Intro to Psychology: Part I

August 31, 2011

Psychology as a Science: Theory Based
- There should be some theoretical base to a theory why does it
occur? Understanding the relationship of the personality and the
environment leads to a prediction of a behavior.
- Steps in Research
o Formulate hypothesis
o Design Study
o Collect the Data
o Analyze Data
o Disseminate the research
- Good research should be theoretical in nature about why
something is occurring? There might be multiple interactions of
things, a complex theory, but theory should account for all
possible causes.
- Not all research is theoretical in nature. Improtant differentiation
is that of theoretical research versus phenomenological research.
Theoretical research gives understanding of cause of behavior.
Phenomenological research merely demonstrates that an effect
occurs and not necessarily understanding why or the cause.
Good research should be theoretical.
o Example of Phenomenological Research: scientific
measurements of human behavior out in the real world,
students in class to test idea that men are more likely to
eat alone then women, systematic observation about
seating arrangements with different definitions of single
versus group eating arrangements this was done for
several weeks. We found that this phenomenon occurs,
that men are more likely to eat alone then women were.
Theoretically why? We didnt have an answer. Possible
reasons why? Many theories. Sometimes research starts off
phenomenological before it becomes theoretical. Want to
establish that a phenomenon occurs before trying to
understand why such behaviors occur. Writing about
trauma versus writing about daily events. No theoretical
basis but there occurred a phenomenon related to stress
related health issues people who reported about trauma
had less stress related health issues. There was something
in writing about trauma that reduced stress levels. When
this was reviewed, people wondered WHY did this occur?
Couldnt answer this because he had no theoretical basis
and was published in a crappy publication. Research

evaluated more favorably if theoretical in nature. Went on

to further research to explain why eventually turned to
what the subjects were writing and the language
differences in describing trauma versus daily activities.
People who wrote in terms of self-awareness, or some sort
of inner cognition, who came to some sort of closure, came
to a cognitive understanding, had better stress related
health issues. Within the group writing about trauma, those
who used the most cognitive understanding terms and
language were the healthiest. This further research that
provided underlying cause was valued more highly and
published in better journals. Going into a research, you
want your first step to be a theoretical foundation, you may
have to tweak your theory, but this type of research is still
preferred.
o Theory Development:
Inductive: specific to general (e.g. attachment)
specific example or thing, this leads you to
investigate what happened in the instance, causes
you to broaden your theory to be more general.
Attachment theory was developed through the
specific observation through analyzing the profiles of
juveniles sent to prison (delinquents). Most of these
boys had some sort of early childhood separation
(first couple of years). What is going on here?
Influenced in terms of evolution theory socioemotional bonding. We are so vulnerable at young
age for survival, we are so dependent on another
during the first year of life when we cant survive.
What promotes survival is that socio-emotional bond,
a secure emotional bond. If we dont have this bond,
we are not as secure and, thus, delinquent behavior
results. Gradually developed into general theory
about attachment to explain various behaviors
regarding friendship, delinquency, school
performance. Secure versus Insecure Adults with
romantic relationships, issues with trust, jealousy,
etc. Point being scientist started out with a very
specific theory, which became this very general
theory describing humans throughout their lifetimes
and throughout various types of psychology. MOST
COMMON TYPE OF THEORY DEVELOPMENT. Can
branch out to explain other types of behavior.
Deductive: general to specific (ego depletion)
observing behavior across different situations, but
you start to observe a certain or common behavior to

explain each situation. Ego depletion study

cognitive literature. Theory of fatigue and cognitive
performance. People waiting in line for DMV longer
the time you wait in line. Account for behavior we
have some sort of limited processing ability, limited
ability for brain to be on and functioning if we get
mentally taxed we shut down that much more
quickly. Leads to various studies with anagrams,
fasting with eating versus not eating and taste
perception. Radishes and freshly baked cookies.
Those who got to eat something resisted the cookie
and filled out the form, whereas those who had
fasted ate the cookies. Theory helped to explain
behaviors in multiple situations. LESS COMMON.
o What makes a good theory? Evaluations
Most IMPORTANT TESTABLE/FALSIFIABLE this is a
necessary condition for a theory to be evaluated
well. There has to be a way to test whether the
theory can account for theory you want to predict.
Classic theory in psychology fell out of favor even
though it was famous, though was not a good theory
in terms of testability Freuds theory of the id, ego
and our superego (our hedonistic self versus our
mediating ego, etc.) and the unconscious mind
what happens in the conscious mind is directed by
what goes on in the unconscious mind. An unbalance
would result from these three unconscious minds
that affect our conscious behavior. Frustration with
falsifiability there wasnt a good way to experiment
to test the truth of this theory because we dont have
a way of measuring the unconscious mind. Most
attempts to measure the unconscious mind were
unsuccessful, couldnt measure these things. Very
little evidence or theoretical support for the
psychoanalytical theory. You have to be able to say
why something occurs and show that it is falsifiable
and test it in the construct of the situation.
Fits Data you have a theory that you can test to
predict human behavior. Is your theory supported by
the data? Theory that commitment in a relationship
will predict behaviors within the relationship,
longevity, etc. Accounts for more variants than
satisfaction or happiness in the relationship. For a
long time people believed that satisfaction as the
focus however, when you started to measure
commitment and psychological attachment, which

