05 Content

viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER No.
TITLE
PAGE No.
ABSTRACT
iii
LIST OF TABLES
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AND NOMENCLATURES
1.
xxv
INTRODUCTION
1.1
GENERAL
1.2
REFRIGERATION AND ENVIRONMENT
1.3
REFRIGERATION AND ENERGY
1.4
VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
1.4.1
Advantages
1.4.2
Working Fluids
1.4.3
Influence of Thermodynamic and

Thermo-Physical Properties on
Absorber Performance
1.4.4
Absorbers for Vapour Absorption

System
1.4.5
Types of Absorbers
9
10
1.5
STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
13
1.6
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
14
1.6.1
Theoretical Studies
14
1.6.2
Experimental Studies
15
ix
CHAPTER No.
2.
TITLE
PAGE No.
LITERATURE SURVEY
16
2.1
16
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1.1
Studies on Vapour absorption

Refrigeration System
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2
3.
Studies on alternate refrigerantabsorbent pairs
21
Studies on Absorber Performance
26
CONCLUDING REMARKS
THEORETICAL STUDIES
3.1
3.2
3.3
16
36
38
VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
38
3.1.1
Single-Effect Systems
39
3.1.2
Half-Effect System
41
3.1.3
Double-Effect System
42
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF
VARS CYCLE
44
3.2.1
44
Assumptions
ANALYSIS PROCEDURE FOR SINGLE

EFFECT SYSTEM
45
3.3.1
Calculation of Pressures
45
3.3.2
Calculation of Temperatures
46
3.3.3
Calculation of Concentrations
47
3.3.4
Calculation of Specific Enthalpies
48
3.3.5
Calculation of Mass Flow Rates
51
3.3.6
Calculation of Heat Quantities
52
CHAPTER No.
TITLE
3.3.7
PAGE No.
Calculation of Performance
Characteristics
53
3.3.7.1 Circulation ratio
53
3.3.7.2 Absorber heat load
53
3.3.7.3 Thermodynamic coefficient
3.4
of performance
53
3.3.7.4 Second Law Efficiency
54
GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR DOUBLE

EFFECT SYSTEM
3.5
GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR HALF

EFFECT SYSTEM
3.6
54
55
ABSORPTION OF R134a VAPOUR BY

N-N DIMETHYL ACETAMID (DMAC)
AQUEOUS SOLUTION IN SMOOTH
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL AND COILED
TUBES
3.6.1
3.7
57
Calculation of overall heat transfer

coefficient
57
3.6.2
Absorption Heat Load
62
3.6.3
Estimation of Mass Transfer
62
INFLUENCE OF HEAT EXCHANGER

EFFECTIVENESS ON THE PERFORMANCE
OF R134a BASED ABSORPTION
3.8
CHILLERS
63
3.7.1
64
Governing Equations
COMPONENT DESIGN
64
3.8.1
Generator
65
3.8.2
Condenser
66
xi
CHAPTER No.
3.9
4.
TITLE
PAGE No.
3.8.3
Evaporator
68
3.8.4
Absorber
69
3.8.5
Solution Heat Exchanger
69
3.8.6
Capillary Tube
70
3.8.7
Strong solution tank
71
3.8.8
Refrigerant Receiver
71
3.8.9
Solution Pump
72
3.8.10 Control Systems
73
COMPUTATION PROCEDURE
78
3.9.1
Simulation studies on VARS
78
3.9.2
Simulation studies on absorbers for VARS 79
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
81
4.1
About the Experimental Setup
81
4.1.1 Components of Experimental Setup
81
4.1.2 External Water Circuits
90
4.1.2.1 Refrigeration Load Simulator
91
4.1.2.2 Cooling Water Simulator
91
4.1.2.3 Heat source simulator
91
4.1.3 Measuring Instruments
92
4.1.3.1 Pressure measurement
92
4.1.3.2 Temperature measurement
92
4.1.3.3 Flow measurements
93
4.1.3.4 Indication of liquid level
95
4.1.3.5 Measurement of Concentration
95
4.1.3.6 Thermal Insulation
96
4.1.4 Charging the System with working fluids

