12 - Chapter 2 PDF

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PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In empirical researches literature review is an important aspect covering vital
evaluation of the previous and already existing case studies or reports by scholars in a
respective field of work. It provides a strong foundation and generates insight in the
mind of researcher. Hence for the present study also an exhaustive effort is made to
review the studies of related variables involved in the present investigations. To serve
this purpose the sources such as Psychological Abstract, Sociological Abstract,
Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Journal of Health and Social Behavior,
Journal of Addictions and Offender Counseling, Personnel Psychology, British
Journal of Psychology, Academy of Management Review, Journal of Organizational
Behavior, Journal of Health Management, Journal of Vocational
Behaviour,
Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Indian Academy of Applied Psychology,

Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, Journal of Business Studies
Quarterly etc., as well as the proceedings of different conferences and seminars are
referred and reviewed. Further only the relevant studies are reported here in brief.
2.1
Studies on Aircraft Employees

Spencer and Burke (1991) explored an alternative strategy for addressing
the service quality problem by focusing on the individual service role.

The study was tested on a sample of 169 customer service employees from a large
international airline. Additional performance data were collected from the airline's
Market Research and Quality Assurance groups. Results revealed that perceptions of
management practices were found to be associated with two of the three identified
key characteristics of the service role, and strongly associated with social support.
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One aspect of social support was found to bear a strong relationship to characteristics
of the service role. In addition, work overload was found to contribute significantly to
employee perceptions of service provided. Average measures of employee
perceptions of service were found to be highly related to customer satisfaction.
Barnes (1992) conducted a study on stress in aviation personnel. A sample of
25 captains, 16 flight engineers, 11 cabin crew members from air India were
considered for the study. The results revealed that the cabin crews have more stressors
than other aviation groups. This is followed by pilots.
According to Costa (1995) it is evident that the job entails, on the whole, high
psychological demands while being subjected to a considerable degree of external
control. This feeling of lack of personal influence often complained about by air
traffic controllers can be a powerful stressor, especially if one takes into account the
fact that the job requires high levels of responsibility.
McFadden (1996) found no difference between the pilot-error accident rates
of male and female airline pilots. According to him, gender does not appear to be a
risk factor for accidents when exposure to flying opportunity is controlled.
According to Li and Baker (1997) little public data and few studies are
available in the United States and elsewhere to provide information about specific
types of occurrences, such as falls in, on or from aircraft. The most recent United
States Department of Labor data show that more than 10,000 non-fatal slips, trips and
falls resulted in days away from work during 1997 among workers in scheduled air
transportation. A study published in 1997 reviewed 1980 and 1990 data on fatalities in
aviation. The study identified five deaths in 1980 attributed to fall in, on or from
aircraft among 1,543 aviation-related fatalities, and one death in 1990 attributed to
that cause among 1,011 aviation-related fatalities. Four of the 1980 deaths and one of
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the 1990 deaths were classified as involving ground workers, but the report did not
specify the cause of death. The study used public data from the National Center for
Health Statistics and other cause-of-death databases.
Jamal and Preena (1998) examined the relationship between job stress and
employees' well-being in a developing country in Asia. Data were collected by means
of a structured questionnaire from 150 employees working in a national carrier in a
developing country in Asia. Pearson correlation and moderated multiple regression
was used to analyze the data. Job stress was significantly related to organizational
commitment and job satisfaction. Moderated multiple regression did not support the
role of gender as a moderator of the stressoutcome relationship.
Caroline and Marilyn (2000) investigated experiences of female pilots in a
large international airline based in Europe. The data were collected from in-depth
interviews with 23 female and 17 male commercial airline pilots. The article argues
that commercial aviation continues to be dominated by masculine values and
practices, which result in the earlier stages of womens careers being treated as a rite
of passage. The first women to join the airline experienced sexism, harassment, high
visibility and isolation. Although the extent of the difficulties has declined over time,
the experience of dealing with sexism and adapting to the masculine culture continues
to influence the attitudes of female pilots, especially towards gender and equal
opportunities.
Baker, Lamb, Grabowski, Rebok, and Li (2001) found that male pilots are
more likely to crash due to inattention or flawed decision-making, while female pilots
are more likely to crash because they mishandle the aircraft. They also found that loss
of control on landing or take-off was the most common source of crashes for both
sexes, leading to 59% of crashes by female pilots and 36% of crashes by male pilots.
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Mechanical failure, running out of fuel and landing the plane with the landing gear up
were among the problems more likely to occur with males, while stalling was more
likely to occur with females.
Iqbal and Kamal (2001) explored the difference in sexual harassment
experience among Ground and Air-hostesses. The result indicated that there is no
significant difference in sexual harassment experience between two groups regarding
different variables (e.g., age, experience, job-status, and marital-status) of the women,
although all women had experiences of sexual harassment at one time or other.
Fogarty (2004) employed a safety climate approach to assist in the
development of a model that can help to explain morale, psychological health,
turnover intentions, and error in the aviation maintenance environment. An instrument
called the maintenance environment survey was developed and administered to 240
personnel responsible for maintenance of a large military helicopter fleet. Data
collected through the survey were used to develop a structural model that predicted
45% of the variance in psychological health, 67% of the variance in morale, 27% of
the variance in turnover intentions, and 44% of the variance in self-reported
maintenance errors. The model showed the pathways through which organizational
level and individual level variables can influence work outcomes and leads to
suggestions for interventions that can help to improve maintenance efficiency.
Prince and Simon (2006) examined the impact of multimarket contact on ontime performance in the airline industry. Using flight-level data for more than 3.5
million flights, authors found that increases in multimarket contact lead to increases in
delays, and this result is robust to several delay measures and the inclusion of carrierroute, as well as month, fixed effects. Further authors determined that the effect is
primarily in the form of departure delays, and not due to changes in scheduled flight
times or time spent in the air.
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Vermeulen (2009) investigated flight instructors' perceptions with regard to

gender-related pilot behaviour. The first sample consisted of 93 flight instructors and
the second sample was a control group of 93 commercial pilots. The aviation gender
attitude questionnaire was administered to measure the perceptions that both groups
held about female pilots' flying proficiency and safety orientation. Statistical analysis
revealed that flight instructors and commercial pilots differed significantly in their
perceptions of female pilots' flying proficiency but that the two groups did not differ
in their perceptions of female pilots' safety orientation.
According to Maureen (2010) the Aviation industry has developed
extensively since its establishment by the Wright Brothers in 1903. Over time, the
highly male-dominated industry experienced significant changes to incorporate
female aviators. Determined women initiated this process through participating in the
aircraft engineering sector and pursuing careers as pilots. However, these women
faced various challenges, which resulted in setbacks to their effective growth in the
industry. In fact, vital issues encountered in the past are still present and often
overlooked in todays aviation industry. Therefore, identifying these problems and
proposing solutions with effective corrective measures is necessary to increase and
motivate female pilots globally.
Filardo, Febbraro, and Gill (2011) explored the precursors to negative
gender attitudes in an attempt to identify some of the key factors that contribute to
stereotype threat. Structural equation modeling based on survey findings from a
sample of male and female air cadets (N=211) indicated that an awareness of pilot
limitations and rational thinking patterns predicted aviation gender attitudes (AGA).
Knowing the precursors to negative AGA could point to a mechanism by which these
attitudes, and therefore, the environment encountered by female cadets, may be
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altered to increase their confidence and decrease the stereotype threat, thus potentially
leading to fewer accidents.
Nogueira et al. (2012) evaluated psychosocial indicators as well as
musculoskeletal symptoms and disorders among aircraft maintenance workers. 101
employees were evaluated. Musculoskeletal symptoms and disorders were assessed
through the nordic musculoskeletal questionnaire (NMQ) and a standardized physical
examination. The job content questionnaire (JCQ) and the utrecht work engagement
Scale (UWES) were applied to evaluate psychosocial indicators. Results of the NMQ
indicate the lower back as the most affected body region. On the other hand, the
physical examination has shown clinical diagnosis of shoulder disorders. Neck, upper
back and ankle/foot were also reported as painful sites. Most of workers had active
work-demand profile and high work engagement levels.
Above reviewed most of the studies focused on gender difference in the
aviation industry. Remaining few studies are highlighting aircraft employees work
commitment, job satisfaction stress as well as psychological indicators and
musculoskeletal symptoms.
2.2
Studies on Organizational Role Stress
2.2.1 Studies Relating Demographic Variables to Organizational Role Stress

The relationship between demographic variables viz., age, gender, education,
occupation, experience, type of family, and stress are reviewed as bellow:
The background variables studied by Sen (1982) in relation to role stress were
age, sex, education, income, family type, marital status, residence, distance from
residence to place of work, distance from place of domicile to place of work, entry
and previous job experience. Some of the conclusions drawn were that role stagnation
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decreases as people advance in age; age is negatively related with role stress. Women
experience more role stress as compared to men. Role stress is inversely related to
income; the higher the income, the less is the level of reported role stress. Unmarried
persons experience more stress than married persons. This may be due to their
comparative lack of security need, resulting in lower self-esteem, autonomy and selfactualization needs. Persons from urban background may experience more stress.
Mitra and Sen (1993) in their study found that male and female executives
differ significantly on role ambiguity, role conflict, inter role distance, future
prospects and human relation at work and femininity and masculinity dimensions.
Male executives with masculine sex role orientation faced greater job stress and
anxiety than females possessing an androgynous personality. Authors attributed this
fact to a greater reluctance to self disclose among men and different socialization
patterns laid down for both men and women in Indian society.
Sahu and Mishra (1995) made an attempt to explore gender differences in
relationship between stresses experienced in various areas of life. The sample for the
study was 120 men and 120 women teachers. The result revealed the significant
positive relationship between works related stress and society related stress in males.
On the other hand, in females, a significant positive relationship was observed
between family stress and society related stress.
Triveni and Aminabhavi (2002) conducted a study to know the gender
difference in occupational stress of professional and non- professionals. The sample
consisted of 300 professionals (doctors, lawyers and teachers) and 100 non
professionals. The result revealed that women professionals experience significantly
higher occupational stress than men due to under participation.
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M. I. Khan, Khan and Khan (2005) conducted a study on coping strategies