was measured separately from satisfaction,

consistently proved to be a greater predictor of
behavior within the relationship. Commitment
predicted better and shifted the focus of relationship
study because it fit the data more so than did
satisfaction.
Parsimony (Occams razor) understanding that in
the evaluation for two different theories accounting
for he same behavior, the theory that can account
more simply for the behavior is often preferred.
Occams razor example guy that went around in
carnival that the horse could do simple math (clever
Hans). Paid money, stood in front of horse, ask
question, horse would stamp on the answer. Hans got
the answer right. People in the scientific world were
starting to get interested in animal intelligence and
the forebrain and the complexity of thought. Size of
the brain pan, what is going on with horse?
Developing complex theories to explain behavior.
Hans was simply performing operant conditioning
some simple thing that was going on. Hans looked at
the person looking at the person, stomped when
person looked down and when they looked up stop
and get excited. A simpler explanation is preferred
over a complex one.
Generates Research a good theory will have an
impact on the field. A theory that gets other people
excited to further expand and investigate the theory,
as opposed to a theory that is put out there and no
one responds. How many times other people site
your published work as a means of evaluating your
theories.

September 2, 2011
Steps to Formulate Theory
- Make sure what you are looking at is quantifiable to make a
judgment?
- Disseminate a result report at a conference, most research gets
peer reviewed, different levels of journals, do these studies
translate into a public impact? Responsibility for psychology as a
science to have a positive health impact of the public (an applied
element).
Background Issues for Research Methods:

Design: Experimental vs. Correlational

o Experiment to have enough control over something, to
manipulate variables, as to explore causation. Did you
notice a difference in the variable you are trying to
measure through the manipulation of other variables?
Manipulated variable independent variable
Alcohol example lab students are given a
shake and cant taste the alcohol with a test of
motor ability how well do they perform the
given motor task (i.e. timing, accuracy)
Measure dependent variable the outcome
variable, quantifiable
Random Assignment any subject has an equally
likely chance to being in either situation A or B, they
are randomly assigned the goal of this is to
eliminate any systematic difference amongst the
group
The effects of frustration on the motivation of
doing a difficult test. Manipulate frustration
limits but do one group during different time
periods no frustration during September and
frustration in October. Situational variables
regarding work load would have an adverse
effect on the studies, perhaps the personality
type (i.e. procrastination)
Unaccounted for variables lead to bias
Wash away any weirdness
Control Key you want to isolate and know that only
the dependent variable is affecting the independent
variable that there are no other variables creeping
into the experiment
The way subjects are treated, the procedure is
identical across groups, besides the one thing
you are trying to manipulate, the independent
variable. There is a script to standardize
proceedings
Standardization ^
o Correlational whether to measured variables have a
systematic relationship with each other
Relationship between variables -1 0 and 1
Perfect negative and positive correlation of -1
or 1 or 0 indicates no systematic relationship
No Causation because you are not isolating a
variable you cant say anything about the cause

Different types of correlational

Positive height and weight .5 taller people
tend to be heavier, commitment
If you cant measure the variables
o Structural problems with Experiments can make you less
sure of a cause, and path analysis could make you more
sure of correlation
Willingness to forgive partner example
Validity: Internal vs. External
o Internal simply the degree to which you are sure of the
cause of your results its a continuum
Threats to internal validity: no control, no random
assignment, third variables, etc. make you less sure
of the cause of your results
Experiments arent always high in internal validity
Correlation can be low in internal validity, path
analysis has led us to have higher internal validity to
measure several different variables
o External the degree to which the outcome, measured
variable is naturally occurring subjects acting just as they
normally would
Generalisability degree to which subjects behavior
in the study will happen out in the real world
Experiment in a lab you know that people are going
to be measuring something about you makes it less
likely that your behavior is going to be natural
Correlational more externally valid its a
continuum it doesnt always been it is completely
naturally occurring when you fill out a form the
know that they are being measured in some way,
that someone will look at what they say
Ways to increase external validity deception, get
ppl to think that they are being studied on one thing
and being measured on something different
Example: are you by yourself or with someone
when you are filling out a personality test
smoke comes out of the corner what do you
do? How quickly do you get up and get help?
Person alone gets up, with someone else there
is a delay
Measurement Issues
o Operationalization the way you choose to manipulate
independent variables, and/or how you choose to measure
dependent variables

Frustration study how are you going to manipulate

frustration, how are you going to make people
frustrated? So that you are not creating anger or
unhappiness. What you are manipulating is what you
actually want to manipulate. Some things cant be
measured (i.e. love?), how do we know we arent
measuring something else.
Use pilot testing and pre testing to make sure that
you are testing what you want to
Important for internal validity want to make sure
you are isolating the variable
o Manipulation checks are you manipulating what you
intend to
o Reliability can you repeat this experiment, so that
subjects produce the same results, intelligence
measurements and scoring, youshould score the same
aside from outside issues.

September 7, 2011
Measurement Issues
- How I choose to measure something operationlization how do
you operationalize variables
- Manipulation check are we operational zing the variable the
way that I want am I actually measuring the variable
- Reliability can I produce the same results again and again?
Research Methods: Pros and Cons - not all mutually exclusive, can be
used in combination with each other
- Laboratory/Experiment
o In the interest of trying to establish causation, try to tightly
control the setting key part is this very strong control,
random assignment, control settings, everything is
identical except for the one thing that you are trying to
control (the quantifiable variable) benefits are higher
internal validity because you can isolate the cause
o Flip side this makes the situation artificial and the subjects
may know that they are in an experiment, and behavior
might not be that natural, a threat to external validity. Can
use deception in order to reduce threat of external validity
smoke coming into the room example. Priming you
signed up for a study on memory read a story about
architecture with adjectives either about being old or are
mixed with old and new write down as much as they can
about the passage and walk down the hall to get credit

