UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Outline: Eckert et al, Animal Physiology

CHAPTER 15: Feeding, Digestion, and Metabolism
OVERVIEW OF ALIMENTARY SYSTEMS (pg 637)
Most primitive: plasma membrane of unicellular organisms (endocytosis)
digestion in food vacuoles,
absorption into cytoplasm
Anatomically: a myriad of designs for alimentary systems
Physiologically: only 3 general categories ( pg 638, Fig. 15-10)
1. batch reactors: cavities that process one batch at a time
input and output through same orifice (example: hydra)
2. continuous flow-stirred tank reactor
(example: ruminants)
3. plug-flow reactor
(primates)
Design of alimentary canal and biochemical reactors must match the type and quality of food
the animal consumes.
High Quality: maximum energy for minimum digestive time
Low Quality: long digestive times
Transit Times are a function of temperature, physical activity, type of food, body mass, state of
health
(Fig. 15-12)
Approx.. 50 hrs for a 100 kg mammal
Alimentary canals are divided into 4 major divisions
Headgut: receives food
Foregut: stores and digests
Midgut: digests and absorbs
Hindgut: absorbs water and expels

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Fig. 15-15

Primates

Fig. 15-16, pg 641

Note
separation of
urinary and
digestive system
excretions in fish
and mammals.

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

15.22 Digestive tract of Horse (left) and rabbit (right)

Prof. Gross

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

ORGANS OF PRIMATE ALIMENTARY CANAL

Gall bladder

Bladder

SPHINCTERS: control movement of digesting material

1. Cardiac

esophagus/stomach

2. Pyloric

stomach/duodenum

3. Ileocecal

small intestine/large intestine

4. Anal

internal : smooth muscle (involuntary)

external: striated muscle (partially voluntary)

All sphincters are smooth muscles except for the external anal sphincter.

Prof. Gross

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL

1. Mouth and Pharynx
Teeth
Salivary Glands
parotid
submandibular
sublingual

(near ear-lobe)
(under mandible)
(under tongue)

saliva and most of salivary amylase

saliva (70-75% of saliva)
saliva

All glands produce salivary amylase and lipase. The parotid gland appears to dominate the
amylase production.
The daily production of saliva in humans ranges
from 0.74 to 1.5 liters.
During sleep it drops close to zero.
NOTE amylase breaks starches into complex
sugars and disaccharides
NOTE: saliva is a complex fluid containing:
electrolytes, mucin, amylase, lipase, antimicrobial
agents (lysozyme, thiocyanate), nerve growth factor
(mice & rats).

2. Esophagus
3. Stomach
4. Small Intestine 10-25 ft long, 1" in diameter
(a) duodenum
(b) jejunum
(c) ileum
5. Large Intestine 5-6 ft long, 2" in diameter
cecum (large cavity past the ileocecal sphincter; location of appendix)
ascending colon (on right side)
transverse colon (top)
descending colon (left)
sigmoid colon
6. Rectum
anal canal; anus

(1 involuntary and 1 voluntary sphincter)

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

MOTILITY OF ALIMENTARY CANAL

1. Peristalsis
2. Control of Motility
Intrinsic Control: Myogenic (pacemakers in muscle cells)
Extrinsic Control:
Peptide Hormones
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Innervation
Remarkably complex neuronal networks between muscular layers of
intestines (pg 649-651, Fig. 15-27)
(a) Myenteric Plexus:
(b) Submucosal Plexus

3 layers of muscles:
outer: longitudinal
middle: circular
inner: oblique

Fig 15-17

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Stomachs are classified as

Fig. 15-18
Digastric stomach of ruminants.
Deer, elk, giraffe, cattle, sheep,
bison
NOTE: digestion of cellulose
requires cellulase. This enzyme is
produced by symbiotic
microorganisms and not by the
ruminant (pg 655)

Monogastric (one chamber)

Digastric : several chambers

Cellulose, the major nutritional constituent of grass and hay cannot

be used by ruminants. They require bacteria for the digestion of
cellulose.
Bacteria make cellulase
Pg 655.
Actually by Fungi, bacteria, protozoans, "some" termites

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

INTESTINAL

Prof. Gross

EPITHELIUM

Fig. 15-27

Figs.
15-19
15-20

Rich sympathetic and parasympathetic

innervation !!!
To control:
vasculature
glands,
muscles

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Fig. 15-31

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

GASTROINTESTINAL SECRETIONS (pg 651)

4 major groups
proteases
carbohydrases
lipases
nucleases
STOMACH
1. Goblet Cells

produce mucus and intrinsic factor

intrinsic factor: protein for absorption of V B12

2. Zymogenic Cells produce pepsinogen (activated to pepsin by HCl)

rennin (milk digestion)
infants
gastric lipase
infants
3. Parietal Cells

produce HCl; pH of stomach is about 1.5 to 2.5

(mean: 2)

NOTE:
(a) inactive precursors to enzymes are called "zymogens"
or "pro-enzymes"
(b) Only a few substances (for example: water, alcohol, aspirin) are
absorbed in stomach.
NOTE: new gastric enzyme:
Gelatinase: degrades gelatin and collagen (type IV)

