the angle of KG(s) (or simply G(s)
since K is a scalar) to be an odd multiple of 180.
A pole of a system causes the absolute value of KG(s) to be
equal to 1.
Dr. Shaukat Ali
7.3: The Root Locus Procedure

An orderly process for locating the locus of roots as a
parameter varies.
STEP 1: Locate the poles and zeros of P(s) in the s-plane
Write the characteristic equation as:
1 F s 0
Then rearrange it in such away that the parameter of interest, K,

appears as a multiplying factor:
1 KP s 0
for 0 K
Factors P(s) and write it in form of poles and zeros:

m
1 K
s zi
i 1
n
s p j
j 1
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Locate the poles (-pi) and zeros (-zi) on the s-plane. By
convention, we use x to denote poles and o to denote
zeros.
Rearrange the characteristic equation:
s p j K s z i 0
n
j 1
i 1
For K=0, the roots of the characteristic equation are the

poles of the P(s), since:
s p j 0
n
j 1
For K=, the roots of the characteristic equation are the

m
zeros of the P(s), since:
s zi 0
i 1
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Property of RL:
The RL of the characteristic equation 1+KP(s)=0 begins at the
poles of P(s) and ends at the zeros of P(s) as K increases from
zero to infinity. (verified)
STEP 2: Locate the segments of the real axis that are the root loci.
Property of RL:
The root locus on the real axis always lies in a section of the real
axis to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros.
This property can be verified by the angle criterion.
A branch of the RL is the locus of one root when K varies.

The number of braches of RL is equal to the number of
poles of P(s).
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Property of RL:
The RL are symmetrical with respect to the horizontal real
axis because the complex roots appears as pairs of complex
conjugate roots.
Complex conjugate roots:

Roots having same real parts but with imaginary parts equal
in magnitude and opposite in sign.
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Example:
characteristic equation of a control system:
1 F (s) 1
K
1
4
12 s 1
2
s s
Dr. Shaukat Ali

STEP 3: proceed the loci to the zeros at infinity along
the asymptotes.
Asymptotes: it is the path that the root locus follows as the
parameter becomes very large and approaches infinity.
The number of asymptotes is equal to the number of poles
minus the number of zeros.
Angle of the asymptote: the angle that the asymptote makes
with the real axis.
A
2k 1
nm
180
k 0 ,1, 2 , n m 1
Real axis intercept: The asymptotes are centered at a point on

the real axis:
poles zeros
p z
n
nm
j 1
i 1
nm
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Example
1 F s 1
K s 1
s s 2 s 4
Dr. Shaukat Ali

STEP 4: Determine the break away point on the real
axis (if any).
The breakaway is a point on the real axis at which the root
locus leave the real axis.
To compute the break away point, we determine the
maximum of K. That is:
1 KP s 0
K
dK
ds
1
P s
d
ds
P s
The roots will give the break away point.

The breakaway point can also be evaluated graphically.
Dr. Shaukat Ali

STEP 5: Determine the angle of departure of the
locus from a pole.
Angle of locus departure from a pole is the difference
between the net angle due to all other poles and zeros and the
criterion angle.
Dr. Shaukat Ali

STEP 6: Determine where the locus crosses the
imaginary axis (if it does so), using the Routh-Hurwitz
criterion.
STEP 7: complete the sketch of the root loci.
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Example 7.4:
Plot the RL for a system with following characteristic
equation as K varies for K>0.
K
s s 4 s 4 j 4 s 4 j 4
STEP1:
P s
1
s s 4 s 4 j 4 s 4 j 4
Zeros: this system has no finite zeros

Poles at: 0 , 4 , 4 j 4 , 4 j 4
As the number of poles n=4, we have 4 separate loci.
The RL are symmetrical with respect to the real axis
Dr. Shaukat Ali

STEP2:
A segment of the RL exists on the real axis between s=0 and
s=-4.
STEP3:
Number of asymptotes=n-m=4-0=4
The angles of the asymptotes
A
2k 1
nm
k 0 ,1, 2 , n m 1
180
The intercept/center of the asymptotes
j 1
i 1
p i z i
nm
Dr. Shaukat Ali

STEP4:
The breakaway point is evaluated through:
dK
ds
d
ds
P s
Or graphically, the breakaway point is between 0 and -4.
STEP5:
Angle of departure of RL from a pole:
STEP6:
The imaginary axis values of the loci.
STEP7:
Sketch the complete RL
Dr. Shaukat Ali
Dr. Shaukat Ali
7.6: Three-Term (PID) Controller

PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controller:
In industry, the most common controller that has so far been
implemented is the simple proportional plus integral plus
derivative (PID) controller.
R s
E s
+
_
Controller
U s
G c s
Process
G p s
Y s
Sensor
Measured output
The general form of the PID control (actuating) signal is:
u t K P e t K I e t dt K D
de t
dt
Dr. Shaukat Ali

The transfer function of the PID Controller is:
U s
E s
KP
KI
s
KDs
If KP is the only non-zero term, the controller is said to be a

proportional controller or P-control for short.
If KI is the only non-zero term, the controller is said to be an
integral controller or I-control for short.
If KP and KI are the only non-zero terms, the controller is
said to be a proportional plus integral controller or PIcontrol for short.
If KP and KD are the only non-zero terms, the controller is
said to be a proportional plus derivative controller or PDcontrol for short.
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Objective:
Choose a suitable controller Gc(s) to make the closed-loop
system:
1) stable;
2) the output y(t) of the plant be close to the reference signal
r(t) (i.e. error ess should be small)
1
s 1
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Proportional control (P-control)
The controller transfer function is:
G c s K P
The system transfer function:

T s
KP
s 1 K P
Stability: from R-H criterion, the system is stable if:

0
1 KP 0
Steady-state error
e ss
1
1 KP
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Proportional control (P-control)
The unit step response is:
y t
KP
1 e
1 K P
For quick response (i.e. less settling time), the KP must be as

large as possible, for a given time constant .
Imaginary
Real
1 KP
s plane
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Integral-control (I-control)
The problem with a P controller is that the steady-state error,
ess, is not zero for a step input in case of type zero system.
Can we design a controller which makes ess = 0?
Yes. We need to introduce an integral term.
The output signal of an Integral controller has the form:
u t K I e t dt
The controller transfer function is:

G c s
KI
s
The system transfer function (2nd order system):

T s
KI
s s K I
2
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Stability: from R-H criterion, the system is stable if:
0
KI 0
Steady-state error in case of step input:
e ss
A
1 lim G s
s 0
An integral controller eliminated the steady-state error of a

step response .
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Unit step response:
T s
n
2
KI
2
s 1 s
KI
KI
s 2 n s n
2
2 n
For a given time constant, KI can be adjusted to get the

desired transient response of the system
Example:
G p s
1
s 10
Dr. Shaukat Ali

PI-Control
A proportional plus integral (PI) controller has the transfer
function:
K
G c s K P
1
s 1
The task is to tune the control parameters KP and KI to

achieve a better control.
By combining the advantages of P and I controllers, we have
more freedom of choice and can achieve better performance
since there are two parameters to tune.
Dr. Shaukat Ali
Summary
KP s
K
s
KP s
K
s
KP s
K
s
Dr. Shaukat Ali
Summary
KP s
K
1 s 1
KP s
K
s 1 s 1
KP s
K a s 1
s 1 s 1
Dr. Shaukat Ali
Summary
KP s
1 s 1 2 s 1
KP s
K
s 1 s 1 2 s 1
KP s
K a s 1
s 1 s 1 2 s 1
Dr. Shaukat Ali
7.7: Design Examples

Example 7.7: Automobile Velocity Control
A velocity control system for maintaining the relative velocity
between the two vehicles.
The output Y(s) is the relative velocity between the two
vehicles.
The input R(s) is the desired relative velocity between the two
vehicles.
The transfer function of the process (automobile system) is:
G p s
s 2 s 8
Objective:
To design a controller that can maintain a prescribed velocity
between the vehicles and maneuver the active vehicle.
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Example 7.7: Automobile Velocity Control continued
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Control Goal:
Maintain a prescribed velocity between the vehicles and maneuver the
active vehicle.
Variable to be controlled:
The relative velocity between the vehicles, denoted by y(t)
Design specifications:
DS1: zero steady state error to a step input.
DS2: steady state error due to a ramp input of less than 25% of the
input magnitude.
DS3: Percent overshoot less than 5% to a step input
DS4: settling time less than 1.5 seconds to a step input (using a 2%
criterion to establish settling time)
Dr. Shaukat Ali

System configuration:
R s
Controller
_
G c s
Process
G p s
Y s
Obtain mathematical models:

G p s
s 2 s 8
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Controller design:
G p s
s 2 s 8
Dr. Shaukat Ali

Me464-Sys Dyn & CTRL Spring-2013 Dr. Shaukat Ali

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The Root Locus Method