how do they walk? Mixed is normal, old words make you

walk like an old person you think its just a memory study
when in fact but they are being measured on something
unrelated.
Observational
o When you go out into the real world and you try to observe
behavior in a natural setting. You are just trying to
systemically observe behavior in a natural setting. There
are no controls; you are simply observing what is going on.
o Are men or women more likely to eat alone? Need to code
behavior what are the categories of observed behaviors
very important to impose controls in the observation
everyone has to be on the same wavelength in terms of
what to classify as sitting alone same coding page. Very
labor intensive.
o Observational study flirting behavior related to time of
closing of the bar. Observed behavior of guys flirting with
behavior. What is flirting? Body posture? Eye gaze?
Smiling? Random Assignment.
o Less high in internal validity because you are not
controlling anything, higher in external validity because the
people are naturally occurring.
Field Experiment
o Attempt to manipulate an independent variable and
measure a dependent variable in a real world environment.
Conduct a little experiment, where the subjects dont know
that they are in an experiment. People are out in the real
world are acting naturally, and thus there is a high level of
external validity. Cross between an experiment and an
observational study.
o Obedience to Authority outside an office building there
are parking meters and planted a car at the parking meter
and they controlled the slot next to it to be open. Putting
money in your meter, someone comes out to tell you to put
a quarter in the other meter. One person wearing a suit
(50%), other wearing a security guard (80%) just having
an authority figure there makes people more likely to follow
their orders. Experimenters staged a condition and
controls. Coding behaviors.
o Behavior is most likely natural and thus external validity is
high.
o Field experiments pass issue of ethics behavior they are
trying to manipulate is naturally occurring, there are not
extreme behaviors there is no consent to be in the study.
Surveys

o Free response, questionnaires, etc. some sort of self-report.

How often do you exercise? Do you smoke? Dating
relationships? Etc.
o Benefits they can reach many many subject very easily,
minimal effort
o Cons
Primary downside is that we dont know if it accurate
conscious and unconscious bias people could lie
because they want to good, or some other
motivation. Is the survey accurately operationalizing
the variable you are trying to measure? Some people
have different versions of scales
Self-Report by nature is passive; they are not actively
or dynamically doing something. Research is trying
to measure behavior directly, rather than just
reporting that behavior, it is more preferred
September 9, 2011
Experience Sampling
o Represents an attempt to try to get recordings of data in a
real time fashion, getting a snap shot of peoples behavior
out in the real world over an extended period of time
o Getting a snapshot of the behavior as it is going on,
reporting on it as it really occurs as a sampled way
o Example: Does your social life differ in quantity and quality
of interactions depending on how physically attractive you
are? For every interaction that you have that lasts more
than ten minutes, you need to fill out a diary sheet when
did it occur, who initiated the interaction, quality of the
interaction, etc. right after it happens. Consistently monitor
this. Physical interactions related to quality and quantity
of interactions less attractive women more likely to
initiate opposite sex interactions. You really didnt want to
be an unattractive male only hang out with other
unattractive males.
o Physical affect as personality traits
o People in better relationships have better ability to deal
with conflict constructive criticism bad relationships
tended to show revengeful behaviors
o Mix of observational research (pros relatively good
external validity, even though people are reporting it it is
still self-report though which is a con)
Clinical Trials
o Important part in developing assessments of therapy and
pharmaceutical intervention

o Two groups one control and one placebo and track

differences to see if control has any effects
o FDA rules and regulations regarding issues drug having
great benefit you have a responsibility to help the group
with the placebo.
o Placebo guess that they are on the placebo and seek help
in some other way quasi treatment-ish self medicating,
take other drug, see other doctor
Archival Research
o Looking at data that was not collected for a psychological
purpose, but for some other reason, but you go in and set
up a way to categorize and code data to try to answer a
psychological problem or issue
o Ex. Rates of giving to a public radio station during a
pledge drive how much money was coming in per hour
we set up a study to figure out what they were doing and
how much money was given as a result
o Sporting events crowds which was more likely to impair
performance? What were the rates of home teams winning,
where in the series were they, etc Home teams tend to
have an advantage, and the larger the crowd the better,
unless its the final game of the season the do or die
game had an adverse behavior try to analyze data that
is used for some other purpose than psychological use
o Cant really talk about causation but most of the time it is
naturally occurring external validity will be very high
o Studies are unlikely to stand alone confounding variable
too problematic and thus need to be supplemented
Quasi-experimental
o Independent variable is naturally occurring, and not being
manipulated
o Independent variable is important enough that you can
compare across groups to measure dependent variable
grouping variable that I am going to pay attention to
o Psychological effects of different breast cancer research
different stages and their different treatments
psychological effects such as depression
o You are not sure if there is another variable across groups
that are impacting the group systematically cant talk
about causation so completely
o Usually occurs when you cant control or manipulate the
independent variable (such as gender, but keep track of
sex differences)
o Or independent variable manipulation might be unethical
o Main independent variable is naturally occuring