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

PANCREAS

1. Protein Hydrolysis
(a) trypsinogen
(b) chymotrypsinogen
(c) pro-carboxypeptidase
(d) elastase
(e) amino pepdidases
(f ) peptidases

splits large peptides into oligopeptides

oligopeptides into amino acids

2. Fat Hydrolysis
pancreatic lipase (steapsin)
hydrolyzes triglycerides into fatty acid and glycerol
[Lipases perform essential roles in the digestion, transport and processing of dietary
lipids (e.g. triglycerides, fats, oils) in most, if not all, living organisms.
Genes encoding lipases are even present in certain viruses.]

Fig. 3-13

NOTE: there are many different forms of lipases (lysosomal lipase, hepatic
lipase, endothelial lipase .). see Wickipedia.
We are focusing on the Pancreatic Lipase (also called human pancreatic lipase or HPL). HPL requires colipase (also from pancreas) for optimal activity.

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

3. Carbohydrate Hydrolysis
pancreatic amylase.
hydrolyzes carbohydrates to disaccharides (digestion not complete)
As diastase, amylase was the first enzyme to be discovered and isolated in 1833
NOTE: primary forms of Amylase are alpha, beta, and gamma
alpha: breakdown long-chain carbohydrates (random cleavage; Ca++
dependent)
beta: bacterial, fungi, and plants (cleaves off maltose, one at a time from end of
molecule).
gamma: specific cleavage, active at low pH (animal ???)

4. Nucleases
(a large family of enzymes) : nucleic acids into nucleotides

Clave phosphodiester bond

Restriction enzymes are nucleases that split only those DNA molecules in
which they recognize particular subunits. Some split the target DNA molecule
at random sites (Type I), but others split the molecule only at the recognition site
(Type II) or at a fixed distance from the recognition site (Type III). Type II and III
restriction enzymes are powerful tools in the elucidation of the sequence of
bases in DNA molecules.
They play a fundamental role in the field of recombinant DNA technology,
or genetic engineering.

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

ACTIVATION OF PANCREATIC ENZYMES

enterokinase (produced in duodenum) activates trypsinogen into trypsin
trypsin is also autocatalytic

chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase are both activated by trypsin

TRYPSIN SPECIFICITY:
Trypsin cleaves proteins at the carboxyl side of the amino acids lysine and
arginine, except when either is followed by proline.[1]

Trypsins are considered endopeptidases, i.e.,

the cleavage occurs within the polypeptide chain
rather than at the ends of polypeptides.

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O
R O
| ||
| ||
NH2--C-- C--NH--C-- C-- 0H
|
|
H
H

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

INTESTINAL ENZYMES
1. specific carbohydrases: NOTE: there are more than just these 3
maltase
(maltose >>>>> 2 glucose)
sucrase
(sucrose >>>>> glucose and fructose)
lactase
(lactose >>>>> glucose and galactose)
2. proteolytic enzymes
erepsin (short chain polypeptides >>>>> dipepetides & amino acids)
peptidases (dipeptides >>>>> amino acids
WIKIPEDIA: Erepsin is an enzyme that digests peptones into amino acids. It is
grouped under exopeptidases. They work only on the outside peptide bonds of a
peptone. Its optimum pH is around pH 8. It is produced by the intestinal glands in
the ileum and is found in the intestinal juices.
Peptones: segments formed by partial hydrolysis of a protein
3. intestinal amylase
minor contribution in mammals
Most absorption occurs in the small intestine
proteins as amino acids
carbohydrates as monosaccharides
fats as free fatty acids and monoglycerides
brushborder enzymes (enzymes attached to the membranes of microvilli)
catalyze many of the last steps of digestion.

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

GASTRO-INTESTINAL HORMONES (Table 15-2)

Hormone

gastrin

Source
stomach

cholecystokinin duodenum

pancreozymin

Action
stimulates secretion of HCl and pepsinogen
+ activity of stomach muscles
stimulates secretion of digestive enzymes from
pancreas and contraction of gall bladder

GIP

duodenum

inhibits HCL sec., stomach motility and closes

pyloric sphincter

secretin

duodenum

stimulates secretion of bicarbonate by pancreas

bulbogastrone duodenum
somatostatin

inhibits gastric secretion and motility

small intestine & pancreas

inhibits everything

Fig. 15-36

USE COMMON SENSE !!!

A big problem is too much acid in the
duodenum. Hence GIP and bulboG
inhibit acid secretion, stomach
motility, and close the pyloric
sphincter.