among male and female teachers with high and low job strain. The results of the
present study indicated that both male and female teachers used the same strategies to
cope with job strain. Significant difference was not found to exist between the male
and female teachers on different types of coping strategies except use of humour.
Teachers have adopted a range of coping strategies most tend to be functional or
active and some are dysfunctional or passive (i.e. self-distraction and use of humour).
Male and female teachers did not give response on alcohol dimension of cope scale.
Bhatia and Kumar (2005) studied on occupational stress and burnout in
industrial employees. A sample consisted of 100 employees belonging to supervisor
and below supervisor level. Their experience/length of service varied from 2-6 and 712 years. Industrial employees at supervisor rank and below supervisor rank with
more experience of service had more occupational stress due to more feeling of
depersonalization and more emotional exhaustion. From the above studies, it was
concluded that the length of service has negative and positive relationship with stress.
Anitha Devi (2007) aimed at identifying the degree of life stress and role
stress experienced by professional women. A total sample of 180 women
professionals belonging to six occupations were chosen for the study. The results
revealed that, the older person experience lower life stress and role stress. Younger
people experience more stress as compared to older people. The greater the numbers
of years of service greater the role stress. The lower the income, greater stress
experienced i.e. stress decreases with increase. It was concluded that younger age
group is more susceptible to stress due to lack of experience and older age group
experience stress due to the increase in the responsibility.
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Wu Yu-Chi and Shih Keng-Yu (2010) investigated whether gender roles may
affect perceived job stress. In order to ensure that the empirical results relate to a
single job environment, all participants were required to be employed as a bank clerk
in Taiwanese banks. Based on the findings, implications related to choosing
employees who are less affected by stress are discussed. In turn, employers can look
to recruit employees that are better able to function in stressful situations, which
would assist firms to lower costs associated with helping employees deal with stress.
This finding also suggested that for job stress (work-related psychological stress)
studying, gender role (a psychological construct) may be a more suitable construct
than sex role (a biological construct) to be used to explore the relationship with job
stress.
Anshula and Srivastava (2011) analyzed whether the female partners in twocareer couples of different types, namely accommodator', 'adversary' and
adversaries, significantly differ with regard to their organizational role stress and job
performance. The study demonstrated that wives in 'adversary' type of two-career
couples experience relatively highest magnitude of role stress, while 'accommodators'
experience lowest degree of job stress. Expectedly, 'adversaries' were found to
maintain highest level of performance. Organizational role stress and job performance
were found to be inversely correlated for all the three sub-groups, but the intensity of
this relationship was highest for the 'adversary' type of couples. The study also
revealed that the relationship between role stress and job performance of the
participants is not significantly moderated by the type of two career couples they
belong to.
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2.2.2 Studies Relating Occupation and Position of Employees to Organizational

Role Stress
Experience of stress differs from one profession to the other depending upon
the nature and condition of their work and many more other factors. Some of the
studies in this regard are stated below:
Satyanarayana (1995) investigated stressors among 75 executives and 75
supervisors of Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd (BHEL). The analysis of the data revealed
that role erosion, personable inadequacy, resource inadequacy and role stagnation
were experienced as dominate contributors of role stress in executive supervisors.
The two groups differed significantly in respect of inter-role distance, role overload,
personal inadequacy and role ambiguity dimensions.
Ryhal and Singh (1996) considered university faculty for their study using
samples of 100 faculty members 30 professors, 31 associate and 39 assistant
professors. Results revealed that those with 26-35 years experience had higher job
stress than those with teaching experience of 16-25 years and 5-15 years. Those with
16-25 years experience had higher job stress than those with teaching experience of 515 years.
Ansari and Singh (1997) made an attempt to explore the contribution of
demographic variables to the nature of stress experienced by the teachers in an
agriculture university. The study comprised sample of 235 faculty members (23
professors, 74 associate and 138 assistant professors). The professors were either in
moderate or in high stress categories as compared to associate and assistant
professors.
Wilkes et al. (1998) used descriptions of the lived experience of 21
community (district) nurses, from the Wentworth Area Health Service in Sydney,
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Australia, to determine the stressors involved in caring for palliative care clients at
home. Sources of stress for the nurses were poor family dynamics, the family wanting
the nurse to be part of the family unit, workloads, and others expectations. Another
dominant stressor was the family and/or clients denial of the possibility of no cure.
This often conflicted with the nurses expectation of good dying as accepting and
peaceful. The nurses coped with their stress by developing a support network, talking
about their stress and sharing experiences in groups at work, the latter having
important implications for employers.
Upadhyay and Singh (1999) compared the occupational stress level
experienced by the 20 college teachers and 20 executives. The teachers showed
significant higher levels of stress than executives on intrinsic impoverishment and
status factors. They experienced stress because their personal wishes and strong desire
for better and prosperous career were felt to be blocked by others.
Pandey and Srivastava (2000) studied the female personnel working in
railway, bank and teaching institutions. A sample of 96 females, 16 subjects in each
professional area were taken. The study identified that respondents among all the
three dimensions, clerks of bank and railway experienced more work stress as
compared to teachers.
Pradhan and Khattri (2001) studied the effect of gender on stress and
burnout in doctors. They have considered experience of work and family stress as
intra-psychic variables. The sample consisted of 50 employed doctor couples. Mean
age was 40 years for males and 38 years for females. The result indicated no gender
difference in the experience of burnout, but female doctors experience significantly
more stress.
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Rastogi and Kashyap (2003) conducted a study on occupational stress and

work adjustment among working women. Sample consisted of 150 nurses, clerks, and
teachers. The results concluded that maximum occupational stress is found among
nurses as compared to other two groups. Nurses work under the most severe
occupational environment. Teachers perceived the minimum occupational stress
because their working climate is best in comparison to the other two groups.
Chand and Monga (2007) examined the correlates of job stress and burn out
among 100 faculty members from two universities. Respondents with internal locus of
control, high social support and high job involvement experience less stress. Results
also revealed that, maximum stress is reported by professors and minimum by
assistant professors.
Mehta and Kaur (2009) carried out comparative study of organizational role
stress (ORS) among technical and non-technical teachers in Ludhiana, using ORS
scale. The study revealed that resource inadequacy was higher for technical teachers
as compared to non-technical teachers for the whole sample and for the lower age
group (<30 years). For the higher age group (>30 years), personal inadequacy and role
ambiguity were higher for technical teachers as compared to non-technical teachers.
2.2.3 Studies Relating to Organizational Factors and Stress
The organizational factors such as role, work, role, organizational climate,
interpersonal relationship at work place etc., seem to have the most significant
influence on an employees stress. Some studies related to this aspect are reviewed as
below:
Kirby (1990) explored the perceived stress levels of Kentucky elementary
school principals. Findings revealed that the most stressful events involved forcing the
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resignation or dismissal of a teacher and dealing with unsatisfactory performance of

professional staff. The lowest amount of stress was associated with working with the
district central administration. A conclusion is that although Kentucky elementary
principals experience some stress, the job overall is not highly stressful.
Mishra and Dixit (1995) attempted to reveal the coping styles of 300
allopathic doctors. It was found that each of the four type of job stress namely role
based stress, task based stress, boundary spanning stress and conflict mediating stress
influenced burnout among the doctors and role based stresses such as role conflict and
role ambiguity are related with feeling of lack of personal accomplishment.
Lim and Teo (1999) identified through surveys and interviews the key factors
at the workplace which generate stress among 308 information technology (IT)
personnel in Singapore. They suggested that factors which generate stress can be
grouped into 4 broad categories as lack of career advancement related to the problem
of high rate of employee turnover, Work overload resulting in spillover of workload at
home and guilt and dissatisfaction for being less attentive to family, risk taking and
decision making consisting of fear of making mistakes and employee morale and
organizational culture related to a lack of participation in decisions affecting their
work, undue blame for machine failure and difficulty in team work considering the
fluid and noninvolved nature of work.
Pandey and Tripathy (2001) examined the level of perceived occupational
stress and burnout in engineering college male teachers (N=56) as well as the relative
importance of various job stressors in predicting burnout. Analysis of the data
revealed a moderate level of occupational stress as well as burnout in the given
sample. Various job stressors correlated positively with emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization component of burnout and negatively with the personal
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accomplishment component. Role ambiguity and unreasonable group and political

pressure were found to be the two best predictors of various components of burnout.
Strenuous working condition and intrinsic impoverishment emerged as the third best
predictor of emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment respectively. Overall,
the findings suggested that teaching is a stressful occupation and teachers are at risk
for developing burnout syndrome and subjectively defined job stressors such as role
ambiguity, unreasonable group pressure may play an important role in it.
Lait and Wallace (2002) proposed and assessed a model of organizationalprofessional conflict to determine how professional and bureaucratic conditions of
work influence service providers expectations and in turn their job stress. The model
was tested using data from a survey of 514 human service providers in Alberta,
Canada. The findings suggested that whether service providers expectations are met
is critical in explaining job stress. Professional conditions of work relating to working
relationships and client interactions are key to fulfilling service providers
expectations, whereas bureaucratic conditions of work that reflect role conflict and
excessive role demands are particularly stressful. An unexpected finding was that
bureaucratization of procedures that may limit service workers control over their
work does not contribute significantly to their job stress.
Nasurdin, Ramayah and Kumaresan (2005) determined the influence of
organizational variables (conflict, blocked career, alienation, work overload, and
unfavorable work environment) on job stress among managers and to examine
whether this relationship varies according to the individual's level of neuroticism.
Analysis of 285 responses using hierarchical regression revealed that three of the five
organizational variables (conflict, blocked career, and alienation) had significant
positive effects on job stress. Neuroticism was found to moderate the effects of the
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three organizational stressors (alienation, work overload, and unfavorable work