o Quasi-experimental variables are present in other

experiments always creates a threat to internal validity
- Multitrait Multimethod
o What is the best method?
o Frustration relates to aggression if you only rely on one
method (a lab environment where subjects know that they
are in an experiment) your results might only happen in a
lab environment and might not happen out in the real
world your results might be directly related to the method
with which you choose to manipulate and measure
variables
o Different ways to measure frustration, etc.
o Maybe what you are finding is related to different types of
frustration are you properly operationalizing?
o Different types of frustration multi-trait, different type of
method
o If you get consistent results from multi-trait, mutlimethod
than you have good results
September 12, 2011
Potential Biases
- Design Problems
o Demand Characteristics a cue in the environment of the
study that tips off the subject as to what the hypothesis is,
or what is being tested there is something within the
environment of the study that cues the subject that you
are supposed to act in a certain way. The problem is if the
subject figures out how the experimenter expects you to
behave does the subject want to support the hypothesis?
Not necessarily a natural behavior makes you less sure of
the cause threat to internal and external validity. How do
you get rid of demand characteristics? Run a pilot study or
pre test, which basically means you run some subjects
through a study and probe them about what they thought
the hypothesis was and why they thought it would be that
way, are they altering their behavior? You have to change
your method and your behavior. Or try DECEPTION to trick
the subjects about what they think that hypothesis is.
o 3rd Variable (control) come from issues of control, if you
dont have random assignment there could be something
systematically different with the group, which could inject
bias within the study. Correlational study with College GPA
and SAT scores your intelligence is probably the
underlying reason behind both results alternate theories
that you are not considering in order to explain a result.
Good researchers try to think of alternative hypotheses and

try to eliminate them in an experiment, systematically try

to rule them out.
Experimenter Bias related to broader concept of the SelfFulfilling Prophecy (my expectations about a person alters the
way that I behave towards them, but because my expectations
alter my behavior, I essentially create that reality I expected)
o Example of SFP Teachers were given a heads up about
who was a smart kid and who wasnt smart kids and
expectations are randomly assigned but teacher has
different expectations and are to teach these kids. How did
the teacher interact with kids? Teacher was more likely to
call on you, positive reinforcement, positive affect, and
encouragement when you were wrong if they thought you
were smart (opposite if stupid). Teacher altered their
behavior at the end of four months they did standardized
tests if the teacher thought you were smart, you
performed much better than if the teacher thought you
were stupid teachers expectations came true.
o Example five minute phone conversation manipulate
whether guy was talking to a really attractive or not so
attractive women women are randomly assigned If he
thinks that you are attractive he acts more warm, asks
personal question, more focused, laughs more not
attractive is more business-like and cold. Women
responded in a way that was similar to the mans and
creates this self-fulfilling prophecy
o Experimenter Bias if a researcher has expectations about
how you should behave they might act in ways that are
subtly different if you think if you are in the control or
placebo groups their actions can affect your behavior to
what they want you to do.
Example: Rosenthal they took headshots of
freshmen at a different university trying to rate their
intelligence. All are going to find Group A more
intelligent than Group B and vise versa for the
other half gave them an expectation and this is
what the results showed. Graduate students were
acting a little bit differently, something very subtly to
alter the subjects behavior.
My expectations change my behavior to elicit a
certain behavior from you.
o Get rid of it?
Use a blind anyone who is interacting with a subject
cant know what group the subject is in therefore
they have no expectation for the subjects behavior.

Standardization standardize how experimenters

interact with subjects instructions are pre-recorded
to hear the exact same thing except for the one thing
that is trying to be manipulated, or maybe the
experimenters are given a script to read.
- Participant Bias Evaluation Apprehension
o About the subjects themselves people are worried about
the impression they are making alter their behavior so
that they look good because they are worried about being
evaluated threat to internal and external behavior.
behavior is not naturally occurring, and thus you wont
know what is exactly causing a result
o How to avoid?
Use deception to trick subject about true nature of
the experiment
Make it very clear from the outset that subjects
behavior is anonymous anything they do or write
down wont be able to be connected with them
individually. Notion of anonymity or confidentiality
frees the subject up from being worried about being
evaluated.
Double blind you might have multiple steps in a study with different
manipulations experimenter in step 1 wont know what step the
subject is going into My Enemies Enemy is my Friend

Issues of Ethics:
- Pre Milgram Study ethics were at the discretion of the individual
experimenter issues of risk and benefit or harm to subjects was
entirely at the whim of the individual experimenter
o Example study where trying to create a phobia
operational conditioning with a rat and noise the young
child probably had the phobia the rest of his life
- Milgram Study post Nuremburg trials does a study on the
power of obedience subjects would come in to a study on
human reinforcement subject has to memorize pairs of words
and the teacher has to pull levers of shock if the subject gets
the pairs of words wrong standardized the subjects response so
that at a given point the subject will scream in pain and that he
wants to leave, and then eventually the subject will not respond
the experimenter tells the teacher that he must continue that
the shocks are not debilitating to please continue 65% of
teachers shocked the subject all the way through the most
dangerous shocks (SUBJECT NOT ACTUALLY SHOCKED)
o Teachers were tracked after the study 6 months later
they were having nightmares about the study, disrupting

their social lives, depression, etc. These people were

psychologically affected from having participated in the
study
- Post Milgram Study self assessment
o Internal review board (IRB) IRB approval process
Informed consent (voluntary) if you want to stop
the experiment at any time, you are free to stop
study and you can leave. Protect populations
previously put at risk because they could give
consent
Risk vs. benefit standards keep getting higher and
higher potential implication of the studies
Debriefing at the end of the study you should be
told what was the study was actually trying to
examine the educational component of the process
you are educated and informed about what
happened and why opportunity for you as the
subject to ask questions quality of debriefing can
be mixed.
September 14, 2011
Biological Bases for Behavior:
Basic Human Uniqueness
- 23 pairs of chromosomes
- Genes are organized in chromosome pairs (one from each
parent)
- Fathers genes determines whether or not you are a male or
female
- Start off as a zygote all cells will have these genes
- Process of Mitosis cell replication and division that creates all
other cells in your body so that all of your DNA is found in all
cells of your body
o You began from a simple cell to have all of the same
genetic information throughout your body
o Humans have about 30,000 genes earthworms have
18,000 not the number of genes that you have that
determines complexity 70,000 proteins/amino acids that
determines different functions of the cells
o Combination of pairs of genes how multiple genes create
different genes trillions of combinations that influent the
traits that you have
o We are all different
- Identical Twin monozygotic twins one cell divides into two
identical dna information replicas of each other 4 out of a
thousand