4.1.4.1
Solution charging procedure
97
98
xii
CHAPTER No.
4.2
TITLE
PAGE No.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
100
4.2.1 Selection of Range of operating

parameters
100
4.2.2 Experimental plan
102
4.2.3 Experimental Procedure
103
4.2.4 Samples of measured parameters
104
4.2.5 Data Reduction
110
4.2.5.1 Calculation of overall heat transfer

co-efficient
110
4.2.5.2 Absorber heat load
110
4.2.5.3 Calculation of refrigerant mass

absorption rate
5.
111
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
112
5.1
112
THEORETICAL RESULTS
5.1.1 The effects of variation absorber mass
transfer effectiveness (Ea) on CR, Qa, COP
and II law efficiency of R134a-DMAC
based single, double and half effect
absorption cooling systems
112
5.1.1.1 Single-effect system
113
5.1.1.2 Double - effect system
116
5.1.1.3 Half - effect system
118
5.1.2 The influence of heat exchanger

effectiveness (Eh) on performance of
R134a-DMAC based single effect
absorption cooling systems
125
xiii
CHAPTER No.
TITLE
PAGE No.
5.1.2.1 Effect of solution heat exchanger

effectiveness on generator heat
load
125

effectiveness on absorber heat load 126
effectiveness on COP
126
5.1.3 The heat and mass transfer performance

of three geometric configurations of falling
film absorbers (horizontal/vertical/
coiled tube)
5.1.3.1 Effects of variations of Falling
128
film flow rate on overall heat

transfer Co-efficient (U)
128
5.1.3.2 Effects of variations of Falling film

flow rate on and absorber Heat load
(Qa)
128
5.1.3.3 Effects of variations of Falling film

flow rate on mass absorption rate
(mr)
129
5.1.3.4 Effects of variations of inlet cooling
water temperature on overall heat
transfer co-efficient (U), absorber
heat load (Qa) and mass absorption
rate (mr)
129
5.2
136
5.2.1 Effects of variations of falling film flow

rate and cooling water temperature on
heat and mass transfer performance of
coil, horizontal and vertical tube absorbers 136
xiv
CHAPTER No.
TITLE
PAGE No.
5.2.1.1 Effects of variations of falling film

flow rate on overall heat transfer
co-efficient
136
5.2.1.2 Effects of variations of falling film

flow rate on absorption Heat load
137
5.2.1.3 Effects of falling film flow rate

on mass absorbed and
refrigeration capacity
137
5.2.1.4 Effects of cooling water

temperature on overall heat
transfer co-efficient
138

temperature on absorber load
139

temperature on refrigerant mass
absorption rate
139
5.2.1.7 Solution and coolant temperature

profiles and mass absorption rate
along the height of the coil
absorbers
140
5.2.2 Effects of variations of refrigerant flow

rate and solution temperature on heat and
mass transfer performance of coil, horizontal
and vertical tube absorbers
146
5.2.2.1 Effects of refrigerant vapour flow

rate on overall heat transfer
co-efficient
146
xv
CHAPTER No.
TITLE
PAGE No.
5.2.2.2 Effects of refrigerant vapour flow

rate on absorber heat load
147
5.2.2.3 Effects of Solution temperature on

overall heat transfer co-efficient
147
5.2.2.4 Effects of Solution temperature

on absorber heat load
5.3
THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL

COMPARISON
6.
7.
148
148
CONCLUSIONS
154
6.1
THEORETICAL STUDIES
154
6.2
155
6.3
FURTHER STUDIES
157
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 1
158
p-t-x AND h-t-x DATA FOR
R134a-DMAC AND
R134a-DMETEG
APPENDIX 2
165
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
CHARACTERISTICS
172
APPENDIX 3
UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
180
APPENDIX 4
GENERATOR DESIGN
184
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
187
VITAE
188
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE No.
TITLE
1.1
Desirable Absorption Cycle Fluid Properties
2.1
Organic Solvents for HFC and HCFC

refrigerants
2.2
PAGE No.
8
24
Performance parameters of single-effect VARS

with different Refrigerant absorbent
combinations
25
3.1
p-t-x data for single effect VARS
40
3.2
Generator specifications
66
3.3
Condenser specifications
67
3.4
Evaporator specifications
68
3.5
Solution Heat exchanger specifications
70
3.6
Capillary tube specifications
70
3.7
Specifications of the Strong solution tank
71
3.8
Specifications of the Refrigerant receiver
72
3.9
Specifications of the solution pump
73
4.1
Functions of various components
82
4.2
Design details of three types of falling film

absorbers
87
4.3
Component Numbers
88
4.4
Charged quantities in kg of refrigerant and

absorbents in the system
99
4.5
Suppliers specification for R134a
99
4.6
Suppliers specification for absorbents
99
4.7
Experimental conditions
102
xvii
TABLE No.
4.8
TITLE
PAGE No.
Description for locations of pressure and

temperature
4.9
Temperature measurement for Coiled tube

absorber
4.10
Temperature measurement for Vertical tube

absorber
4.11
105
107
Temperature measurement for Horizontal tube

absorber
108
4.12
Pressure measurement
109
4.13
Flow measurement
109
5.1
Ranges of operating parameters for Single,