environment) on job stress.
Bhattacharya and Guha (2006) conducted a study on stress and coping on
lady criminal lawyers of Kolkata city. A group of 34 lady criminal lawyers were
selected for the study. The significant factors which are generating stress are busy
schedule of work, odd duty hours, poor interaction, leading tendency of superiors, and
poor interpersonal relationship among the colleagues in the work environment.
Latha and Panchanatham (2007) found out the job stressors and their
implications on the job performance of 40 software professionals. More than 50% of
the respondents do not feel stressed by the working conditions and promotional
opportunities. It can be inferred that IT industry is providing better working
environment.
Srivastava (2009) investigated the determinants of organisational stressors
and its effect on job stress. It further investigated gender as a moderator for
organisational-job stress relationship in private sector organisations. Analyses of 300
responses using hierarchical regression revealed that organizational variables (blocked
career, alienation, conflict, and unfavorable work environment) had significant
positive effects on job stress. Gender moderated the effects of these organizational
stressors on job stress.
Sharma and Devi (2011) identified the sources of role stress experienced by
the commercial bank employees in Jammu and Kashmir state of India, The results
showed that though, banks in the public sector are more characterized by role
indistinctness, role invasiveness, role divergence, resource shortage and banks in
private sector by role excess but the difference is statistically insignificant. However,
statistically significant differences have been found for role augmentation, self-
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diminution and role stress among employees: an empirical study of commercial banks
60 fortification in public and private sector banks.
2.2.4 Organizational Role Stress in Relation to Job Related Factors
Chassie and Bhagat (1980) examined the differential effects of role stress
experienced by women in terms of commitment to the organization, overall job
satisfaction, satisfaction with specific aspects of the job, and personal-life satisfaction.
Role stress was significantly and negatively related to organizational commitment;
overall job satisfaction; satisfaction with pay, work, co-workers, and supervision; and
personal-life satisfaction. The t-test analysis revealed significant mean differences
between high and low role-stress groups on organizational commitment, overall job
satisfaction, and satisfaction with extrinsic aspects of the job.
Chaudhary (1990) examined the relationship between role stress and job
satisfaction among bank officers. The main findings of the study was role erosion and
resource inadequacy was experienced as dominant whereas, role ambiguity and role
expectation conflict as remote contributors of role stress among bank officers. No
significant differences was observed between the two age groups on role stress
dimensions. The overall indices of role stress and job satisfaction was found to be
negatively correlated in higher as well as lower age groups of bank officers.
In another study, Ahmad and Khanna (1992) investigated the relationship
between job stress, job satisfaction and job involvement among 50 middle level hotel
managers (aged 22-36 years). The analysis of the data revealed a significant negative
relationship between job stress and job satisfaction irrespective of the subjects sex,
marital status, education and experience. Occupational stress was reported to be
negatively correlated with job involvement, and the high job involvement group was
more satisfied with their job than the low job involvement group.
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Quah and Campbell (1994) found that role conflict and role ambiguity were
positively and significantly related to work stress among Singaporean managers and
work stress was negatively and significantly related to job satisfaction. Two
personality variables were chosen as moderator variables, but only one, tolerance of
ambiguity showed moderating effects. Locus of control failed to moderate the stressor
stress and stress response relationships. Overall, this study demonstrates that stress at
work does exist for a sample of Singaporean managers and that the antecedents of this
stress are role related.
Judge and Colquitt (2004) examined the relationship between organizational
justice and stress and whether workfamily conflict was a mediator of the
relationship. Distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational injustice were
cast as stressors to explore their relationships with the stress levels of 174 faculty
members employed at 23 U.S. universities. The results revealed that procedural and
interpersonal justice had the strongest relationships with stress, and that these effects
were mediated by workfamily conflict. The presence of justice seemed to allow
participants to better manage the interface of their work and family lives, which was
associated with lower stress levels.
Ahsan, Abdullah, Fie and Alam (2009) investigated the relationship between
job stress and job satisfaction. The determinants of job stress that have been examined
under this study include, management role, relationship with others, workload
pressure, homework interface, role ambiguity, and performance pressure. The sample
consists of a public university academician from Klang valley area in Malaysia. The
results revealed a significant relationship between four of the constructs tested. The
results also showed that there is significant negative relationship between job stress
and job satisfaction.
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Pathak (2012) examined the relationship between organizational stress

and job satisfaction level of an individual and whether perceived organizational
support moderates the relationship between both. Study was done on a sample of
200 managers belonging to private sector organizations of Delhi/NCR region. The
results showed that organizational role stress is negatively and significantly
related with job satisfaction. Perceived organizational support was found to lessen the
stress level of the employees, thereby indirectly affecting job satisfaction. In addition,
the results of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis support the moderating
effect of perceived organizational supported with regard to the relationship
between organizational role stress and job satisfaction.
2.3
Studies on Emotional Labour
2.3.1 Studies Relating Emotional Labour to Demographic Variables

Bulan, Erickson and Wharton (1997) using a sample of employees within
the health and banking industries, examined the effects of affective requirements,
interactive work, and other occupational conditions on women's and men's job-related
emotional well-being. It is found that when one's job success depends on being able to
handle people well, both women and men tend to experience higher levels of
inauthenticity and fewer positive feelings about their work. However, spending more
time at work interacting with others and having greater control over that work tends to
have the opposite effect on well-being. Authors also found that job involvement
operates quite differently for women and men in ways that are sensitive to servicesector work conditions.
Babin and Boles (1998) researched gender differences in the behaviour of
service employees and cited some important underlying factors in the organisational
literature. For women, service work is more emotionally exhausting, their work roles
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are more ambiguous, and the separation of work and non-work tasks is more difficult
because they take on greater responsibilities. Work roles often dominate gender roles,
but especially in frontline service jobs, gender roles and associated stereotypes
continue to reign.
Lockenhoff and Carstensen (2004) found that when time in life is limited,
younger and older people alike pay more attention to the emotional aspects of
situations, prioritize emotion-focused over problem-focused coping strategies. Similar
effects emerged when time is limited for reasons other than chronological and there is
ample evidence for a greater emphasis on emotion-focused coping strategies as people
age, and this is associated with better emotion-regulatory skills and more positive and
less negative emotional experience among older adults.
Johnson and Spector (2007) surveyed 176 participants from eight customer
service organizations and investigated how individual factors moderate the impact of
emotional labor strategies on employee well-being. Hierarchical regression analyses
indicated that gender and autonomy was significant moderators of the relationships
between emotional labor strategies and the personal outcomes of emotional
exhaustion, affective well-being, and job satisfaction. Females were more likely to
experience negative consequences when engaging in surface acting. Autonomy served
to alleviate negative outcomes for individuals who used emotional labor strategies
often. Contrary to our hypotheses, emotional intelligence did not moderate the
relationship between the emotional labor strategies and personal outcomes. Results
demonstrated how the emotional labor process can influence employee well-being.
2.3.2 Studies Relating Emotional Labour to Occupation and Position
According to Maslachs (1982) findings on health care workers, the
requirement of attending on and caring for patients continuously imposes an excessive
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emotional burden on health care professionals. Those who identify with their roles
entirely and do their best to treat each and every patient kindly and in a helpful
manner, will get exhausted or burnt out very soon, and will no longer be able to
conceal their true (and inappropriate) emotions afterwards, despite their immense
effort. Exposure to the risk of burnout is the highest with those who are doing their
utmost to fully meet the emotional role demands on them.
Matsumoto (1990) presented a theoretical framework that predicts cultural
differences in display rules according to cultural differences in individualismcollectivism (I-C) and power distance and the social distinctions ingroups - outgroups
and status. The model was tested using an American-Japanese comparison, where
subjects in both cultures rated the appropriateness of the six universal facial
expressions of emotion in eight different social situations. The findings were
generally supportive of the theoretical model, and argue for the joint consideration of
display rules and actual emotional behaviors in cross-cultural research.
Geoff (1993) reported a study of 52 flight attendants which was designed to
ascertain their own feelings about their work and whether more needed to be done in
training to prepare new workers for the emotional components of the job. It is found
that personal interactions with other people, passengers and crew, elicited both the
most positive and the most negative responses; yet, overall, the respondents reported
considerable job satisfaction. Many flight attendants made a distinction between the
job tasks and the lifestyle nature of the job itself. Training for the emotional
components of competence may require only slight additions to existing practices yet,
as more work draws on skills in this area, this aspect of performance will become
increasingly important.
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Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) compared two perspectives of emotional

labor as predictors of burnout beyond the effects of negative affectivity, job-focused
emotional labor and employee-focused emotional labor. Significant differences
existed in the emotional demands reported by five occupational groupings. The use of
surface-level emotional labor or faking, predicted depersonalization beyond the work
demands. Perceiving the demand to display positive emotions and using deep-level
regulation was associated with a heightened sense of personal accomplishment,
suggesting positive benefits to this aspect of work.
Koesten and Miller (2006) investigated emotional labor and emotional work
in the financial planning profession in a web-based survey study of almost 300
professional financial planners and supporting interviews with 14 financial planners.
Results indicated support for existing theory on emotional work, extensions to current
research regarding emotional labor, and important implications for the role of emotion
and communication in a range of professional service roles.
Kinman (2008) assessed relationships between three dimensions of emotional
labour (emotional display rules, and the faking and suppression of emotions) and
strain outcomes (psychological distress, work-life conflict and job satisfaction) in a
sample of 124-cabin crew (face-to-face interaction) and 122 telesales agents (voiceto-voice interaction). The emotional labour dimensions that are significant predictors
of strain outcomes for both groups are examined by multiple regression. No
significant differences were observed between groups in mean levels of emotional
labour variables. A greater proportion of variance in all types of strain was explained
by the emotional labour components for participants who interact with customers
face-to-face but these differences did not reach statistical significance. The emotional
labour dimensions that predicted each strain outcome varied according to mode of
delivery.
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Karim and Weisz (2011) examined the moderating role of emotional

intelligence dimensions in the affectivity - emotional labor and emotional laborpsychological distress relationships among 210 university teachers and found that (a)
regulation of emotion was a particularly important emotional intelligence dimension
in influencing the use of deep acting, both directly and indirectly through the
interaction with negative affectivity; (b) positive affectivity emerged as an important
affectivity dimension in influencing the use of deep acting both directly and indirectly
through the interaction with self-emotional appraisal; (c) negative affectivity was a
particularly important affectivity dimension in influencing the use of surface acting,
both directly and indirectly through its interaction with emotional intelligence
dimensions of self-emotional appraisal and use of emotion; and finally (d) regulation
of emotion interacted with deep acting to influence the psychological distress arising
from emotional labor requirements.
2.3.3
Studies Relating to Positive Consequences of Emotional Labour