o Very sought after research subjects and paid very well

because they are the only set of humans that share
identical DNA information genetic predisposition versus
environment especially twins that are brought up in
different environments how do they differ?
Fraternal twins two eggs siblings born at the same time
dizygotic twins about 12/1000
Why arent we the same as our siblings? Why isnt there more
overlap? Process of Meiosis in reproductive cells notion of basic
human uniqueness even though you share the same parents
you will have a unique dna structure.
o First stage: DNA replication (reproductive cells) and
recombines with some crossing over that occurs within
these chromosomes and then creates two different cells
with different combination of chromosomes even though
basic dna is the same reproductive cells are going to
have slightly different combination of cells
o From one cell you get four different reproductive cells
each sperm cell has a slightly different combination of DNA
o Each half that you get will be slightly different similar to
siblings but not identical to our siblings
Scores on IQ
o Same individual is similar to that of monozygotic twins
share the exact same DNA structure suggest really strong
genetic predisposition to intellect
o Some support for evidence as dizygotic twins that go
through the same environment and experiences score at a
higher correlation than siblings. Their environment must
have an impact
o Siblings raised together have a couple years apart and
have had different experiences at a given age. Also similar
to unrelated children being raised together
o Parent Child two parents involved in contributing to the
childs DNA thus the correlation between intellect is not
particularly strong
How genes display themselves in terms of traits
o Austrian monk Gregor Mendel first to identify notion of
how traits express themselves looking at pea plants and
the flowers associated with that different types of
combinations dominant versus recessive traits
heterogenous traits versus homogenoustraits
PP pink flower
pP pink flower

Pp pink flower
pp white flower

o In the presence of a dominant trait, i.e. P, the color of the

pea plant will be pink. In order for recessive genes to
display, both traits need to be recessive
o Homogeneous both dominant trait or both recessive trait
o Heterogeneous mix of dominant trait and recessive trait
o Recessive traits in humans attached earlobes, blue eyes,
not being able to roll your tongue, widows peak, hair on
middle knuckle, etc.
o Most genes are not mono-genetic but polygenetic
meaning that several genes will impact a certain traits
Interaction with the Environment
o Genetic predisposition versus environment genes
contribute a lot but environment plays a big role as well
- Genotype vs. Phenotype
o Genotype is the make up of your genes determine how
our traits are displayed
o Phenotype how our traits are in reality are displayed or
expressed - there can be environmental influences that
impact how your genes are actually expressed
o Ciliacs disease cant process gluten villa in your small
intestine stopped function and was unable to absorb
nutrients
Genotype was predisposed to this malnutrition habit
All we needed to do was eliminate gluten from her
diet now she is healthy, active, nutritional content is
good healthier diet good example of genotype vs.
environment or phenotype, means that they are
expressed differently
o You may have a predisposition to a certain psychological
disorder but depending on your environment and the
amount of stress, you may or may not express these genes
- Evolution: mutation in mitosis and meiosis mutations happens
in several processes something happens in the replication and
division which adds cells (more likely in mitosis) that
fundamentally alters the genetic structure some mutations end
up being important in terms of survival and reproduction
o Principle of natural selection survival of the fittest
survival is key other species would die off
Survival and reproduction reproduction is also a key
element essentially in evolution imperative not only
that you survive and prosper, it is imperative that
you produce if you are going to have an impact on
your species lasting influence you need to have
offspring has that beneficial mutation so that it can
endure someone who lives to be ninety who has no

kids contributes nothing to his species (i.e. Warren

Buffet)
- Sociobiology study of evolutions effect on humans
o Focuses on issue of differential parental investment
Men and women contribute differently in raising a
child play different roles with different investments
big differences
Women sure of their maternity and that their genes
are in their offspring and shares their genetic
material, limited fertility window and thus more
invested in keeping it alive, drastic physical changes
in being pregnant or giving birth there are only so
many kids that they can have in a lifetime
Men less sure of their paternity cant be sure,
some other male may be responsible, can have
children and offspring throughout their lives, and
they are not carried down by having the child can
get many females pregnant and spread their seed
around
o Mate preferences value in a mate
Name traits they would value in an ideal mate
Only sex difference women value men of high
resources more than men say it men are
more likely to say physical attractiveness
Resources can help to care for the child
ensure the survival of their child
Physical attractiveness shows relative health
disease-free, infant mortality was often very
high physical attractiveness indicates that
child will survive
Stereotypical or perpetuating stereotypes
Theory says that these are trends that we would
expect because of differential parental investment
at macro level and not on the individual level
between partners
September 16, 2011
Differential Parental Investment
- Mate preferences
- Jealousy (male sexual jealousy)
o Sex difference in what type of things make them jealous
o One condition physiological response and think about
partner and other about partner having sex with someone
else Or falling in love with someone else