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Special Handling of Lipids (pg 661)

Fig. 3-13

Fig. 15-38
Conversion to
monoglycerides + fatty
acids. Solubilized by Bile
Salts

lipase

ABSORPTION as
monoglycerides + fatty
acids + glycerol

REASSEMBLY into
triglycerides (in SER)

Collected in vesicles called

CHYLOMICRONS
(with cholesterol and
phospholipids in Golgi)

EXOCYTOSIS into
lymphatic system with
subsequent distribution
in circulatory system

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Lipids in plasma:
cholesterol and cholesterol esters,
phospholipids,
and triglycerides.
lipids are not soluble in water and must be carried in special structures.
Step 1: chylomicrons >> chylomicron remnants (in blood)
Step 2: reprocessing in liver
Packaged into a series of smaller organelles.
Secreted back into circulation
PACKAGES:
VLDL:
IDL
LDL
HDL

lipoprotein name
very low density
LP
intermediate density
LP
low density
LP
high density lipoproteins LP

All packages have phospholipid and protein envelopes

From MEDSCAPE:
classification of lipoproteins

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size
70 nm
40 nm
20 nm
10 nm (100 Angstr.)

UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Major Classes of Serum Lipoproteins

Source: K. Saladin, Anatomy and Physiology, Mc. Graw Hill, 1998
%Protein %cholestrol

%triglyc.

%phospholip.

Chylomicrons

20

Very low density LPs

20

55

17

Low density LPs

20

53

21

High density LPs

50

20

25

(often called "good cholesterol")

Structure: Protein and phospholipid coat with lipid core

NOTES:
(1) Endothelial cells of blood capillaries have a lipoprotein lipase (triglycerides
into glycerol and fatty acids)
Products can pass through capillary membrane via specific transporters.
(2) All proteins for lipoprotein structures are produced by the liver.
(3) VLDLPs transport lipids to adipose tissue for storage.
(4) LDLPs bind preferentially with cells that require cholesterol
(5) HDLP: collect cholesterol, which is removed in liver for making bile.
These proteins remove cholesterol from circulation.

Caution:
No general
agreement

Cholesterol range: 190 to 240 mg/dL

Lower concentrations are dangerous and are linked to hemorrhages and stroke.

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Triglycerides have a glycerol backbone and three fatty acids attached. The fatty acids are the
important part of the molecule and can be of different lengths and have different numbers of
double bonds.
Fatty Acids are organized into three groups:
- Saturated fats are mainly derived from animal products such as meat and dairy. They have
no double bonds.
- Monounsaturated fats are found in olive oil, avocados and macadamia nuts. They have one
double bond.
- Polyunsaturated fats come from corn, seed and nut oils (omega 6) and seafood (omega 3).
They have two or more double bonds.
Fats and oils are used for energy production and provide the most energy per gram of all the
macronutrients (fat 37kJ/g; carbohydrate 16kJ/g; and protein 17kJ/g).

The LIVER
largest gland of body
first organ to receive products of digestion
(portal vein collects blood from stomach and intestine)
liver consists of
(a) one type (?) of hepatic cell
(b) resident macrophages (Kupfer cells)
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
1. Production of Bile
2. Filters Intestinal Blood
(a) removes bacteria
(b) destroys old RBC's (together with spleen)
(c) detoxifies (destroys, stores, or modifies for excretion via kidney)
3. Major site for gluconeogenesis
4. Storage of glycogen
5. Manufacture of blood proteins (serum albumin, heparin, fibrinogen,
prothrombin)
6. Storage of iron and vitamins

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Mechanisms of Toxin Elimination

1.Glutathione conjugation
2. Amino acid conjugation
3. Sulfation
4. Acetylation
5. Glucuronidation

Regulation of blood glucose levels

animals eat sporadically: storage and release of glucose is a major problem.
Glycogen storage
The liver and striated muscles store glycogen.
Major reservoir is in the liver which can supply body with glucose for about 10
hours of fasting.
(synthesis of glycogen is stimulated by insulin; breakdown is triggered by
glucagon and adrenaline).
Gluconeogenesis:
The synthesis of glucose from amino acids and lactic acid. During fasting, amino
acids for gluconeogenesis are obtained mostly from muscle tissue.
(Note: rapid muscle wasting during prolonged fasting).
Liver Bile (Stored and concentrated in gall bladder).
Fluid composed of
(1) plasma salts, cholesterol, lecithin
(2) bile pigments (from RBC destruction >>>>> excreted)
(3) bile salts (sodium glycholate: made from cholic acid and glycine)
Bile salts emulsify fats.
They are amphipathic (like detergents) and have a molecular region that
interacts with water, and one that forms hydrophobic bonds with lipids.
They can solubilize lipids (fats) and also maintain hydrophobic vitamins and
hormones in solution.
However, bile salts do not digest fats. That is accomplished enzymatically
with lipases.

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UNT Biology 3800

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Spring 2015

Prof. Gross

Jaundice:
yellowing of skin due to accumulation of bilirubin in body;
caused by either
(1) a lack of excretion, or
(2) excessive production of bilirubin.
Bilirubin is a breakdown product of hemoglobin (heme group). It is often called a
"bile pigment".
Types of Jaundice:
obstructive jaundice:

ex. gall stones

hemolytic jaundice

ex. malaria (parasite-induced destruction of RBC)

hepatic jaundice

ex. liver destruction (hepatitis)

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