Double and Half-effect VARS
5.2
113
Performance comparison of Single, Double

and Half-effect VARS operating with
5.3
R134a-DMAC
123
Experimental validation
124
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE No.
1.1
TITLE
PAGE No.
Schematic diagram of Single-effect vapour

absorption refrigeration system
1.2a
Spray Absorber
10
1.2b
Falling Film Absorber
11
1.2c
Bubble Absorber
11
3.1a
Schematic diagram of Single-effect vapour

3.1b
p-t-x diagram for single effect vapour absorption

refrigeration system
3.2a
41
Schematic diagram of Double-effect vapour

3.3b
41
p-t-x diagram for half effect vapour absorption

refrigeration system
3.3a
40
Schematic diagram of Half-effect vapour

3.2b
39
43
p-t-x diagram for double effect vapour

43
3.4
Sectional view of Generator
65
3.5
Sectional view of condenser
67
3.6
Sectional view of evaporator
68
3.7
Sectional view of Solution heat exchanger
69
3.8
Sectional view of strong solution tank
71
3.9
Sectional view of refrigerant tank
72
xix
FIGURE No.
3.10
TITLE
PAGE No.
Flow chart for calculation of COP, II law

efficiency, Circulation ratio and heat load in
absorber, generator and condenser for single
effect system
3.11
76
Flow chart for calculation of overall heat transfer

coefficient, absorber heat load and refrigerant
mass absorption rate
77
4.1
Schematic diagram of the experimental setup
83
4.2
Photographic views of Experimental Setup
84
4.3
Photographic views of three absorbers
84
4.4
Photographic view of Pressure and Temperature

measurement
85
4.5
Photographic view of Coiled Tube Absorber
85
4.6
Photographic view of Shell and Coiled Tube

Absorber
86
4.7
Photographic view of Horizontal Tube Absorber
86
4.8
Details of Coiled tube Absorber
89
4.9
Details of Vertical tube Absorber
89
4.10
Details of Horizontal tube Absorber
90
5.1
Effects of Absorber mass transfer effectiveness

on performance of single effect R134a-DMAC
VARS Tc=Ta=30C;Eg = 0.85,Eh = 0.7
5.2
115
Effects of Variation of Absorber mass transfer

effectiveness on performance of Double effect
R134a-DMAC VARS Tc=Ta=30C; Eg = 0.85,
Eh = 0.7
5.3
117
Effects of variations of Low-pressure absorber

mass transfer effectiveness on performance of
Half-effect R134a-DMAC, VARS
Tc=Ta=30C;Eg = 0.85,Eh = 0.7
120
xx
FIGURE No.
5.4
TITLE
PAGE No.
Effect of Variation of High pressure Absorber

effectiveness on performance of Half effect
R134a-DMAC VARS. Tc = Ta = 30C; Eg = 0.85,
Eh = 0.7
5.4a
121
Effects of absorber Effectiveness on Circulation

ratio (Half Effect) HP Absorber Te=5oC, Tc =
122
Ta = 30C; Eg = 0.85, Eh = 0.7

5.4b
Effects of absorber Effectiveness on COP (Half

Effect) HP Absorber Te=5oC, Tc = Ta = 30C; Eg
122
= 0.85, Eh = 0.7
5.5
Effects of heat exchanger effectiveness and

generator temperature on generator heat load,
Tc= Ta= 30 C, Te = 5 C
5.6
126

generator temperature on absorber heat load,
Tc= Ta= 30 C, Te = 5 C , Eg= Ea = 0.75
5.7
127

generator temperature on COP, Tc= Ta=30 C,
Te =5 C, Eg=Ea=0.75
5.8
127
Effects of Falling film flow rate and cooling

water temperature on overall heat transfer
coefficient, Tsi = 48 C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s
(Shell and Coiled tube)
5.9
130

water temperature on absorber heat load,
Tsi=48 C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s (Shell and Coiled
tube)
5.10
130

water temperature on mass of refrigerant
131
xxi
FIGURE No.
TITLE
PAGE No.
absorbed, Tsi = 48 C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s