Men more likely to be upset about partner having

sex with someone else another mans genes in
woman paternity
Women more upset about partner falling in love
with someone else take away resources from the
survival of one of their offspring murdered by a
male was in love with her
Denigration keep their partner away from temptation on the
horizon what do you do denigrate the mans resources,
woman she is ugly and a slut
Mate poaching male sperm versus female swimmers fast vs
hearty and dense are there two competing sperm sources
kamikaze sperm purposely attack sperm from the other sperm
source only happens if there is a competing sperm source
men and women can play different roles in parental investment

Biological Bases of Behavior: Nervous System

- Basic Building Block: Neurons
o Communicate with each other and brain processes
information
- Functions of Nervous System
o Take in sensory info (sensory neurons) all places where
you can sense take in sensory information integrate
new information with the old and send signal back out to
the muscles
o Organize and integrate with existing information
o Send signals to muscles and glands (motor neurons) tell
legs to walk or arms to move or fingers to type o (interneurons connectors) interconnecting neurons
form a chain bundles of neurons take in sensory neurons
take in information and interneurons take info to the brain
and back down to hand to cause hand to be taken off the
stove
- Parts of the neuron
o Axon neck of the neuron stem important for
communication direction of nerve impulses
o Dendrites branches coming off of the cell body go out
and get very close to other neurons key for transmission
of information from one neuron to the next - receiving
o Cell body (soma) where all of the information is being
taken in
o Terminal buttons at the end of the axon
- Communication in nervous system: electrochemical transmission
o Electro and chemical part of communication
o Electro Part Action Potential

Positively and negatively charge ions within and

around the neurons (sodium and potassium)
Neuron at rest: ions polarized
Negative charge in positive out
When a neuron stimulated and the firing of neurons
near it rapid reversal of ion charges despite this
charge throughout the entire body of the neuron
terminal buttons will impact neurons near them
o When neuron stimulated: rapid reversal (Spike Discharge)
Depolarization
All or nothing neuron cant half fire
Certain build up to fire but rapid reversal wont
stop
Travel length of neuron and small time for
repolarization does take time for the neuron to
repolarize and get back to state of negative ions in
and positive ions out
o Nodes of Ranvier along the axon
Axon covered by thick sheath called Myelin Sheath
(glial cells) firing of the neuron continues to occur
across the whole of the axon insulates the axon to
allow for fewer repolarization
Nodes of ranvier depolarized region between
myelin sheath
Muscular dystrophy protective sheath starts to
break down points of rapid reversal with neuron
when its not supposed to
Myelin sheath helps to ensure that rapid reversal
occurs only when it is supposed to fire
o Lipid channes ion channels points within a neuron
where ion will allow for ions to come in can be closed
(neuron is inhibited) or opened (neuron is more likely to
fire)
Chemical Part: Neturotransmitters
o Chemicals that are either going to make the next neuron
its close to either more likely or less likely that the neuron
will fire and continue to send signal.
o Neurotransmitters are synthesized from chemical building
blocks called precursors
o Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles
o Action potentials cause vesicles to fuse to the presynaptic
membrane and release their contents into the synapse.
Vesicles are storage pockets of neurotransmitters. Synapse
is the gap between vesicle and postsynaptic membrane

o Released neurotransmitters bind to the postsynaptic

receptors
o Neurotransmission is terminated by reuptake (in dendrite),
enzyme deactivation, or auto-reception (neurotransmitters
can bind to on the neuron)
o Excitatory or inhibitory neurons
Drugs that can affect the behavior of these neurotransmitters
o Agonistic drug effects increase liklihood that
neurotransmitter will cause next neuron to fire
Increase the synthesis of neurotransmitters form
neurotransmitters more quickly
Increase the release of neurotransmitters send
vesicles to get to the end of the terminal to be
released
Drugs that bind to autoreceptors and block their
inhibitory effect get stuck at channel
Block the deactivation or reuptake of drugs from the
synapse
Bind to post-synaptic receptors and either activate
them or increase the effect of the neurotransmitter
block enzymes from breaking down neurotransmitter
o Antagonistic drug effects stop a signal or less likely that a
signal will be sent through a chain of neurons
Pain medicine try to stop signals of pain being sent
to your brain
Block the synthesis of neurotransmitters
Block the release of neurotransmitters
Activate auto-receptors so that they inhibit release of
neurotransmitters
Destroy neurotransmitter in the synapse
Bind to postsynaptic receptors thereby blocking
neurotransmitter binding
o Neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine motor control over muscles,
learning memory sleeping and reaming
Mono Amines
Norepinephrin arousal and vigilance eating
behavior
Dopamine reward and motivation motor
control over voluntary movement
Serotonin most common for depression
intervention emotional states and
impulsiveness, dreaming
Amino Acides

GABA inhibition of action potentials anxiety

and intoxication
Glutamate enhances action potentials
learning and memory
Peptide Modulator
CCK learning and memory - Satiety
Endorphins pain reduction, reward
Substance P pain perception
All of our actions, voluntary or involuntary occurs
because of the transmission of neurotransmitters
from one neuron to the next.
Neuron Communication Nervous System how we send signals
out and how signals come in
o Central Nervous System
Brain
Spinal Cord
o Peripheral Nervous System afferent and efferent nerves
Somatic nervous system voluntary control, when
we send signals out to walk, pick up something, snap
fingers, turn head, etc. Nervous system under our
control to other aspects of our body through the
peripheral nervous system commanding body to
act
Autonomic nervous system nonvoluntary aspects of
our nervous systems, things that happen
automatically you dont have to tell your heart to
beat but neurons are firing to make sure that your
heart beats you dont need to tell yourself to
breathe, automatic signals to your internal organs to
make sure that they do their job
Sympathetic nervous system fight or flight
behavior fight off or get away threatening
situation, dramatic shifts that happen
immediately you become hyper alert, take in
more action ready to fight this state is very
taxing on our body to be in this state for a long
period of time taxing on our immune system
functioning high levels of stress (either
chronic or acute) can cause a lot of physical
duress colds, exposure to viruses, circulatory
problems, mortality decreases our ability to
fight off disease cancer for people who are
under high stress
o Eyes dilates pupils hyper- vigilant of
sensory organs