Wharton and Erickson (1993) found that workers find jobs involving
emotional labor more satisfying than do other workers not involved in emotional
labor. She suggested that jobs involving emotional labor attract workers whose
personal qualities are especially suited to working with the public and, subsequently,
these workers have a better fit between job demands and personal qualities. This fit
leads to higher job satisfaction.
Montgomery, Panagopoulou, and Benos (2005) examined the relationship
between surface acting and hiding negative emotions with work interference with
family and family interference with work among Greek health-care professionals. The
research is a cross-sectional study of 180 Greek doctors and 84 nurses using selfreport measures. Results showed that, for doctors, surface acting at work was
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positively related to family interference with work and, for nurses, surface acting at
home was positively related to family interference with work.
Meier, Mastracci, and Wilson (2006) hypothesized that employers with
greater emotional labour expectations of their employees will have more effective
interactions with clients, better internal relationships, and superior program
performance. This article tests the effects of emotional labour in a bureaucratic
workforce over time. Multiple regression results showed that organizations with more
women at the street level have higher overall organizational performance.
Additionally, emotional labour contributes to organizational productivity over and
above its role in employee turnover and client satisfaction.
Hsieh and Guy (2009) investigated the relationship between emotional labor
and service outcomes. The survey sample is drawn from caseworkers of the Florida
Network of Youth and Family Services. To measure service outcome, workers' selfreport of their emotion work skills is compared to client satisfaction scores. Findings
revealed that clients rate higher levels of satisfaction when services are provided by
caseworkers who feel capable and comfortable performing emotion work. It is argued
that emotion work skills should be included in job descriptions and performance
appraisals for human service jobs.
2.3.4 Studies Relating to Negative Consequences of Emotional Labour
Abraham (1998) viewed within a contingency framework, the effect of
emotional dissonance on its direct consequences of job dissatisfaction and emotional
exhaustion may vary in their intensity depending on the existence (or lack thereof) of
moderators and mediators. The study presented nine propositions hypothesizing the
impact of these variables to guide future empirical research. As moderators, high
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levels of self-monitoring, social support and trait self-esteem may reduce the
deleterious impact of emotional dissonance on job satisfaction and emotional
exhaustion. Alternatively, emotional dissonance may induce job tension and state
negative affectivity, and reduce state self-esteem, which in turn, lead to job
dissatisfaction and emotional exhaustion.
Pugliesi (1999) explored the effects of two forms of emotional labour on work
stress, job satisfaction, and psychological distress-self-focused and other-focused
emotion management workers in a large organization. Results showed that both forms
of emotional labour have uniformly negative effects on workers, net of work
complexity, control, and demands. Emotional labour increases perceptions of job
stress, decreases satisfaction, and increases distress. Self-focused emotion
management has the most pervasive and detrimental impacts.
Erickson and Ritter (2001) examined the conditions under which individuals
experience emotional labor and the effects of such labor on psychological well-being.
Building on prior theory and research, authors argued that the management of
agitation is the form of emotional labor most likely to be associated with increased
feelings of burnout and inauthenticity, and that this negative effect on well-being
should be more common among women. Authors found that managing feelings of
agitation increases burnout and inauthenticity and that inauthenticity is most
pronounced among those experiencing the highest levels of agitation. However, these
effects do not differ by gender.
Cote and Morgan (2002) predicted that the suppression of unpleasant
emotions decreases job satisfaction and increases intentions to quit. Data from 111
workers were gathered at two time points separated by four weeks. Advantages of the
design included the use of longitudinal data and the statistical control for several
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personality, job, and demographic factors. Longitudinal regression analyses and tests
of mediation revealed that, as predicted, (a) the suppression of unpleasant emotions
decreases job satisfaction, which in turn increases intentions to quit, and (b) the
amplification of pleasant emotions increases job satisfaction.
Bono and Vey (2005) investigated the relationships between emotional labor
and the outcome variables tested in the literature. They concluded that emotional
labor is related to poor psychological health, and weakly and inconsistently related to
job attitudes such as job satisfaction (r = -.32) and role internalization (r = -.30), with
these last two relationships being negative for surface acting, but small and not
significant for deep acting.
Heuven, Bakkera, Schaufelia, and Huismana (2006) studied a sample of
154 cabin attendants to examine the role of self-efficacy in the performance of
emotion work. Results confirmed that emotionally charged interactions with
passengers are related to emotional exhaustion and engagement through their
influence on emotional dissonance. Furthermore, self-efficacy buffers the relationship
between emotional job demands and emotional dissonance, and the relationship
between emotional dissonance and work engagement (but not exhaustion).
2.3.5 Emotional Labour in Relation to Job Related Factors
Tsai (2001) examined whether the psychological climate for service
friendliness correlated positively with employee displayed positive emotions, and
whether such positive emotional displays influenced customer purchase decision and
customer reactions concerning an organization. Data were collected from 290 sales
clerks in 156 retail shoe stores in Taiwan, and from 284 customers who were served
by one of the sales clerks. Results showed a positive relationship between
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psychological climate for service friendliness and employees displayed positive

emotions. The study also showed that employees positive emotional displays would
increase customer willingness to return to the store and pass positive comments to
friends.
Liu, Perrewe, Hochwarter, and Kacmar (2004) examined individual
difference variables as antecedents of perceived emotional labor, as well as affective
and behavioral consequences. Full time employees who had at least five years of work
experience completed two separate surveys. Results revealed that negative affectivity
and political skill were significantly related to employee perceived emotional labor,
which further influenced employees' use of political behaviors and job-induced
tension.
Montgomery, Panagopolou, Wildt, and Meenks (2006) examined the
relationship between emotional display rules/job focused labor, work-family
interference and burnout among a sample of workers in a Dutch governmental
organization. The research is a cross-sectional study of 174 workers from a Dutch
governmental organization. Emotional display rules and job-focused labor were
related to burnout and psychosomatic complaints. More specifically, the need to hide
negative emotions and engage in surface acting was related to negative outcomes. In
addition, work-family interference partially mediated the relationship between the
hiding of negative emotion/surface acting and burnout/psychosomatic complaints.
Seery, Corrigall, and Harpel (2008) explored how self-focused (i.e., surface
and deep acting) and other-focused (i.e., emotional enhancement and relationship
management) job-related emotional labor are associated with bidirectional measures
of work-family conflict and facilitation. Results revealed that surface acting was
related positively with time-, strain-, and behavior-based work-family conflict and
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was associated negatively with work-to-family facilitation. Emotional enhancement

was linked negatively to time-based work-to-family conflict and strain-based familyto-work conflict. Finally, relationship management was related negatively to both
directions of behavior-based work-family conflict, but was associated positively with
both directions of work-family enhancement. Results support the expansion of jobrelated emotional labor to include other- as well as self-focused aspects.
Chau, Dahling, Levy, and Diefendorff (2009) examined how the emotional
labor strategies of deep acting and surface acting directly influence emotional
exhaustion and turnover intentions, and indirectly impact actual turnover among a
sample of bank tellers. Turnover data were collected from organizational records 6
months after participants responded to a survey that measured emotional labor
strategies, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intentions. Results showed that
turnover intentions mediated the relationship between deep acting and actual turnover.
Additionally, surface acting had indirect effects on turnover through emotional
exhaustion and turnover intentions.
Diefendorff, Morehart, and Gabriel (2010) examined the influence of two
interpersonal relationship dimensions, relative power and solidarity (closeness), on
the emotional display rules that employees report they would adopt in work situations
in which they felt happiness or anger. Results demonstrated that display rules
involved more control over emotional expressions (i.e., more deamplification and
masking of emotion and less expressing and amplification of emotion) when the
interaction partner had higher relative power compared to when the interaction partner
had equal or lower relative power. This pattern of results was present for both
happiness and anger, though the effects were larger for anger. Display rules also
involved more control when the interaction partner was low in solidarity compared to
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when the interaction partner was high in solidarity, with this effect being similar in
magnitude for anger and happiness.
2.4
Studies on Locus of Control
2.4.1 Locus of Control among Different Occupational Groups

Dailey (1980) analyzed questionnaire responses of 281 research project
leaders and team members with the job diagnostic survey and Rotter's internal
external locus of control scale. Subjects with greater internal orientation perceived
greater job involvement, satisfaction, motivation, psychological growth satisfaction,
task difficulty, and task variability than subjects with greater external orientation.
However, subjects with greater internal orientation did not perceive the relationships
between task characteristics and work attitudes differently than did subjects with
greater external orientation.
Boone and De Brabander (1996) carried out a study with a sample of 39
small business managers in Holland. They found that locus of control does have a
direct influence on the performance of small firms, with managers locus of control
orientation having predictive validity for success or failure of small businesses.
Garson and Stanwyck (1997) used to test the effects of locus of control and
performance-contingent incentives on productivity and job satisfaction of employees
working in self-managed teams. The only performance effect was that participants
with external locus of control (externals) in the incentive condition outperformed
externals without incentive. Participants with internal locus of control (internals) were
more satisfied with their supervisors than were externals.
Hyatt and Prawitt (2001) examined how auditors job performance is
influenced by the interaction between individual auditors locus of control and the
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employing firms audit structure. Results revealed that internals perform at a higher
level in unstructured firms than in structured firms, while externals perform at a
higher level in structured firms than in unstructured firms. This implies that locus of
control may interact with characteristics of the work environment and affect jobrelated variables.
J. Salazar, Hubbard, and Salazar (2002) investigated hotel managers' job
satisfaction (n=68), internal/external locus tendencies, and the relationship between
the two constructs. The results revealed that variables other than the locus personality
construct may relate to hotel managers' perception of job satisfaction. Additionally,
the results stimulate the ongoing person versus situation debate in job satisfaction
research.
J. Salazar, Pfaffenberg, and Salazar (2006) studied the effects of locus of
control and empowerment on hotel managers' job satisfaction. Sixty-eight participants
at a hotel managers' meeting for a major south-eastern hotel management company
were surveyed. In addition to satisfaction and control queries, some demographic tags
were identified, specifically gender and race. While locus of control was proven to be
directly related to satisfaction, it was not a predictor.
Inegbenebor (2007) investigated whether locus of control distinguished
between pharmacists who chose to become entrepreneurs and those who took up
employee roles in pharmaceutical establishments. The sample consisted of 34
pharmacists who were owners/proprietors of retail pharmacies and 35 pharmacists
employed in retail pharmacies or hospitals. Results revealed that entrepreneur
pharmacists had higher scores on the variable than employee pharmacists indicating
greater locus of control internality. Pharmacists characterized by locus of control
internality are more likely to assume entrepreneurial rather than employee roles in
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pharmaceutical undertakings. Such pharmacists are more disposed to adopt innovative

pharmaceutical care philosophy.
J. S. J. Lin, Lin, and Lin (2010) studied employees of domestic Taiwan banks
that had been merged with or acquired by a non-Taiwanese bank. With a total of 303
effective questionnaire surveys returned and multiple regression method used, results
revealed that, in a changing organizational environment, work characteristic change
helps raise employee organizational commitment, and that employee personality
attributes impact upon the actual effect that work characteristic change has on an
individual employees organizational commitment. In addition, results found that
work characteristic change has a greater effect on organizational commitment in
employees external locus of control personalities than in those with internal locus.
Satija and Khan (2012) examined the university teachers job satisfaction
(n=120) internal/external locus tendencies and relationship between the two
constructs. The results revealed that university teachers with internal locus of control
perceive greater job satisfaction than university teachers with external locus of
control. Additionally, findings also pointed out that internals are more satisfied than
externals on all the four areas of job satisfaction (i.e. the job, management, personal
adjustment, and social relations).
2.4.2 Locus of Control Related to Personal Factors
Renn and Vandenberg (1991) suggested that individuals who identify
internals factors for their successes or failures are likely to exhibit greater intrinsic
motivation, are more achievement oriented, and report lower turnover intentions.
These individuals believed they will be successful in obtaining an attractive
alternative and are more likely to act on their turnover intentions than individuals who
identify external causes for their successes or failures.
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Perlow and Latham (1993) studied aggressive work behavior of direct-care