(Shell and Coiled tube)
5.11

(Horizontal Tube)
5.12
131

Tsi = 48 C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s
(Horizontal Tube)
5.13
132

absorbed, Tsi = 48 C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s
(Horizontal Tube)
5.14
132

(Vertical Tube)
5.15
133

Tsi = 48 C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s (Vertical Tube)
5.16
133

absorbed Tsi = 48 C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s
(Vertical Tube)
5.17
134
Effects of Falling film flow rate on overall heat

transfer coefficient of three types of absorbers,
Tsi = 48 C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s
134
xxii
FIGURE No.
5.18
TITLE
PAGE No.
Effects of Falling film flow rate on Absorber

heat load of three types of absorbers, Tsi = 48 C,
135
mcw = 0.04 kg/s

5.19
Effects of Falling film flow rate on Mass of

refrigerant absorbed of three types of absorbers,
Tsi = 48 C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s
5.20
135

water temperature on Overall heat transfer
coefficient Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04 kg/s.
(shell and Coiled tube)
5.21
140

water temperature on Absorber heat Load
Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04 kg/s.
5.22
141

water temperature on Refrigeration Load
Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04 kg/s.
5.23
141

water temperature on Mass of refrigerant
absorbed, Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04
5.24
142
Experimental normalised solution and coolant

temperature profile Tc = 20C Tsi = 48 C
5.25
5.26
142
Experimental mass absorbed along the height of

the absorber (shell and Coiled tube)
143
143
xxiii
FIGURE No.
TITLE
PAGE No.
water temperature on Overall heat transfer

coefficient, Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04 kg/s
(Horizontal Tube)
5.27

water temperature on Absorber heat load,
Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04 kg/s
5.28
(Horizontal tube)
144

absorbed, Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04 kg/s
(Horizontal Tube)
5.29
144

coefficient, Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04 kg/s
(Vertical Tube)
5.30
145

water temperature on Absorber heat load,
Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04 kg/s
5.31
145

absorbed, Tsi = 48C, mcw=0.04 kg/s
(Vertical Tube)
5.32
146
Effects of refrigerant flow rate and solution

temperature on Overall heat transfer co-efficient
of coil absorber, m si=0.02 kg/s, Tci = 25C
5.33
148
Effects of refrigerant flow rate and solution

temperature on absorber heat load of coil
absorber msi = 0.02 kg/s, Tci = 25C
5.34
149
Effect of Refrigerant flow on Overall heat

transfer coefficient of horizontal absorber
149
xxiv
FIGURE No.
TITLE
PAGE No.
msi = 0.02 kg/s, Tci = 25C

5.35
Effect of Refrigerant flow on Absorber heat load

of horizontal absorber msi = 0.02 kg/s, Tci = 25C
5.36
150
Effect of Refrigerant flow on Overall heat

transfer coefficient of vertical absorber m si=0.02
kg/s, Tci = 25C
5.37
Effect of Refrigerant flow on Absorber heat load

of vertical absorber msi=0.02 kg/s, Tci = 25C
5.38
150
151
Effects of Falling film flow rate on overall heat

transfer coefficient of three types of absorbers,
Tsi = 48C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s
5.39
151
Effects of Falling film flow rate on Absorber

heat load of three types of absorbers, Tsi = 48C,
mcw = 0.04 kg/s
5.40
152
Effects of Falling film flow rate on Mass of

refrigerant absorbed of three types of absorbers,
Tsi = 48C, mcw = 0.04 kg/s
5.41
152
Comparison of experimental and theoretical

results
153
xxv
LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS

AND NOMENCLATURE
Subscripts
Absorber
cwi
Cooling water inlet
cwo
Cooling water outlet
Evaporator
ei
Evaporator inlet
eo
Evaporator outlet
eq
Equilibrium Condition
Generator
Solution heat exchanger
Refrigerant
si
Solution Inlet
so
Solution outlet
Condenser
cr
Critical
ws
Weak Solution
ss
Strong Solution
Pump
Solution side
Coolant side
sl
Saturated liquid
sv
Saturated vapour
1-16
State point in the respective diagrams of single, double and