o Lunges relaxes bronchi increase

breathing and circulation of oxygen
o Heart accelerates, strengthens
heartbeat readies heartbeat
o Stomach intestines inhibits activity
o Blood vessles of internal organs
Para-sympathetic nervous system designed
to quickly bring us back to a state of calm
calming down that will happen automatically
o Contracts pupils, constricts bronchi,
slows heartbeat, stimulates activity in
stomach, dilates vessels
o Beneficial to threatening stimuli
(aftermath) evolutionarily based
Brain Function and Specificity
o Two large hemispheres connected by a large thick structure
corpus callosum (permits transfer of information)
o Where our knowledge has come from over the years:
Function Specificity through traumatic brain injuries
Certain deficits in some areas maybe certain parts
of brain that are injured affect certain functions
1800s Phineas P. Gage tapping iron goes through
his brain he survived this accident became clear
to ppl who analyzed his condition things that
happen automatically were not affected by tapping
iron going through the front of his brain doctor kept
track of him most dramatic thing was that he
became a very different person organized to
disorganized, memory was faulty, hard time putting
thoughts together, poor impulse control (swearing or
inappropriate around women) fundamentally altered
in terms of the person he was
o Brocas Area disease has been attacking this mans brain
Brain specificity how certain parts of the brain
works with specific functions
Interior frontal gyrus
Where our knowledge has come from over the years:
Function Specificity Mechanical Interventions
o Electro-Convulsive Therapy (ECT) - trying to disrupt the
brain to locate different areas of brain
o Lobotomies taking out large chunks of the brain without
regard to function of certain parts
Comparative Studies (animals)
o Compare to animals that share similar brain structures

o Huge improvements to ethics regarding studies using

animals
Drug Interventions
o On specific neurotransmitters relate certain functions in
the brain
Imaging Technology image the brain at very high level while
people doing various tasks to identify certain functions of the
brain even at the level of the neuron
MRI Scans Normal and Functional (you look at a baseline at rest
at what neurons are firing and at what rate and then try to
perform some task most detailed level identifying the neuron at
work)
o Study wanted to look at what parts of the brain fire when
those are experiencing love vs. lust
3-D fmri scan drawback is that fmri in order for them to work
the subject has to be absolutely immobilized must be
absolutely stable the types of tasks you can do have to ones
that they can do while they are immobilized

Main Structures of the Brain How it is organized

- Elongation of the spinal cord brain has evolved through the
years in a hierarchy
- Cerberal cortext separates us from the others does the most
complex the ighest level of separation from other countries
- Brain stem is the least important
o Parts of the brainstem do different things
o Medulla and Pons have direct ties to the autonomic
nervous system
Research drug oversdose - heroin directly impacts
the medulla and pons when you overdose you stop
breathing because this part of your brain stops
sending the signals to your brain
Kitten that had brain stem severed
- Cerebellum control of body movement especially complex
body movement
o Alcohol
September 23, 2011
Brain Structure
- Cerebellum (little brain) motor movement and complex motor
movement
- Limbic System brain stem core middle of brain centrally in
the middle of the brain base behavior drugs, lust, aggression,
o Involved with evolutionarily with instinct behavior or base
behavior sensory perception behavior routed in this
system, social behavior, eating, aggression, emotions,

memories, addictive behavior, housed and routed in this

system
o Insinctive or Impulsive Behavior
o Main structures of Limbic System
Thalamus very central in terms of taking in of
sensory information and routing into higher levels of
the brain for processing vision, sight, touch,
hearing, smell all that stuff tends to be routed
through the thalamus smell sometimes makes a
direct line to higher level processing (evolutionarily
more important to senses)
Disease to thalamus serious sensory
perception problems
Hypothalamus four Fs emotional behavior they
emotions we feel, the drives we have, aspects of
fighting behavior motivations for feeding behavior
impulse behavior (over eating) drugs have an effect
on hypothalamus other species have become
addicted to certain drugs changes the
hypothalamus in terms of make up in addicted
animals MRI in humans show similar results poor
impulse control have issues with hypothalamus
structurally
Feeding
Feeling
Fighting
F-g (sex)
Amygdala certain types of aggressive behavior
(field mice in terms of aggressive behavior and you
breed them and you look at their offspring and you
get really aggressive offspring) the structures of
their amygdala are very different
Root basings of how we learn fear how do we
learn how to be afraid of something? That a
certain stimulus is potentially threatening
Humans who suffer some damage to the
amygdala via virus normal intact amygdalas
vs some damagaed amygdalas human
subjects are hooked up to high autonomic
nervous system arousal also strapped into a
machine to give them a shock different
symbols will come up in different shapes and
colors through conditioning a certain color
and shape will get a shock and begin to fear
that color and shape - normal patients they see