workers (158 women and 154 men). Client abuse data were collected over a 2-yr
period. Individuals reporting higher levels of external locus of control and men were
more likely to emit aggressive behavior than were people reporting lower levels of
external locus of control and women. Results supported the hypotheses and suggested
that individual and group differences may be useful in understanding maladaptive,
aggressive work behavior.
Vidhu Mohan, D. Chauhan, and Chauhan (2000) found that internal locus
of control has a negative relationship with stress and positive relationship with role
efficacy. Since stress is inevitable, more so in the case of women in managerial
positions, and it is mainly due to extrinsic factors which exert pressures both in the
work environment and at the home front, over which one does not have much control,
they need to look inwards and identify and rely on intrinsic strengths, such as an
internal orientation and achievement orientation as these can, to a great extent, help
them handle stress in a positive manner and not allow it to adversely affect either their
health or their work performance.
Muhonen and Torkelson (2004) investigated the role of work locus of control
(WLC) for job satisfaction and health in the context of occupational stress of Swedish
telecom company employees. It is observed that external WLC was positively related
to stressors and symptoms of ill-health, whereas it was negatively related to job
satisfaction. These results applied for both women and men. Even though ANOVAs
did not show a gender difference in WLC, the results of the hierarchical multiple
regression analyses indicated that WLC was a significant predictor of both symptoms
of ill-health and job satisfaction, but only for women. Besides these main effects
WLC also acted as a moderator in the stresshealth relationship for women. This
83
indicates that separate analyses for women and men are needed in order to investigate
potential gender differences that might otherwise go unnoticed.
Chen and Wang (2007) investigated the impact of locus of control on
psychological reactions to change. A total of 215 Chinese customs service staff
participated in the present study. The results showed that locus of control can
significantly predict participants commitment to a specific change. In particular, the
relationship between locus of control and the three different components of
commitment to change are differentiative: participants with more internal locus of
control were more likely to have high affective and normative commitment to change,
whereas participants with more external locus of control were more likely to have
high continuance commitment to change.
Keller and Blomann (2008) employed an experimental paradigm to document
the causal impact of skills demands compatibility on the emergence of flow and
revealed that participants characterized by a strong internal locus of control (LOC)
were most sensitive to the manipulation of skills demands compatibility and
experienced flow under conditions of a fit of skills and task demands, whereas
individuals with a weak internal LOC did not enter the state of flow. In line with
previous findings, this suggests that distinct personality attributes are of critical
relevance for the experience of flow to emerge.
Vijayashree and Jagdischchandra (2011) analyzed locus of control of the
employees, with the help of ANOVA. Results showed significant variance between
internality and age as well as between externality (chance) and age. There is no
significant relationship between internality and demographic factors like gender and
education. There is no significant relationship between externality (others) and
demographic factors like gender, age and education. There is no significant
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relationship between externality (chance) and demographic factors like gender and
education.
2.4.3 Locus of Control in Relation of Job Related Factors
Kasperson (1982) completed a study of hospital employees, which revealed a
high positive correlation between negative attitudes and external locus of control. This
resulted in a low satisfaction level with the job. Those with positive attitudes are
generally more satisfied with outcomes because of the amount of control they have to
make things happen.
Storms and Spector (1987) examined the influence of organizational
frustration and locus of control on emotional and behavioural reactions to frustrating
conditions. Data were collected by questionnaire from 160 employees from all levels
of a community mental health facility. Organizational frustration was found to be
positively related to interpersonal aggression, sabotage and withdrawal. Subgroup
moderator analysis supported the hypothesized moderating relationship of locus of
control on the perceived frustration behavioural reactions relationship. These results
suggested that persons with an external locus of control are more likely to respond to
frustration with counterproductive behaviour than persons with an internal locus of
control.
Parks (1991) using two studies, one cross-sectional (n=617) and one
longitudinal (n=147), and looking at stress from a demand-discretion perceptive, got
results that showed a relationship between work demands and locus of control, with
externals showing that in situations where work demands and discretion were not in
balance, stress levels were high, while this was not the case for internals.
Chebat, Zuccaro, and Filiatrault (1992) studied the relation between
marketing managers beliefs about what causes commercial success or failure, and
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these managers perceptions of the probability of personally being able to influence

success or failure, results revealed direct relation between the managers locus of
control and their beliefs about causes of commercial success.
Howell and Avolio (1993) used measures of leadership, locus of control, and
support for innovation to predict the consolidated-unit performance of 78 managers.
Results revealed that 3 transformational-leadership measures were associated with a
higher internal locus of control and significantly and positively predicted businessunit performance over a 1-yr interval. Transactional measures of leadership, including
contingent reward and management by exception (active and passive), were each
negatively related to business-unit performance. Causal relationships between the
transformational-leadership behaviors and unit performance was moderated by the
level of support for innovation in the business unit.
Kumar, Mishra, and Singh (2004) examined the effects of internal-external
locus of control and various dimensions of work culture in the relationship of
perceived stress (both job and life) and health (general health complaints) among
managerial personnel employed in Indian. The findings of this study highlighted the
following facts: (a) Role conflict negative events (total), responsibility seeking
dimension of work culture, present health and locus of control were important
predictors of somatic health complaints. (b) The three dimensions of work culture
(namely malleability, participation and obligation towards others), personal negative
events and two demographic variables (No. of child and religious beliefs) accounted
significant proportion of variance in the prediction of depression. (c) Locus of control
was the only variable, which accounted significant proportion of variance in the
prediction of general health. Based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded
that work culture and locus of control mediates the relationship between stress and
health of managerial personnel.
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Chui (2005) investigated the moderating effects of locus of control on each

model path across internals and externals. The sample comprised 242 professional
staff across a wide range of departments of a large organization in metropolitan
Taipei, Taiwan. Following data collection, structural equation modeling is applied to
conduct data analysis for confirmatory factor analysis. Test results showed that global
job satisfaction influences turnover intentions and organizational commitment is more
for internals than externals. Organizational commitment influences turnover
intentions similarly for both internal and externals. Furthermore, the influence of
perceived job stress on job satisfaction and organizational commitment is stronger for
externals than internals. Finally, leadership support influences job satisfaction more
for internals than externals.
Ng, Sorensen, and Eby (2006) meta-analyzed the relationships between locus
of control (LOC) and a wide range of work outcomes. Authors categorized these
outcomes according to three theoretical perspectives: LOC and well-being, LOC and
motivation, and LOC and behavioral orientation. Hypotheses reflecting these three
perspectives were proposed and tested. It was found that internal locus was positively
associated with favorable work outcomes, such as positive task and social
experiences, and greater job motivation.
Chen and Silverthorne (2008) examined the relationships between locus of
control and the work-related behavioral measures of job stress, job satisfaction and
job performance in Taiwan. The findings revealed that one aspect of an accountants'
personality, as measured by locus of control, plays an important role in predicting in
the level of job satisfaction, stress and performance in Taiwan. Individuals with a
higher internal locus of control are more likely to have lower levels of job stress and
higher levels of job performance and satisfaction.
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Srivastava (2009) studied 200 managers belonging to private sector

organisations. Hierarchical Multiple Regression analysis was conducted to find the
results. It was found that organizational role stress was negatively related to
managerial effectiveness and internal locus of control moderated organizational role
stress and managerial effectiveness relationship.
Hung
and
Hsu
(2011)
explored
structural
relationships
between
organizational commitment, locus of control and the perceived changes in work load
and career prospects for employees of the two companies. Authors found that work
load change and career prospects change is perceived by employees of the two groups
invariantly; employees of the acquiring company have higher level of organizational
commitment than those of the acquired company; the direct influences of work load
change and career prospects change on organizational commitment are statistically
significant; the direct influences of locus of control on organizational commitment,
work load change, and career prospects change are statistically significant; the
indirect influence of locus of control on organizational commitment is statistically
significant; and the moderating effect of locus of control is not statistically significant.
2.4.4 Locus of Control and Stress
Surti and Sarupria (1981) in their study on women entrepreneurs found that
locus of control dimensions such as external control by others was found to be
positively and significantly associated with all types of role stresses. However, the
only exceptions were self-role distance, role isolation, challenge stress and role
irrelevance. A similar pattern of association was observed between role stresses and
total externality whereas internal control was insignificantly associated with role
stress variables.
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Kaur and Murthy (1986) conducted a study on 98 managerial personnel with

the intention of examining the nature of role stress, coping strategies and locus of
control. It was hypothesized that there is no significant difference in the role stress of
people, in the coping strategies adopted by them and in the locus of control of
personnel working at different levels in an organization. Also, there is no significant
interrelationship among role stress, coping mechanisms and locus of control. There is
no significant relationship between demographic variables and role stress, coping
strategies and locus of control.
Palnitkar (1987) attempted to explain occupational stresses in the light of
field independence-dependence, locus of control, job level and length of service
among 275 public works department employees comprising 125 class I and 150 class
II officers. The analysis revealed that field dependence-independence and internal
locus of control was associated positively and significantly with occupational stress in
the case of both groups of public works department officers. Subjects who were field
independent with internal locus of control, and shorter length of service, showed
significantly higher occupational stress than their counterparts. Subjects with internal
locus of control and shorter length of service showed significantly higher
occupational stress than subjects with external locus of control and longer length of
service.
Kedarnath (1988) studied the effect of organizational climate, role stresses
and locus of control on job involvement among banking professionals. The findings
were, the high external locus of control was reported to score significantly low on job
involvement in comparison to the low external locus of control group. External locus
of control was reported to be negatively and significantly associated with job
involvement. The negative relationship between organizational role stress and job
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involvement was reported to be higher for the high locus of control group as
compared to that of the low locus of control group.
Mittal (1992) studied the role stresses in relation to coping styles, locus of
control and personality type using a sample of 147 doctors belonging to both private
and government hospital settings. The analysis of the data revealed that, locus of
control was found to be positively and significantly associated with self-role distance,
role ambiguity and role expectations conflict.
2.5
Studies on Role-Based Performance
2.5.1 Role-Based Performance among Different Occupational Groups