half effect VARS
xxvi
Abbreviations
BAM
Bubble absorption mode
CFC
Chloro Fluro carbon
COP
Co-efficient of performance
CR
Circulation Ratio
DMAC
N-N Dimethyl Acetamide
DMETEG
Dimethylether tetra-ethylene glycol
DMEU
Dimethyl ethylene urea
DMF
N,N-Dimethyl formamide
FFM
Falling film mode
HCFC
Hydro Chloro Fluro carbon
HFC
Hydro Fluro carbon
HP
High Pressure
h-t-x
Enthalpy Temperature and Concentration
HVAC
Heating Ventilation Air-conditioning
ID
Internal Diameter
LP
Low pressure
M.S
Mild steel
MCL
N-Methyl -caprolactam
NMP
N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone
NTU
Number of Transfer Units
OD
Outer Diameter
p-t-x
Pressure Temperature and Concentration
PVC
Poly Vinyl Chloride
R124
2-chloro-1,1,1,2 tetrafluroethane
R125
Pentafluro-ethane
R134a
Tetrafluroethane
R22
Hydrochlorofluoro carbon
R32
Difluromethane
xxvii
SFS
Series flow system
TEGDME
Tetra ethylene glycol dimethyl ether
TFE
Trifluoroethanol
T&D
Transmission distribution losses
UV
Ultra-Violet
VARS
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
VCR
Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Heat transfer area in m2
Cp
Specific heat in kJ/kg K
Diameter of coil in m
Diameter of tube in m
Solution thickness in m
Log Mean Temperature difference (LMTD) in K
Mass transfer effectiveness
Second law of efficiency
Enthalpy in kJ/kg
Excess enthalpy in kJ/kg
Thermal Conductivity in W/m K
Mass flow rate in kg/s
Dynamic viscosity in Pa-s
Nu
Nusselt number
Pr
Prandtl number
Absorber mass transfer effectiveness
Density of solution in kg/m3
Mass flow per unit length in kg/s-m
Heat load in W
Re
Reynolds number
Temperature, C
Nomenclature
h
h
xxviii
Overall heat transfer co-efficient in W/ m2K
Concentration of refrigerant in solution (%)
Specific Volume m3/kg

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viii

REFRIGERATION AND ENVIRONMENT

REFRIGERATION AND ENERGY

VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION

Influence of Thermodynamic and

Absorbers for Vapour Absorption

STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Studies on Vapour absorption

Studies on alternate refrigerantabsorbent pairs

Studies on Absorber Performance

VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION

ANALYSIS PROCEDURE FOR SINGLE

Calculation of Specific Enthalpies

Calculation of Mass Flow Rates

Calculation of Heat Quantities

3.3.7.1 Circulation ratio

3.3.7.2 Absorber heat load

3.3.7.3 Thermodynamic coefficient

3.3.7.4 Second Law Efficiency

GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR DOUBLE

GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR HALF

ABSORPTION OF R134a VAPOUR BY

Calculation of overall heat transfer

Absorption Heat Load

Estimation of Mass Transfer

INFLUENCE OF HEAT EXCHANGER

Solution Heat Exchanger

Strong solution tank

3.8.10 Control Systems

Simulation studies on VARS

Simulation studies on absorbers for VARS 79

About the Experimental Setup

4.1.1 Components of Experimental Setup

4.1.2 External Water Circuits

4.1.2.1 Refrigeration Load Simulator

4.1.2.2 Cooling Water Simulator

4.1.2.3 Heat source simulator

4.1.3 Measuring Instruments

4.1.3.1 Pressure measurement

4.1.3.2 Temperature measurement

4.1.3.3 Flow measurements

4.1.3.4 Indication of liquid level

4.1.3.5 Measurement of Concentration

4.1.3.6 Thermal Insulation

4.1.4 Charging the System with working fluids

Solution charging procedure

4.2.1 Selection of Range of operating

4.2.2 Experimental plan

4.2.3 Experimental Procedure

4.2.4 Samples of measured parameters

4.2.5 Data Reduction

4.2.5.1 Calculation of overall heat transfer

4.2.5.2 Absorber heat load

4.2.5.3 Calculation of refrigerant mass

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1.1.1 Single-effect system

5.1.1.2 Double - effect system

5.1.1.3 Half - effect system

5.1.2 The influence of heat exchanger

5.1.2.1 Effect of solution heat exchanger

5.1.2.2 Effect of solution heat exchanger

5.1.3 The heat and mass transfer performance

film flow rate on overall heat