this symbol and begin to fear the symbol and

their autonomic nervous system kicks in
amygdala damage they dont necessarily
have that physiological response but at
higher levels they have recognized that they
will get a shock but their bodies dont respond
to the physical autonomic nervous system shift
to panic mode fight or flight behavior does
not occur
Basal ganglia
Motor movement and control of motor
movement evidence that basal ganglia is
involved with involuntary motor movement
such as Parkinsons disease
Hippocampus
Storage of memories especially sensory
memories and emotional memories but also
memories in general comparitive research
from other species, MRi, damage to
hippocampus results in memory problems
especially in long term memories and long
term emotional memories and sensory
memories that would trigger memories from
long ago
Damage to hippocampus can affect your ability
to form new memories or new long-term
memories only have short term memory
Sleeping go over and transfer things into long
term memory level of hippocampal activity
relates to memory issues
Cerebral Cortex kind of the helmet that covers the limbic
system largest structure of brain in terms of neurons 80%
o Left and right hemispheres
o Sensory information that comes in to the left side of the
sensory information is processed in your right hemisphere
and vise versa
o Control of the left side of your body is controlled by the
right side of your brain
o Folds maximize surface area for the neurons to make
connections across certain areas of the brain by having
them in contact with each other
o Differentiates us from other species the size and scope
especially the frontal lobe what makes us more
sophisticated in terms of our cognitive abilities, spatial,
verbal and our pre-frontal lobe in particular 30% of entire

cerebral context especially a much greater part of our

cerebral cortex than other species
Occipital Lobe especially involved with processing
sensory information with regard to vision send it back
through the thalamus to the occipital lobe in the back of
the brain firing of neurons in your occipital lobe is what
allows for sight
Hit in the back of the head can cause you to lose
vision blindness due to damage in the occipital lobe
(perceptually blind)
Can burn rods and cones with lasers so they dont
fire anymore
Temporal lobe on the side of the head involved with
hearing, sense of hearing, complex vision or pattern
recognition
Russian author temporal lobe epilepsy lost ability
to recognize faces couldnt tell the difference
between one or another face
Parietal lobe process of touch and body information
Somatosensory cortex can map out what senses are
impacted in lobe

Frontal lobe involved with all complex thought processes,

language, language production, mathematic skills, spatial
skills, organize information, planned behavior, learned
things, verbal skills
Phinneas Gage damage to cognitive abilities to do
planned behavior, to recognize patterns,
Personality is driven by a lot of things most likely to
be housed in the frontal lobe main processing areas
for information that we take in
Pre-frontal lobe where thought occurs, abstract
thoughts that arent tangible or real, philosophically,
logically,
Increasing what you can do at this age in terms of
development
Poor nutrition, lack of sleep, drinking, drugs all of
those things are affecting frontal lobe development
you are keeping growth from happening whereas
older people are increasing deterioration
Front left frontal lobe: damage to brocas area will
lead to an interruption in the production of language
Children raised from birth in bilingual setting, have
the same neural pathways in Brocas area firing.

Different areas fire for children that learn another

language later on.
People are born ready to learn language
(innate)
Languages more much difficult to learn after
the critical period
- We are going to be left brained or right brained left handed
people vs right handed people artsy creative vs. cognitive not
much evidence that there is a hemispheral dominance
o Even though information is processed first in one
hemisphere it is processed integrationally from both sides
o Body of Corpus Callosum thick bundle of neurons right
above the limbic system is a bridge between
hemispheres allows for rapid transfer of information from
one hemisphere to another share that information back
and forth
o Even though strokes can damage, other things can
compensate for hemispheres adaptive thing
o Epileptic seizure prevention can have corpus callosum
severed
o Disconnect between corps callosum
September 26, 2011
Some specific tasks are hemispherically located
Severed Corpus Callosum thick sheath of neurons information
passing through one hemisphere to another
- Most notable reason is severe epilepsy random firing of
neurons that cause seizures, where medical interventions fail
- Seizure could be hemispheric-specific to limits the severity of the
seizures
- Proven over the years to help us learn about what types of tasks
are dependent on certain hemispheres
- Example stare at a focal point and pick up an object in their
peripheral vision wont say key but will say ring because
language production is in the left hemisphere but will be able to
pick up the right object
- Right hemisphere stimulus vs left hemisphere verbal response
o Knight appears in the right goes to left and say Knight
o Partial Split see knight cant say It but can verbalize the
situation
o Complete Split didnt see anything but if it was an array
of objects you could pick it out
- Born without a corpus callosum potential implications
- Left learning
- Right emotion
o Emotional disconnect isolated and removed

Asbergers difficulties with identifying emotions

o Dont see those who have corpus callosum severed dont
have this emotional disconnect as people who are born
without a corpus callosm because they have gone through
this emotional maturity and development

Hierarchical (bottom up hierarchy)

- brain stem most primitive but control autonomic system
- limbic system core emotion, social, drives, impulses, food,
sex, aggression
- cerebral cortex much more advanced part of the brain
separates us from other species
Hemisphere Specialization not left brained or right brain dominant
due to the corpus callosum our skill set isnt likely to occur from using
one hemisphere over another
- Left: language production, logic, symbols, sequential
- Right: spatial, creativity, holsitics
Plasticity we thought brain development stopped as you reached
adulthood rigid brain injury or debilitating instances which damage
neurons means permanent damage that can never be eradicated
- our brains are much more malleable in terms of brain function
- people are able to regain skills thought to be lost in brain
damage use other neural pathways to compensate for brain
damage
- regeneration of neurons can regenerate and create new
neurons, not dramatically but at some level that certain brain
damages can be established
- relearn old tasks or learn new tasks
- eckman test: human emotions are pretty universal regardless of
culture.
- Adcc: born without a corpus callosum