Jamal (1985) proposed relationships between job stress and performance. The
study was on middle managers (N=227) and blue-collar workers (N = 283) employed
in a large Canadian organization. Bivariate multiple regression and hierarchical
multiple regression analyses generally supported the prevalence of a negative linear
relationship between job stress and supervisory ratings of performance. Employees'
organizational commitment significantly moderated over 50% of the relationships
between job stress and measures of job performance in both managerial and bluecollar samples.
Motowidlo, Packard, and Manning (1986) examined occupational stress and
its relation with individual characteristics, job conditions, stressful events, affect, and
job performance of nurses. Findings showed that ratings of interpersonal aspects of
job performance and cognitive/ motivational aspects correlated significantly with selfreported perceptions of stressful events, subjective stress, depression, and hostility.
Models developed through path analysis suggest that the frequency and subjective
intensity of the 45 events caused feelings of stress, leading to depression and causing
decrements in interpersonal and cognitive/motivational aspects of job performance.
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Arnolds and Boshoff (2002) investigated the influence of need satisfaction on

self-esteem and the influence of self-esteem on performance intention (the surrogate
measure for job performance) of top managers and frontline employees. The empirical
results showed that esteem as a personality variable exerts a significant influence on
the job performance of both top managers and frontline employees. These and other
findings provide important guidelines for managers on how to address the
motivational needs of top managers and frontline employees in order to improve their
job performance.
Jimoh (2008) investigated the composite and relative effects of emotional
labour, conscientiousness and job tenure on job performance of University
administrative workers in southwest Nigeria. The findings revealed that the
independent variables (emotional labour, conscientiousness and job tenure) jointly
accounted for 53.1 per cent of the variance in job performance. The results further
showed that the three independent variables had significant predictive effects on the
criterion measure. The relative contributions of each independent variable to the
prediction of job performance are: conscientiousness, emotional labour, job tenure
respectively. On the basis of these findings, it was recommended that, these factors
should be more enhanced among the workers. Personnel psychologists and human
resources managers should take into consideration personalitys attributes and
demographic factors as basis for personnel selection and recruitment.
Mascio (2010) showed that frontline employees interpretations of customer
service also matter. Using qualitative and quantitative data, this study found that three
distinct interpretations of customer service, or service models, exist among retail
frontline employees: (1) the act of giving customers what they ask for, efficiently and
courteously; (2) a means to accomplishing immediate objectives, such as sales quotas;
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and (3) the formation of mutually beneficial relationships with customers through
problem solving. The findings showed that differences in frontline employees
attitudes, behaviors, and performance can arise from their keeping of different service
models; illuminate individual-level beliefs underlying service typologies, such as
goods- and service-dominant logic; and suggest that frontline employees recruitment
and training should take service models into account.
2.5.2 Role-Based Performance Relating to Personal Factors
Motowidlo and Scotter (1994) Supervisors rated 421 US air force mechanics
on their task performance, contextual performance, and overall performance. Data on
length of air force experience, ability, training performance, and personality were also
available for many of these mechanics. Results showed that both task performance
and contextual performance contribute independently to overall performance.
Experience is more highly correlated with task performance than with contextual
performance, and personality variables are more highly correlated with contextual
performance than with task performance. These results support the distinction
between task performance and contextual performance and confirm that performance,
at least as judged by supervisors is multidimensional.
Babin and Boles (1998) examined the attitudes and behaviors of employees
who provide frontline service and address the extent to which relationships vary
among male and female employees. The overall model predicts effects of role stress
and work/non work conflict on customer-contact employees' job performance, job and
life satisfaction, and quitting intent. Results of structural equations modeling
suggested an important role for work/non work conflict overall as well as two areas of
interesting variation across gender. Specifically, multi sample structural equations
analyses suggested that role stress affects female service providers' job performance
92
more negatively than it does males', and that job satisfaction is related more highly to
quitting intent among males.
Tuten and Neidermeyer (2004) measured the role of optimism and its effect
on stress in call centers. Service providers at inbound call centers answered
questionnaires designed to measure their personal orientation towards optimism,
perceptions of job stress, work/ non work conflict, performance, absenteeism and
intent to turnover. Authors found that optimists did perceive lower levels of job stress
and lower work/non work conflict. However, pessimists reported higher levels of
performance and satisfaction and lower turnover intent.
Ng and Feldman (2008) provided an expanded meta-analysis on the
relationship between age and job performance that includes 10 dimensions of job
performance: core task performance, creativity, performance in training programs,
organizational citizenship behaviors, safety performance, general counterproductive
work behaviors, workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, tardiness, and
absenteeism. Results showed that although age was largely unrelated to core task
performance, creativity, and performance in training programs, it demonstrated
stronger relationships with the other 7 performance dimensions. Results also
highlighted that the relationships of age with core task performance and with
counterproductive work behaviors are curvilinear in nature and that several sample
characteristics and data collection characteristics moderate age-performance
relationships.
H. Ahmad, Ahmad, and Shah (2010) surveyed data collected form 310
employees of 15 advertising agencies of Islamabad (Pakistan) to test interdependency
of job satisfaction and job performance, effect of organizational commitment and
attitude towards work on job satisfaction and impact of organizational commitment
93
and attitude towards work on performance. Response patterns, analyzed by gender,

education, department, income and age are also discussed. Results showed a weak
relation between job satisfaction and performance where as organizational
commitment has strong positive relation with performance and attitude towards work
has a strong positive relation with job satisfaction. The study identified insignificant
impact of organizational commitment on job satisfaction and attitude towards work on
job performance.
Khan, Ahmed Jam, and Ramay (2010) investigated the impact of
organizational commitment on employee job performance from a sample of 153
public and private and public sector employees of oil and gas sector in Pakistan. The
results revealed a positive relationship between organizational commitment and
employees job performance. In the comparative analysis of three dimensions of
organizational commitment, normative commitment has a positive and significant
impact on employees job performance. Furthermore, the study explored the
employees job performance with four demographic variables, resulting that male
employees are high performer vis-a-vis their female counterparts.
2.5.3 Role-Based Performance Relating to Job Factors
Lusch and Serpkenci (1990) investigated the relationships between four
personal difference variables and job outcomes of retail store managers. They also
investigated the influence of job tension on managerial performance and of the
manager's performance on the financial performance of the retail store. Empirical
results showed that achievement orientation and inner- and other-direction of retail
store managers have important direct as well as moderating influences on key job
processes and outcomes.
94
Jamal and Baba (1992) tested four different models of the stressorperformance relationship (including positive and negative curvilinear and linear
relationships). A direct linear negative relationship between stress and performance
was found overall, with those reporting higher levels of stress reporting lower levels
of productivity. The authors also found small differences in the stress-performance
relationship as a function of category of employee, which suggests that the stressperformance relationship may also be influenced by different functions at work.
Tubre and Collins (2000) conducted a meta-analysis of correlations between
role ambiguity and job performance and role conflict and job performance. Results
revealed a negative relationship between role ambiguity and job performance with
moderating influences due to job type and rating source. A negligible relationship was
observed for role conflict and job performance, a finding consistent across job types
and rating sources.
Beehr et al. (2000) examined job stressors and coworker social support in
relation to both psychological strains and performance. One hundred and ninety-eight
door-to-door book dealers, employed on a seasonal basis, completed self-report
measures of job stressors, psychological strains, coworker social support, and job
performance. Performance data were also obtained from company records. Results
showed that stressors predicted both psychological strains and one of the two
measures of performance. The strongest predictor was a job-specific measure of
chronic stressors. Social support predicted psychological strains, although it was only
weakly related to performance. There was no evidence that social support moderated
the effects of any of the stressors.
Winefield et al. (2003) found that work-related measures of stress were
significantly and negatively linearly related to objective university-based performance
95
measures such as funding cuts, staff-student ratios, and investment income. Different
relationships between stress and performance was also found by category of
employee, with academic staff reporting slightly higher levels of psychological
distress and lower levels of job satisfaction compared with nonacademic staff.
Jaramillo, Mulki, and Solomon (2006) investigated the effects of ethical
climate on salesperson's role stress, job attitudes, turnover intention, and job
performance. Responses from 138 salespeople who work for a large retailer selling
high-end consumer durables at 68 stores in 16 states were used to examine the process
through which ethical climate affects organizational variables. Results indicated that
ethical climate results in lower role conflict and role ambiguity and higher
satisfaction, which, in turn, leads to lower turnover intention and organizational
commitment. Also, findings indicated that organizational commitment is a significant
predictor of job performance.
Jacobs, Tytherleigh, Webb, and Cooper (2007) used university-based
statistics of performance and self-rated employee productivity to examine the
relationship between stress levels, organizational commitment, health, and
performance. The authors conducted a secondary analysis of data from staff in 13
higher education institutions. The authors found that stressors had a negative linear
relationship with all the performance measures used. However, this relationship was
also influenced by physical health, psychological well-being, and organizational
commitment, and by the measure of performance used. In addition, the authors found
variations in the relationship between performance and stress by category of staff,
which suggests the influence of job factors.
Chughtai (2008) examined the impact of job involvement on the self-report
measures of in-role job performance and organizational citizenship behaviour. The
96
results revealed that job involvement was positively correlated with both in-role job
performance (r = 0.30, p<0.01) and organizational citizenship behaviour (r = 0.43,
p<0.01). In addition to this it was found that organizational commitment partially
mediated the job involvement performance relationship. Furthermore the findings of
this research uncovered that job involvement exerted a stronger impact on
organizational citizenship behaviour than on in-role performance.
Wallace, Edwards, Arnold, Frazier, and Finch (2009) proposed differential
relationships between challenge stressors and hindrance stressors and role-based
performance, which were expected to be moderated by organizational support. In a
sample of 215 employees across 61 offices of a state agency, the authors obtained a
positive relationship between challenge stressors and role-based performance and a
negative relationship between hindrance stressors and role-based performance. In
addition, organizational support moderated the relationship between challenge
stressors and role-based performance but did not moderate the relationship between
hindrance stressors and role-based performance. This suggests that organizations
would benefit from increasing challenges in the workplace as long as they are
supportive of employees and removing hindrances.
Bashir and Ramay (2010) examined the relationship between job stress and
job performance on bank employees of banking sector in Pakistan. The study tested
the purpose model in relation of job stress and its impact on job performance by using
(n=144) data of graduate, senior employees including managers and customers
services officers of well reputed growing bank in Pakistan. The results are significant
with negative correlation between job stress and job performances and showed that
job stress significantly reduce the performance of an individual. The results suggested
that organization should facilitate supportive culture within the working atmosphere
of the organization.
97
Jawahar and Raghavendra (2011) examined the perceptual relationship

between the variables in the role-based performance scale developed by Welbourne,
Johnson and Amir Erez (1998) and also identified the difference between genders if
any, in perceiving the relationship in their performance. The primary data was
collected from customer service personnel of a government organization who interact
with customers on a regular basis through a structured questionnaire. Based on the
304 responses, this study found that the Job role and organization role constructs are
perceived together for the male employees and it is distinctly away from career
construct in role based performance. With respect to female service personnel the
constructs organization role, innovation role and job role are perceived together of
which innovation role and organization role are perceived closer.
Miao (2011) examined the relationships of perceived organizational support
and job satisfaction with organizational citizenship behavior and task performance in
China. Employees from two large-scale state-owned enterprises (SOE) completed
measures of perceived organizational support and job satisfaction and their immediate
supervisors completed measures of task performance and four facets of organizational
citizenship behavior. Data analyzed using zero-order correlation and hierarchical
regression analysis showed positive correlations of perceived organizational support
and job satisfaction with task performance, and also showed positive associations of
perceived organizational support and job satisfaction with organizational citizenship
behavior and each of its four dimensions.
Samad (2011) examined the relationship between organizational commitment
and job performance. A self administered questionnaire was employed and distributed
among senior and middle management staff of manufacturing sector specifically in
electrical and electronic companies in Malaysia. 292 samples were randomly selected
98
in the study. The results revealed that there was as a positive relationship between
organizational commitment and job performance. The hierarchical analysis found that
job satisfaction (both the hygiene and motivator factors) played moderating role on
the relationship between organizational commitment and job performance.
Collins, Mossholder, and Taylor (2012) examined the joint impact of process
fairness and turnover intentions on job performance. Results from two independent
samples suggested that employee turnover intentions moderate relations between
process fairness perceptions and employee job performance. Specifically, the positive
effects of the two types of process fairness on performance were stronger for
employees who planned to stay with the organization than for those who intended to
leave.
Punia (2012) examined the correlation between the attitude and performance
of employees in a scientific research organization. It also explored the impact of
organization culture on performance of employees. Attitude and organization culture
was measured through a questionnaire and performance scores were obtained from
the records. The correlation study showed that both attitude and organization culture
are positively correlated to performance respectively. And the multivariate analysis
showed that attitude contributes significantly towards predicting performance and
organization culture is not a significant predictor of performance. The results of this
study can be used where an organization has to focus on enhancing the performance
of the employees in order to achieve organizational excellence.
2.6
Studies on Role Efficacy
2.6.1 Role Efficacy in Different Occupational Groups

Gupta and Khandelwal (1988) investigated the relationship between quality
of work life and role efficacy. Data from 170 professionals working in government or
99
public-sector organizations in India showed that supervisory behavior was the most
important dimension of role efficacy.
Klinefelter (1992) explored the relationship between the role efficacy and
selected aspects of job satisfaction of hospital nurses. A total of 354 full-time nurses
from six hospitals in south Florida participated in this pilot study. The survey
instrument covered ten role efficacy components as well as the level of the nurse in
the organizational hierarchy of the hospital and the nurse's perceived level of
satisfaction
with
feedback
from
nursing
supervisors,
physicians,
hospital
administrators and the job itself. Results indicated that there was a significant
relationship at the.001 level between role efficacy and each of these variables. The
researcher concluded that the role efficacy concept can be applied to hospital nurses
which could increase job satisfaction and result in higher retention of hospital nurses.
Mukherjee (1997) studied the relationship between organizational role stress,
role efficacy and organizational climate among 71 banking professionals. The
findings summarized that senior level managers scored higher on all the role efficacy
dimensions as compared to junior level mangers. Significant difference were found
between the two groups on the dimensions of proactivity, creativity, helping
relationship, influence, growth and total role efficacy. Role stress variables were
found to be inversely associated with role efficacy in both the groups.
Beauchamp and Bray (2001) examined role ambiguity as well as role conflict
perceptions among elite university athletes from a cross-section of interdependent
team sports (e.g., basketball, rugby, and soccer). Results revealed that athletes who
reported greater levels of role ambiguity and role conflict had lower levels of efficacy
with regard to performing their primary role responsibilities.
100
Anand (2002) examined reliable contribution of role efficacy towards

polytechnic teachers. The sample comprised 200 teachers of polytechnics of northern
part of India. The findings revealed that polytechnic teachers perceived greater role
efficacy than young teachers.
Karve (2006) showed that role linking subscale was significantly high for
women executives. The results showed that there was no significant difference on
total role efficacy score or on role efficacy index.
Karve and Nair (2010) explored the types of role stress faced by women
executives, and also their coping ability with respect to role efficacy. It also examines
how the different kinds of stress faced by the executives affect their role efficacy and
the impact of role efficacy on role stress. It appears that women executives use role
stress to increase their role efficacy and role efficacy leads to optimization of role
stress. Now-a-days executives seem to be inundated with role stress which in turn has
a negative impact on their role efficacy. If executives become aware of means to
enhance the various facets of role efficacy, they will be able to cope with role stress
and use role stress as eustress.
Karve and Nair (2011) focused on building theoretical linkages between role
efficacy as a means to proactively deal with potential role stress. It further uses the
primary data analysis of 200 women entrepreneurs to find the actual impact of role
efficacy on experience of role stress in dealing with womens entrepreneurial role.
The paper concludes that role efficacy can indeed be a vehicle for entrepreneurs to
become effective in their entrepreneurial role. Entrepreneurial associations can
organize workshops for budding and existing entrepreneurs in learning to enhance
personal and role efficacy which will help in resolving the various role stresses in a
proactive manner by empowering and enabling the entrepreneurs.
101
Rastogi, Rangnekar, and Bamel (2012) identified the interacting role of

gender, organizations (public and private) and positions (junior, middle and senior)
held by managers in deciding their role efficacy perception. To pursue this objective a
primary survey was conducted among 216 Indian managers of both public and private
organizations.
2.6.2 Role Efficacy Relating to Demographic Variables
Pandey (1995) conducted study on rail engine drivers of Indian railways to
determine the relationship between their role efficacy and role stress. The study
revealed role efficacy and role stress to be negatively related. The respondents were
found to be suffering from the feeling of role overload, resource inadequacy and
personal inadequacy. Education was found positively related with role stress and
negatively with role efficacy. Advancement in experience was found to enhance
probability of stress as also to have differential impact on drivers. The study
emphasized the need for conducting role efficacy and role stress labs for the workers
(drivers) if the Indian railways want to reduce stress in the jobs of the drivers and
want to increase their performance effectiveness.
Pandey (1997) conducted a study on 61 railway personnel. Results revealed
that experience has shown negative relationship with role efficacy. It is attributable to
no substantial increase in monetary gains with increase in experience. It has shown
negative relationship with role efficacy total and the six dimensions, viz., centrality,
integration, helping relations, superordination, influence and growth. This supports
the finding with regard to relationship of experience with various dimension of role
stress. The relationship of experience with helping relation and growth, being
negative and significant may be explained by the fact that helping relations does not
pay much but may invite danger on the job. Negative relationship with growth can be
102
explained by the fact that the driver has to do the same work from the date of entry to
the date of retirement.
K.H. Rao, Rao, Kumar, and Anwer (2007) role efficacy was measured for
164 faculty members of the State Agricultural Universities, using the role efficacy
scale. The study reveals the scope for enhancement of overall role efficacy and its
different dimensions. The research puts forth that education and designations have no
relation with any dimension of role efficacy; age and experience have a positive
correlation with proactivity; and the number of training programs attended has a
positive correlation with confrontation. The authors offer suggestions for enhancing
the overall role efficacy and its different dimensions.
2.6.3 Role Efficacy Relating to Job Related Factors
Sayeed (1985) suggested that with the increased role efficacy, burnout was
considerably reduced. Inter-role linkages and helping relationships act as buffers
preventing burnout phenomenon to occur with its usual intensity. Stress proneness
variable related negatively with integration, proactivity, super-ordination, influence
and overall efficacy scores, thereby suggesting that low stress proneness contributes
to role development and ones being efficacious on the job, whereas high stress
proneness does not go well with the role efficacy. Increased role efficacy results in
lower experience of stress or stress proneness. Stress proneness and role efficacy have
emerged to be inversely related.
Klinefelter (1993) discussed role efficacy and its relation to job satisfaction of
hospital nurses. It describes a role-efficacy model and analyzes nurses' perceptions of
feedback from the job itself, nursing supervisors, physicians, and hospital
administrators. The impact of role efficacy and job satisfaction on improved
103
recruitment and retention of nurses and the role of staff development in the
improvement process are explained.
Singh and Mohanty (1996) investigated the relationship between role efficacy
(overall dimension) with job anxiety and job status of 100 managers and 100
supervisors working in different units of Bhilai Refractories Plant. Findings revealed
significant negative relationship between role efficacy and job anxiety. Further,
employees having low job anxiety showed more role efficacy than the employees
having more job anxiety whereas managers were found to differ significantly from
supervisors with respect to their role efficacy. The main effect of job anxiety and job
status as well as the interaction effect of job anxiety and job status were also found
highly significant beyond 0.01 level of significance. It is concluded that job anxiety
and job status affects role efficacy.
Pethe and Choudhari (2000) study was undertaken to find out the
relationship between the effectiveness of performing the role (role efficacy), self
belief (self-efficacy) and learned helplessness. Some of the dimensions of role
efficacy showed significant relationship with learned helplessness and occupational
self efficacy.
Zellars, Hochwarter, Perrewe, Miles, and Kiewitz (2001) investigated the
potential moderating influence of collective efficacy on three role conflict work
outcomes relationships job satisfaction, intent to turnover, and exhaustion.
Specifically, Authors posited that individuals who perceived their groups to be
efficacious would experience fewer dysfunctional consequences in environments high
in role conflict. Data were gathered from 188 nurses working in a large metropolitan
hospital. After controlling for age, gender and self-efficacy, results confirmed our
three hypotheses. Individuals reported lower levels of exhaustion and turnover intent,
104
and higher levels of job satisfaction when collective efficacy was perceived to be
high. Managerial implications, limitations of the current study, and avenues for future
research are provided.
In a study by Anand (2002) it is observed that, the role efficacy was positively
related to the type-4 behavior, achievement in role, power in role, control in role,
affiliation in role and extension in role, achievement motivation climate, extension
motivation climate, power motivation climate, affiliation motivation climate and
negatively related with control motivation climate, organizational role stress and its
dimensions.
Bray and Brawley (2002) hypothesized that role efficacy should be a good
predictor of role performance effectiveness only under conditions of high role clarity.
Individuals reporting higher role clarity were expected to be more efficacious and
perform better than those with lower role clarity. Consistent with hypotheses, role
clarity moderated the prospective relationship between role efficacy and role
performance effectiveness in the predicted direction for offensive role functions.
Individuals who reported higher role clarity also reported higher role efficacy and
performed better than those with lower role clarity.
Bray, Balaguer, and Duda (2004) examined the relationship between role
efficacy and role performance after controlling for the effects of task self-efficacy.
Two hundred and ninety-five Spanish youth soccer players from 20 teams completed
self-report measures of task self-efficacy, role efficacy and role performance at the
mid-point of a competitive season. The 20 team coaches also provided ratings of each
of their players' role performances at mid-season. Consistent with hypotheses,
bivariate correlations showed task self-efficacy and role efficacy was positively
related to role performance ratings. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that role
105
efficacy contributed significantly to the prediction of athletes' ratings of role

performance after controlling for task self-efficacy. Role efficacy also explained
significant variation in the prediction of coach ratings; however, the effects were less
dramatic and inconsistent.
Beauchamp et al. (2005) examined the relationship between role ambiguity
and role efficacy within the context of sport teams from a multilevel perspective.
Secondary school rugby and field hockey players (n=277) comprising 33 intact teams
completed the role ambiguity scale. Role ambiguity accounted for 20.70% of the total
variance in role efficacy on offence and 22.45% on defence. For both offensive and
defensive models, role ambiguity was able to explain individual- and group-level
variances in role efficacy. However, in both cases, the majority of variance was
captured at the individual level. Results highlighted the explanatory value of
examining nested data using multilevel frameworks when examining cognition,
affect, and behaviour in interdependent environments such as sport teams.
Singh (2006) conducted a study on a sample of 178 participants social work
professionals. The findings depicted role efficacy to be associated positively with
emotional intelligence and internal locus of control, but negatively with external locus
of control. Similarly, emotional intelligence was found to be associated positively
with internality, but negatively related to externality. The findings also revealed that
emotional intelligence alone accounts for 43% of the variance on role efficacy of
social work professionals.
Jyothi and Jyothi (2012) focused on the relationship between role efficacy
and emotional intelligence as related to work- life balance of career women. Sample
consists of 63 career women working in Andhra Pradesh, India. The results showed
that there is a significant impact of factors affecting role efficacy on emotional
intelligence.
2.7
106
Need for the Study

The present modern life is full of technological advances as well as mode of
transportation that have made the people resulting in heightened expectation for
productivity, speed and efficiency to fly on a national and international basis for
business, commercial and leisure purpose. This puts increasing pressure on those
whose job demands more precised, satisfactory service with greater involvement. This
fact is very much true in case of aircraft professionals such as airline pilots, airhostesses, air traffic controllers, airline ticket issuers and aircraft engineers. The
responsibility of aircraft employees towards the safety of passenger is immense.
Being in airline can be a rewarding profession both financially and in terms of
the personal satisfaction it provides. Many consider it to be a dream job but perhaps
have unrealistic idea about what it is really like in practice the job demands a great
deal of efficiency, responsibility, personal commitment and self sacrifice. It is the fact
that aircraft employees are the back-bone of the airline industry. Hence, for the
effective functioning of this industry aircraft employees are expected to play their role
satisfactorily by bringing the best out of them to satisfy the customers and to deal with
the requirements of their profession.
Either the personal or organizational factors such as organizational role stress,
emotional labour, locus of control, role-based performance and role efficacy etc., are
observed to be significant variables to be studied in the aircraft field. In other words
as these aircraft occupation facing several hardships to meet out the expectations of
the customers and general public is responsible for the heightened stress of employees
working for it. These professionals constantly are expected to provide the pleasing
service by hiding their natural expressions of their emotions which will intern make
their experience emotional labour. Compared to any other profession aircraft
107
employees need to have sound belief in themselves and potentiality without

attributing any happening to other factors. Further, these aircraft employees should
have the clarity of their role and how it is to be performed along with carrying out that
role more effectively. When these aircraft employees are working under so many high
expectation at their work field compared to any other jobs necessitates carrying out
psychological studies on them to understand the prevailing states of them as well as
provide strategies to improve their quality of work life as well as quality of life.
In view of this, some of the specific behaviors of aircraft employees such as
organizational role stress, emotional labour, and locus of control, role-based
performance and role efficacy are to be studied scientifically.
The review of literature reveals the apparent dearth of studies on aircraft
employees especially in India population. Though some studies have been conducted
on western aircraft employees, they are not found to be focusing on the significant
variables which are taken in the present study. Moreover, the increasing aircraft
disasters in the air impels the need for psychological analysis of aircraft employees.
Such studies are expected to provide proper guidance and directions to enhance the
well-being of aircraft employees as well as their contribution to the field. This fact
promoted the investigator to take up this challenge and throw light on the problem
faced by the aircraft employees as well as to provide ways and means to overcome
them in their profession. Hence, the present study is taken up with the following
objectives and hypotheses.
2.8
Objectives of the Study
1.
To investigate the prevalence of organizational role stress, emotional labour,

locus of control, role-based performance and role efficacy of different aircraft
employees.
2.
108
To compare organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, rolebased performance and role efficacy among these different personnel working
for aircraft.
3.
To identify the personal and work related factors of aircraft employees, which
significantly contribute to their organizational role stress, emotional labour,
locus of control, role-based performance and role efficacy of aircraft.
2.9
Research Questions
The problem under investigation comprises of the following major questions:
1.
Do different aircraft employees (Airline pilots, Air-hostesses, Air traffic

controllers, Airline ticket issuers and Aircraft engineers) differ significantly
among themselves in their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus
of control, role-based performance and role efficacy?
2.
Do the personal and work related factors such as age, gender, educational
qualification, early background, religion, caste, length of service, monthly
income, marital status, working status of spouse, number of dependents,
number of siblings, order of birth, health condition, type of exercise, expressed
job satisfaction and overall life satisfaction significantly contribute to their
organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based
performance and role efficacy of the aircraft employees?
2.10
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses are formulated to seek answers for the above raised
research questions. The variation from personnel to personnel in terms of nature of

work, role demand, role expectations, etc., will have varied influence on the
organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based performance
and role efficacy of aircraft employees. Thus it is hypothesized that:
Ha1:
109
Aircraft employees (Airline pilots, Air-hostesses, Air traffic controllers,

Airline ticket issuers and Aircraft engineers) differ significantly among
themselves in their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of
control, role-based performance and role efficacy
In the present study, since five groups of aircraft employees (Airline pilots,
Air-hostesses, Air traffic controllers, Airline ticket issuers and Aircraft engineers) as
well as five dependent variables are included, the following specific hypotheses are
formulated and tested further:
Ha1.1: Aircraft employees (Airline pilots, Air-hostesses, Air traffic controllers,
themselves in their organizational role stress (Dimension wise as well as
overall)
themselves in their emotional labour (Dimension wise as well as overall)
themselves in their locus of control (Dimensions)
themselves in their role-based performance (Dimension wise as well as
overall)
themselves in their role efficacy (Dimension wise as well as overall)
110
Further in addition to the above hypotheses the differences between groups (in
all possible ways) are also verified with the help of the following hypotheses:
Ha1.1.1: Airline pilots and Air-hostesses differ significantly among themselves in their
organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based
performance and role efficacy (Dimension wise as well as overall)
Ha1.1.2: Airline pilots and Air traffic controllers differ significantly among themselves
in their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, rolebased performance and role efficacy (Dimension wise as well as overall)
Ha1.1.3: Airline pilots and Airline ticket issuers differ significantly among themselves
Ha1.1.4: Airline pilots and Aircraft engineers differ significantly among themselves in
their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based
Ha1.1.5: Air-hostesses and Air traffic controllers differ significantly among themselves
Ha1.1.6: Air-hostesses and Airline ticket issuers differ significantly among themselves
Ha1.1.7: Air-hostesses and Aircraft engineers differ significantly among themselves in
their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based
111
Ha1.1.8: Air traffic controllers and Airline ticket issuers differ significantly among
control, role-based performance and role efficacy (Dimension wise as well as
overall)
Ha1.1.9: Air traffic controllers and Aircraft engineers differ significantly among
overall)
Ha1.1.10:Airline ticket issuers and Aircraft engineers differ significantly among
overall)
Apart from the nature of profession, there are several other personal and work
related factors of aircraft employees which contribute to their organizational
role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based performance and role
efficacy. Hence, in order to know the influence of these factors to each of the
variables, an attempt is made to study by stating the following hypotheses:
Ha2:
Age, gender, educational qualification, early background, religion, caste,

length of service, monthly income, marital status, working status of spouse,
number of dependents, number of siblings, order of birth, health condition,
type of exercise, expressed job satisfaction and overall life satisfaction of the
aircraft employees significantly contribute to their organizational role stress,
emotional labour, locus of control, role-based performance and role efficacy
From the above main Ha2, following specific hypotheses are formulated and
tested further:
112
Ha2.1: Age, gender, educational qualification, early background, religion, caste,

aircraft employees significantly contribute to their organizational role stress
aircraft employees significantly contribute to their emotional labour
aircraft employees significantly contribute to their internality-locus of control
Ha2.4 : Age, gender, educational qualification, early background, religion, caste,
aircraft employees significantly contribute to their externality (others)-locus of
control
113
aircraft employees significantly contribute to their externality (chance)-locus
of control
aircraft employees significantly contribute to their role-based performance
aircraft employees significantly contribute to their role efficacy

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PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Indian Academy of Applied Psychology,

Studies on Aircraft Employees

the service quality problem by focusing on the individual service role.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

Vermeulen (2009) investigated flight instructors' perceptions with regard to

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

Studies on Organizational Role Stress

2.2.1 Studies Relating Demographic Variables to Organizational Role Stress

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

M. I. Khan, Khan and Khan (2005) conducted a study on coping strategies

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

2.2.2 Studies Relating Occupation and Position of Employees to Organizational

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

Rastogi and Kashyap (2003) conducted a study on occupational stress and

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

resignation or dismissal of a teacher and dealing with unsatisfactory performance of

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

accomplishment component. Role ambiguity and unreasonable group and political

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

three organizational stressors (alienation, work overload, and unfavorable work

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

Pathak (2012) examined the relationship between organizational stress

Studies on Emotional Labour

2.3.1 Studies Relating Emotional Labour to Demographic Variables

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) compared two perspectives of emotional

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

Karim and Weisz (2011) examined the moderating role of emotional

Studies Relating to Positive Consequences of Emotional Labour

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

psychological climate for service friendliness and employees displayed positive

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

was associated negatively with work-to-family facilitation. Emotional enhancement

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

Studies on Locus of Control

2.4.1 Locus of Control among Different Occupational Groups

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

pharmaceutical undertakings. Such pharmacists are more disposed to adopt innovative

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

Perlow and Latham (1993) studied aggressive work behavior of direct-care

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

these managers perceptions of the probability of personally being able to influence

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES