Leadership is not a spectator sport, Mr. Tirozzi reminds us.

The
time has come to put the principal's leadership brush to the
canvas to paint a vision of what tomorrow's schools can and will
be.
Leadership is much more of an art, a belief, a condition of the
heart, than a set of things to do. The visible signs of artful
leadership are expressed ultimately in its practice.
- Max De Pree, Leadership Is an Art
WHAT IF Michelangelo had failed? What if his formal and
informal training had not been adequate? What if he had fallen
short of producing a lasting treasure? His creative genius would
have gone unacknowledged, and millions of people would have
been robbed of his art. Would the world have survived? Of
course. Would our appreciation for art and the richness it
bestows on us be somehow diminished? Probably.
As Michelangelo must have stood at the half-finished point of
each of his masterpieces, envisioning the work in its entirety
and understanding the magnitude of the task ahead, so too
must we look at the profession of education generally and the
school principalship specifically. What areas need to be
reworked or totally redone? Are principals and teachers helping
students to transform themselves into "masterpieces" or merely
hoping that another artist will come along to re-sculpt the work?

What are the consequences if we fail in our endeavor? Certainly

the results will be more profound than a failure by Michelangelo.
Our education system is not a masterpiece, though we have the
collective skills to make it so. It is a continual work in progress,
respecting the reality that children learn in different ways.
Without an understanding of the challenges ahead, a
willingness to change, and an eye to encouraging each student
to become a "masterpiece," schools fall far short in preparing
today's students for tomorrow's complex and changing world.
At the dawn of this millennium, the challenges for secondary
schools and principals in the United States include changing
demographics, schools and curricula that are inappropriately
designed for today's adolescents, principals trained to be
managers rather than instructional leaders, and a dramatic
shortage of qualified candidates willing to take on the
principalship.
Few Michelangelos are appearing in school leadership
positions. And even if one hundred or more existed, such
pockets of creative genius in a school here and a school there
would be insufficient. The challenge to our collective genius is
to unveil the treasures within all students in every school. Each
principal will have to answer the question, Did my leadership
make a difference in improving the academic achievement and
social and emotional well-being of students? And if that

question is to be answered affirmatively, secondary school

principals will have to acquire new and different skills.
The principal - the instructional "artist in residence" - establishes
a climate for excellence, puts forth a vision for continuous
improvement in student performance, promotes excellence in
teaching, and commits to sustained, comprehensive
professional development for all staff members. The principal
ensures that curriculum, instructional strategies, and
assessment of student progress are coherent components in
the teaching and learning process. In short, the principal
engages herself or himself as an instructional leader.
New Skills for a Changing Landscape
Creating lasting treasures requires a vision of the finished work
and an understanding of the medium to be used. Long-range
decisions we make today must anticipate what the future will
bring. To understand the skills required of principals in the 21st
century, we must examine the projected changes in the
educational landscape and how those changes will affect the
principal's role and vision.
The U.S. population and the school-age population will be
changing dramatically during the first quarter of the 21st
century.
2007

DOI:
10.1080/09243450701712486
Rose M. Ylimakia*, Stephen L. Jacobsona & Lawrie Drysdaleb
pages 361-381
Publishing models and article dates explained

Received: 18 Aug 2006

Accepted: 5 Jun 2007

Published online: 30 May 2008

Article Views: 400
Alert me

Abstract
This article draws on findings from a larger international study and the literature to
examine successful principals of challenging high-poverty schools in the USA, England,
and Australia. Specifically, this article reports case-study findings for 13 challenging
schools, 4 each in the USA and Australia and 5 in England. Findings from this study
indicate that successful principals used similar leadership practices and traits to make a
difference and improve student performance in very challenging schools. These findings
extend previous research conducted in single-nation contexts. The presentation of
findings also considers differences in the role of the principal, the school context, and
larger national policies. The article concludes with implications for leadership training
and future research.

ABSTRACT: To review the state of research on the association between physical

activity among school-aged children and academic outcomes, the author reviewed
published studies on this topic. A table includes brief descriptions of each study's
research methodology and outcomes. A review of the research demonstrates that
there may be some short-term improvements of physical activity (such as on
concentration) but that long-term improvement of academic achievement as a result
of more vigorous physical activity is not well substantiated. The relationship between
physical activity in children and academic outcomes requires further elucidation.

Five Attitudes of Effective Teachers: Implications for Teacher Training Bonni

Gourneau University of North Dakota Abstract When preservice teachers or teacher
candidates are asked, "Why do you want to be a teacher? The response is
commonly, "I want to be able to make a positive difference in the lives of my
students. Many teacher candidates continue to say they also want to be an

effective teacher who will be remembered fondly by their former students. Some
want to have a chance to be a better teacher than the teachers they personally
experienced. However, many researchers (i.e., Frank, 1990; Fulton, 1989; Goodlad,
1990; Handler, 1993) state the axiom that teachers usually teach in the way they
were taught. This compelling statement highlights the importance of reviewing and
analyzing students prior educational experiences for insight into the effective and
ineffective attitudes and actions of teachers. The effective attitudes and actions
employed by teachers ultimately can make a positive difference on the lives of their
students, and this belief will serve as the central focus of this paper. By examining
prior educational experiences, preservice teachers can discuss what they should or
should not do with a class of students. The five frequently discussed attitudes and
actions include: a genuine caring and kindness of the teacher, a willingness to share
the responsibility involved in a classroom, a sincere sensitivity to the students
diversity, a motivation to provide meaningful learning experiences for all students,
and an enthusiasm for stimulating the students creativity. The format of this article
will address four main sections. The first section will explain the methodology used
for the discovery of the five effective teacher attitudes and actions. In sections two
and three, the effective and ineffective attitudes and actions will be discussed more
specifically by summarizing the preservice teachers discussions. A research based
discussion of the described effective attitudes and actions will be the focus of the
fourth section. Introduction The responsibility for preparing teachers is assumed to
begin with teacher education programs at higher education institutions. However,
by the time undergraduate students enroll in an Introduction to Teaching course
they have already experienced and survived many teachers and at least fourteen
years of schooling. Since these students have achieved this wealth of educational
opportunities; they can serve as credible resources in identifying the attitudes and
actions that were implemented in prior classrooms by their effective teachers. When
preservice teachers or teacher candidates are asked, "Why do you want to be a
teacher?" The response is commonly, "I want to be able to make a positive
difference in the lives of my students." Many teacher candidates continue to say
they also want to be an effective teacher who will be remembered fondly by their
former students. Some want to have a chance to be a better teacher than the
teachers they personally experienced. However, many researchers (i.e., Frank,
1990; Fulton, 1989; Goodlad, 1990; Handler, 1993) state the axiom that teachers
usually teach in the way they were taught. This compelling statement highlights the
importance of reviewing and analyzing students prior educational experiences for
insight into the effective and ineffective attitudes and actions of teachers. Teachers
have the opportunity to leave an indelible impression on their students lives.
School experiences mold, shape, and, can influence how children view themselves

inside and outside of school. These school memories have the potential to last a
lifetime in students minds and can play a consequential role with present and
future decisions. It does not take long for students to realize that teachers make the
difference between a long and boring school year and an exciting and challenging
year. The effective attitudes and actions employed by teachers ultimately can make
a positive difference on the lives of their students, and this belief will serve as the
central focus of this paper. By examining past educational experiences, preservice
teachers can discuss what they should or should not do with a class of students. The
format of this article will address four main sections: 1. Section I. The methodology
used in this study for the discovery of five effective teacher attitudes; 2. Section II.
The teacher candidates discussion on the five effective teacher attitudes; 3.
Section III. The teacher candidates discussion on the ineffective teacher attitudes;
and 4. Section IV. Research based discussion on the five effective teacher attitudes
with implications for preservice teachers. Section I. Methodology for the Discovery
of Five Effective Teacher Attitudes As a professor, I have been able to collect
valuable information that has been obtained through a three year study with
students enrolled in the Introduction to Teaching and Learning course. This study
initiated in August 2002, spanned eight semesters and included 210 undergraduate
education students. It involved an assignment where these students wrote an essay
about a teacher who made a positive or negative impression on their lives. Each
student was instructed to include thoughtful examples, descriptions, and details of
how they were treated by these teachers. This written assignment also required
students to compare how the chosen teachers attitudes and actions differed from
those of other teachers. Following this written portion of the assignment, in groups
of four, students orally shared their essays while a group member kept a written list
of the described teacher attitudes and actions. After this activity, the students in
their small groups assessed the generated list and decided which five attitudes and
actions are most desirable of teachers. A speaker from each group wrote their list
on the chalkboard, which served as a visual, for the following whole class discussion
on the similarities and differences of each groups findings. Without fail, there were
consistencies in every discussion about the attitudes and actions demonstrated by
effective teachers. The five frequently discussed attitudes and actions include: a
genuine caring and kindness of the teacher, a willingness to share the responsibility
involved in a classroom, a sincere sensitivity to the students diversity, a motivation
to provide meaningful learning experiences for all students, and an enthusiasm for
stimulating the students creativity. Each attitude will be discussed below by
summarizing a few of the comments made by the teacher candidates in the
Introduction to Teaching and Learning course. Section II. Teacher Candidates
Discussion on the Five Effective Teacher Attitudes First Attitude: Demonstrating

Caring and Kindness This attitude pertains to the persona of the teachers.
Statements were written in the essays that discussed a realness and genuineness
about their teachers attitudes toward caring and kindness. The effective teachers
willingly shared emotions and feelings (i.e., enthusiasm, affection, patience,
sadness, disapproval) as well as a sincere interest and care about their students.
Communication was also valued in their past classrooms and feelings were openly
expressed by both the children and teachers. Second Attitude: Sharing
Responsibility This attitude focuses on the ability of the teacher to establish a
shared environment. The teacher candidates emphasized that an effective teacher
must not be overly possessive or need complete control of the children and
environment. It is important to allow students both responsibility and freedom
within the classroom community. Comments were also shared that both the
teachers and students need to contribute to the learning environment for a
relationship of closeness and acceptance to develop. Third Attitude: Sensitively
Accepting Diversity This attitude deals with empathy and the importance of
understanding your students. The teacher candidates identified sensitivity,
acceptance, and encouragement as critical when approaching the issues associated
with the diversity of the children. The candidates found effective teachers
understood their students without analyzing or judging. One group shared the
comment that teachers have the ability to make each child feel special by verbally
sharing individual compliments in front of the class. Another group discussed a
teacher who kept a written record of how many times she talked and listened to
each child and how that made students feel valued and important. Fourth Attitude:
Fostering Individualized Instruction This attitude discusses the ability to provide
meaningful learning opportunities for all students. The teacher candidates
appreciated teachers who helped them succeed with their learning experiences.
They also stated that other teachers used intimidation in front of the class which
resulted in a reluctance to volunteer. Particular groups felt strongly that effective
teachers believe every child can and will learn. Their teachers did not point out
weakness, but instead stressed individual strengths and talents. The preservice
teachers credited their teachers for encouraging positive self-confidence and selfesteem. Fifth Attitude: Encouraging Creativity This attitude stresses the importance
of stimulating the students creativity. Teacher candidates talked about teachers
who listened to their ideas and suggestions for lessons and activities. The effective
teachers were open to students ways of being imaginative and also utilized many
approaches to learning. The students appreciated and were personally motivated
when teachers designed lessons that considered their interests, skills, and needs.
Section III. Teacher Candidates Discussion on Ineffective Teacher Attitudes Elements
of learning destruction that were mentioned in the teacher candidates essays

included placing too much emphasis on grades or giving the one and only correct
answer to questions. Consequently, the students were overly concerned about
finding the correct answers or trying to read their teachers mind to say what she
wanted to hear. Students also were overwhelmed when a teacher added too many
details or directions to assignments. With little opportunity for creativity, the
students became disengaged from the learning process. For the teacher candidates
there was also a negative response to rewards, bribes, punishments, restriction of
choices, and outward signs of competition between the students. Competition
created a burden that interfered with learning since the students only worked for
the grades and praise from their teachers. Some of their teachers used extrinsic
motivators or token rewards and these methods reduced the students desire to
learn and even lowered their achievement levels. Many preservice teachers felt a
more effective method involved building on the students intrinsic motivation by
providing a fun classroom environment. Section IV. Research Based Discussion on
the Five Effective Teacher Attitudes with Implications for Preservice Teachers
Calderhead (1996), Pianta (1999), and Watson (2003) have described teaching as
an intensely psychological process and believe a teachers ability to maintain
productive classroom environments, motivate students, and make decisions
depends on her personal qualities and the ability to create personal relationships
with her students. These effective attitudes and actions employed by teachers
ultimately can make a positive difference on the lives of their students. It is known
that attitudes have a profound impact on teacher practices and behaviors.
Richardson (1996) states, "Attitudes and beliefs are a subset of a group of
constructs that name, define, and describe the structure and content of mental
states that are thought to drive a persons actions" (p. 102). With effective
attitudes, teachers and students can develop relationships of mutual respect and
trust. Studies on each of these five attitudes have been completed by researchers,
and a brief summary will follow that reinforces the findings from the Introduction to
Teaching and Learning course. First Attitude: Demonstrating Caring and Kindness
Research by Larson and Silverman (2000) and Noddings (1984) has emphasized the
importance of developing a caring and respectful relationship between teachers and
students. They support students needs for both communication and care in order to
achieve a personal relationship with their teachers. Noddings (1984) believes the
entire school curriculum should be built around the ethic of care. She contends that
with this construction, caring will become an integral part of a committed, reciprocal
relationship between the teacher and student. Second Attitude: Sharing
Responsibility Carlson and Hastie (1997) believe teachers and students agendas
need to overlap and be in support of each other, and the end result would be a
positive learning environment. This way of learning is a challenging way of

constructing freedom in the classroom. The strength in a constructivist based

classroom is in the lessons and activities of the students. Zimmerman (1990) and
Claxton (1996) believe that the learning process should be organized in such a way
that students take responsibility for their own learning. Students should be
independent and able to make decisions about their learning ability and then plan
accordingly. Richardson (1999) states student-directed learning and curricula have
become focal points for all constructivist-based teaching and learning practices.
Third Attitude: Sensitively Accepting Diversity It is critical for students to feel
positive about themselves as individuals in order to gain the self-confidence to try
new things. Verbally praising a shy or friendless child can be a turning point for their
self-esteem and confidence level. A child may be born with a talent but someone,
such as a teacher, needs to realize and believe in it or it may not ever be nurtured.
A teacher has the ability to reinforce, support, and appreciate the work and play of
her students. Teacher training programs need to provide teacher candidates with
knowledge and experiences with diversity, including cultural diversity. Nel (1992)
stated that it would seem the trend toward more pluralistic attitudes in teachers
needs to be translated into a strong and clear commitment to multicultural
education, which ultimately could result in positive effects on specific classroom
behaviors and attitudes. Teachers need to take the initiative to fully understand the
meaning and future implications of effectively working in culturally heterogeneous
classrooms. An appropriate start in teacher training programs would be to have
teacher candidates research their own ethnic and racial identity. Helms (1994)
expressed that personal experiences may facilitate the development and adoption
of a tolerant and pluralistic orientation. Fourth Attitude: Fostering Individualized
Instruction When designing lesson plans, it is not easy to compete with video
games, computers, television, sports, and music. When provided with motivating
activities and lessons, students become active and independent agents of their own
learning. Learning should become an open adventure that does not lead down one
straight and narrow path, but instead many roads should be provided that lead to a
variety of destinations. Students have the right to travel with an encouraging
facilitator or teacher waiting at each road block or challenge with a smile and an
optimistic attitude that encourages them to continue their learning adventures. All
children need a form of individualized instruction and to be actively involved in their
learning. Teachers may resist the extra work required with individualizing, but
research supports its importance. This is especially an issue for students with
special needs. When providing daily instruction for students with special needs, the
curriculum content, materials, abilities, and teaching methods require thoughtful
consideration. Research suggests effective teachers think and behave in certain
ways with children who have disabilities. McNergney and Keller (1999) observed a

large number of teachers and conducted interviews. Overall, their results revealed
effective teachers, and especially those who teach children with special needs,
should pay attention to students progress and actively involve them in learning
activities, while offering guidance and praise for effort and accomplishments. Fifth
Attitude: Encouraging Creativity When given the opportunity to be creative,
students will take their learning to higher levels and become actively engaged in
lessons by contributing ideas and insights. Teachers should capitalize on students
intrinsic motivation, cognitive learning styles, and skill levels. This type of
environment will be most conducive to fostering learning. Also, incorporating
Howard Gardners intellectual strengths, or multiple intelligences, into daily lesson
planning can provide direction for teachers to offer students diverse opportunities
for creative ways of learning or knowing in the classroom. The eight intelligences
identified by Gardner (1997) are verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visualspatial, bodilykinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.
Gardners notion supports the continued argument that education needs to
accommodate students unique ways of learning and creativity needs to be a
partner in the learning process. Summary In conclusion, there is potential in every
student, and a teachers attitude and actions can leave lasting impressions.
Teachers need to be risk takers by being themselves and by trusting their students.
They also need to create independent individuals so learning is more likely to take
place. Effective teachers genuinely care, like, accept, and value their students.
These teachers will demonstrate kindness, share responsibility, accept diversity,
foster individual instruction, and encourage creativity. With the knowledge of these
five attitudes and actions, they will have the potential to be an effective teacher
who will be remembered fondly by former students. Preservice teachers just
entering a teacher training program can offer valuable insight and knowledge about
their prior teachers. These educational experiences have made a difference in their
lives, and for whatever the reasons, they are now considering a career in teaching.
For the undergraduate students who continue and receive a degree in teaching, it
will be important for them to always remember how it felt to be the student and to
share with their students that there is no greater wisdom than kindness. References
Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers, beliefs, and knowledge. In D. C. Berliner & R. C.
Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 709-725). New York: Simon
& Schuster. Carlson, T. B., & Hastie, P. A. (1997). The student social system within
sport education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 16, 176-195. Claxton, G.
(Ed.). (1996). Liberating the learner. New York: Routledge. Frank, M. L. (1990). What
myths about mathematics are held and conveyed by teachers? Arithmetic Teacher,
37(5), 10-12. Fulton, K. (1989). Technology training for teachers: A federal
perspective. Educational Technology, 29(3), 12-17. Goodlad, J. (1990). Teachers for

our nations schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Handler, M. G. (1993).

Preparing new teachers to use computer technology: Perceptions and suggestions
for teacher educators. Computers in Education, 20(2), 147-156. Helms, J. E. (1994).
Racial identity in the school environment. In P. Pedersen, & J. Carey (Eds.).
Multicultural counseling in schools (pp. 19-137). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Gardner,
H. (1997). Teaching for multiple intelligences. Educational Leadership, 55(1). New
York: Basic Books. Larson, A.A., & Silverman, S. (2000). A description of caring
behaviors of four physical education teachers. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.
McNergney, R., & Keller, C. (1999). Appendix. Some effective teachers actions. In R.
McNergney & C. Keller (Eds.), Images of mainstreaming: Educating students with
disabilities (pp. 211-212). New York: Garland Publishing. Nel, J. (1992). Preservice
teacher resistance to diversity: Need to reconsider instructional methodologies.
Journal of Instructional Psychology, 19, 23-27. Noddings, N. (1984). Caring: A
feminine approach to ethics and moral education. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press. Pianata, R. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and
teachers. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Richardson, V.
(1996). The roles of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In J. Sikula, T. J.
Buttery, & E. Guyton (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher education (2nd ed.,
pp. 102-119). New York: Macmillan. Richardson, V. (1999). Teacher education and
the construction of meaning. In G. Griffin (Ed.), The education of teachers (pp.145166). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Watson, M. (2003). Learning to trust:
Transforming difficult elementary classrooms through developmental discipline. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self regulated learning and
academic achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 25, 3-17.

Literature Review One of the major theoretical issues that have dominated the field
of second language acquisition for decades is the use of the first language (here
after L1) when teaching or learning a second language (here after L2). This issue
has been controversial, and several supporting and opposing arguments have been
raised. L1 opponent methods believe that using L1 may prevent learners from
learning the new language (e.g. the Direct Method and the Audiolingual Method).
However, many studies have been conducted in different parts of the world to settle
the debate. These studies, as will be explained later in this paper, have found that
the advantages of using L1 can outweigh the disadvantages if it is applied
systematically. Moreover, these studies have found that most teachers and learners
are in favour of using L1 since they believe in it as a natural language facilitator and

learning strategy (e.g. Kharma and Hajjaj, 1989; Franklin, 1990; Macaro, 1995, cited
in Macaro, 1997; Dickson, 1996; Swain and Lapkin, 2000; Scott and de la Fuente,
2008). The following section of this paper will identify approaches and methods that
exclude or include L1. The ban of L1 throughout the history of EFL In the sixteenth
century, Latin was widely used in Europe as the supreme language of religion,
commerce and education. The focus was mainly on teaching grammar rather than
on communication; therefore, translation was the means of teaching. To understand
grammar, students were provided with lists of words to translate sentences. This
teaching method was known as the Grammar-Translation Method (Byram, 2000). In
the middle of the nineteenth century, foreign language teaching received more
attention and progressed, notably through individuals such as Marcel (1793-1896),
Prendergast (1806- 1886) and Gouin (1831-1896). Their age was known later as the
Pre-Reform Movement (Howatt, 2004). They came up with the notion of the
similarity between first language acquisition by children and second language
learning by adults. In other words, first language acquisition was the model for
learning a second language. Therefore, translation was considered as a source of
confusion and was replaced by pictures and gestures. The late nineteenth-century
was characterised by the emergence of the Reform Movement whose aim was to
develop new language teaching principles (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Using L1 in
teaching a foreign language became a controversial issue among reformers. Some
believed that mixing two languages would not help students to reach fluency;
therefore, learners should employ their mental abilities to understand the meaning
of the new language. On the other hand, other reformers emphasised the
importance of L1, especially when introducing unfamiliar items (Howatt, 2004).
Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 2010, 4 (1), 64-95. 66 The
appeal for new teaching methods increased. One of the first advocates of excluding
L1 was J.S. Blackie (Hawkins, 1981). His philosophy of learning was that words
should be associated directly with objects, and thinking in L1 should be banned.
This new method was known as the Direct Method. The belief underpinning this
method was that learners acquire L2 in the same way children acquire their L1
(Richards and Rodgers, 2001). In fact, this method was an extension to Gouin and
his contemporaries' natural view towards language learning (Brown, 2001). Later,
another method known as the Audiolingual Method appeared, and it also
emphasised banning the use of L1. This method viewed the target language and
native language as two different systems that should not be linked, so only L2
should be used (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). Brooks (1964) mentioned various
characteristics of this method. For instance, Learners had to learn through repetition
and memorising; hence, listening and speaking were introduced before reading and
writing. Moreover, learning should take place without referring to L1.The belief that

L2 should be developed with no reference to L1 is known as language

compartmentalisation and the reasoning behind this belief is to avoid L1
interference (i.e. errors result from L1 negative transfer) (Cook, 2001). Several
language theorists and researchers have emphasised the focus on L2. Krashen
(1981), for instance, claimed that comprehensible input provides opportunities for
subconscious and implicit learning which leads to achieving language competence.
In this respect, the superiority of L2 may indicate prohibiting L1 in the classroom
(Macaro, 1997). In response to this argument, Swain (2000) extends this notion to
include output as a factor leading to language competence. She emphasises the
importance of engaging learners in collaborative dialogues in which learners
produce language. The output helps learners to monitor and evaluate their
progress. Though the role of L1 in social interaction is not discussed by Swain
(2000), it seems that the L2 output is the supreme outcome of the concept of
interaction. Classroom interaction in L2 has been encouraged to provide learners
with a naturally communicative environment (Cook, 2001). In accordance with
previous views, Halliwell and Jones (1991) claim that using L2 as a realistic and
normal means of communication is possible. To achieve success in learning L2,
learners should be encouraged to take risks in practicing both speaking and
understanding in L2. The reason, according to Halliwell and Jones (1991), is that
learners can understand the message even when they do not know the exact
meaning of words or structures; this indicates that learners do not need to
understand all the words they hear as long as they are able to understand the
message. Similarly, Macdonald (1993) believes that the focus on L2 can enhance
communication and activate both conscious and unconscious learning. Also, it
creates confident learners and challenges them to communicate with others
through their limited language. Macdonald's advice to teachers is "If you get stuck
in the middle of a lesson, try to communicate your message by some other means,
such as mime or demonstration" (Macdonald, 1993: 23). This leads to the question:
What if miming and demonstrations do not work for some reason? The above
discussed methods and opinions which call for avoiding L1 rely on two main weak
assumptions, as identified by Cook (2001). The first assumption is the similarity
between L1 and L2 learning processes, and the second assumption is that learning
L1 and L2 is a separate process. These two assumptions are discussed thoroughly in
the next section. Haifa Al-Nofaie 67 The weakness of the principle of banning L1
Most L1 opponents argue that language learning by adults is similar to language
acquisition by children, and their reason is that both L1 children and L2 learners do
not have any previous knowledge about the new language. However, one limitation
with this argument is that it takes no account of the distinctions which have been
identified between learning L1 and L2 (Cook, 2001). Bley-Vroman (1990) presents a

thorough explanation of five basic differences between L1 acquisition by children

and L2 learning by adults. Firstly, children's innate ability to acquire their L1
disappears in adults. Secondly, adults rely on their L1 when learning L2, unlike
children who do not have previous knowledge of their mother language. Thirdly, in
contrast to children, adults' exposure to L2 is not sufficient since language input is
confined to being in a learning environment such as schools. Moreover, children are
helped by social factors as motivation and personal situations that adults lack.
Finally, notwithstanding adults' difficulties when learning, they do, of course, have
more mature cognitive abilities. BleyVroman (1990) argues that these differences
between adults and children may explain why adults often cannot achieve fluency.
Similarly, Macaro (1997) points out further learning differences between L1 children
and L2 adults. He states that the learning of L2 by adults combines both conscious
and unconscious processes because adult L2 learners can apply more advanced
strategies when learning the new language. Moreover, although L2 learners may
find it difficult to produce all the new language sounds correctly and achieve oral
competence, they are more able to express themselves by applying non-verbal
communicative strategies. Finally, while L1 children are corrected by their parents in
a natural setting, L2 learners obtain their feedback from their teachers, and they
may feel embarrassed and hesitant to produce the language in front of their peers.
Considering children who learn a foreign language, it could be difficult to
hypothesise that their L2 learning is similar to their L1 acquisition. It has been
believed that children can learn a foreign language better than adults. This belief is
related to the Critical Period Hypothesis which claims that effective foreign language
learning occurs before puberty (Cameron, 2001). However, research is still needed
to support this hypothesis (Cameron, 2001). The similarity between L1 and L2
acquisition among children has been challenged in a study by Kim et al. (1997)
which found that children apply different mental activities as they use different
parts of the brain to activate and recall new language. In addition to Kim et al.'s
(1997) study, it has been found that applying L1 learning strategies to L2 learning
may not lead to success, so children are required to pay attention when learning
another language (Cameron, 2001). Another drawback with the principle of banning
L1, as identified by Cook (2001), is that it considers learning L1 and L2 as two
separate processes, as embedded in the Audiolingual Method. This view may
indicate that language learning is coordinate; therefore, the compound type of
learning is neglected (Cook, 2001). In the1950's, two types of bilingualism were
identified: coordinate bilingualism which separated L1 from L2 and compound
bilingualism which linked L1 and L2 (Stern, 1992). As a result of this distinction, two
types of learning strategies have been proposed: the intralingual and intracultural
strategies that focus on using L2 only and the crosslingual and crosscultural

strategies that allow using L1 in learning L2 (Stern, 1992). According to Stern

(1992), L1 is considered as a facilitator for learning L2. In other words, comparing
the two languages may in fact aid learning processes. Regarding the comparison
between two languages, certain empirical studies have found that the Contrastive
Analysis Approach, which is built on drawing learners attention to Novitas-ROYAL
(Research on Youth and Language), 2010, 4 (1), 64-95. 68 similarities and
differences between L1 and L2, could facilitate learning L2 (e.g. Kupferberg, 1999;
Ghabanchi and Vosooghi, 2006). However, as Stern (1992) suggests, the aim
beyond learning L2 determines which type of the previous strategies a learner can
follow. If the aim is developing communicative skills, intralingual strategies will be
used. If translation is the aim, crosslingual strategies will be followed. Since the
separation of L1 and L2 has been made in an attempt to avoid L1 interference, it
was found that L1 transfer could develop language learning (Cook, 2001). Therefore,
the arguments for discouraging L1 in L2 classrooms, mentioned above, have not
provided strong evidence for avoiding L1, nor have clear reasons for banning L1
been identified (Macaro, 2001). As a result several teaching methods encouraging
the use of L1 as a helpful teaching and learning tool have emerged. Methods and
principles for employing L1 The literature of teaching EFL reveals that there are
teaching methods, which use L1 deliberately. For example, besides the GrammarTranslation Method mentioned previously, a relatively new teaching method that
deliberately employs L1 has appeared and is known as the New Concurrent Method.
This method requires teachers to balance the use of L1 and L2 (Faltis, 1990).
Codeswitching which facilitates language learning should be systematic and
purposeful. Four areas of codeswitching to L1 have been identified: introducing
concepts, reviewing a previous lesson, capturing learners' attention and praising
learners (Faltis, 1990). Adding to this point, a recent study by Raschka et al. (2009)
in a Taiwanese classroom concluded that codeswitching is a frequent strategic
device used by highly communicative competent teachers. Other similar methods
which link L1 and L2 are the Bilingual Method, developed by Dodson (1967), and the
Reciprocal Language Teaching (Hawkins, 1987) which aims at preparing proficient
students and allowing them to switch easily from L2 to L1 and vice versa. However,
trying to balance L1 and L2 may be problematic in contexts where English is only
spoken in the classroom. More systematic methods that encourage the limited use
of L1 have appeared. One of these methods is the Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT). The aim of this method is to achieve communicative competence
through the focus on the four language skills for active communication (Richards
and Rodgers, 2001). Using L1 can occur when giving class instructions; however,
learners should be encouraged to use L2 as a medium of communication even for
class management (Littlewood, 1981). The benefit of using L2 for class

management is that "The students learn from these classroom management

exchanges, too, and realise that the target language is a vehicle for
communication" (Larsen-Freeman, 2000: 132). Another current method which
minimises L1 is the Task-Based Method (Willis and Willis, 2007). This method
requires learners to complete a task in L2 through pair or group work. Even though
Learners can use different tools to communicate in L2 such as gestures and copying
words from the task sheet, translation can be used as the last strategy as proposed
by Prabhu (1987: 60): Although tasks were presented and carried out in the target
language, the use of the learners mother tongue in the classroom was neither
disallowed nor excluded. The teacher normally used it only for an occasional
glossing of words or for some complex procedural instructions, Haifa Al-Nofaie 69
for example: ' Leave the rest of the page blank in your notebooks and go on to the
next page, for the next question'. This definition implies that L1 can be used to
explain the meaning of a new word and giving class instructions. Prabhu (1987)
adds that learners are more likely to use L1 when having a private talk with their
teachers and doing individual tasks. This may indicate that using L1 in front of peers
may create a feeling of guilt. Willis and Willis (2007) consider that L1 cannot be
avoided in L2 classrooms since it can bring some benefits to the classroom,
especially with beginners. For instance, some teachers have found that learners
who did a task in L1 before doing it in L2 showed good progress in L2; moreover,
their overall use of L1 decreased. Another benefit is that L1 can be used to translate
new words, more specifically those which are difficult to explain or infer. In addition,
task instructions could be given in L1 to check learners understanding. Finally,
teachers should raise learners' attention towards the importance of maximising the
use of L2, For the purpose of avoiding the overuse of L1, Willis and Willis (2007)
recommend teachers and learners to prepare guidelines for situations in which L1
can be used in the class. Several views upholding the benefits of using L1 in L2
classrooms have been proposed. Atkinson (1987), for instance, calls for its provision
for three reasons. Firstly, translation is the preferred strategy for the majority of
learners. Secondly, it is a personal technique since it helps learners to reveal their
feelings and ideas. Finally, it is a valuable technique for exploiting class time.
Another support for L1 in L2 classroom is provided by Chavez (2002) who claims
that students prefer using both L1 and L2 because the classroom is not a real
context for L2 social culture. A similar view is held by Harbord (1992). He considers
L1 a natural communication tool between teachers and students, as in giving class
instructions, but he stands firmly against using L1 for explaining grammar.
Butzkamm (2003) Supports the previous reasons for employing L1 and adds that L1
promotes learners dependence on L2. In other words, after presenting an L2 notion
in L1 and asking learners for repetition in L2, learners become more motivated to

communicate in L2. Therefore, L1 can enhance and keep the flow of communication.
Research and using L1 This section discusses research findings about using L1 in L2
classes from the sides of both teachers and students at school level only, which is
the focus of this study. The review below reveals that research at school level seems
to be limited, and most recent studies have investigated L1 use among college
students (e.g. Schweers,1999; Scott and de la Fuente, 2008; Nazary, 2008; BrooksLewis, 2009; Raschka etal., 2009). Reasearch on teachers' use of L1 Several studies
have been carried out in different countries to investigate areas in which teachers
resort to L1. Most of these studies revealed that a large number of teachers resort
to L1 for explaining grammar -66% in Kharma and Hajjaj's (1989) study, 88% in
Franklin's (1990) study and 87% in Dickson's (1996) study. These findings offered
support to several studies which have found that advanced learners demonstrated
good progress when learning grammar in L1 (Cook, 2001). Novitas-ROYAL (Research
on Youth and Language), 2010, 4 (1), 64-95. 70 Another area for using L1 was
explaining new words- 71% in Kharma and Hajjaj (1989); 39% in Franklin (1990).
The issue of learners' proficiency was identified as another area for using L1.
Teachers tend to use L1 with low ability learners (e.g. Kharma and Hajjaj, 1989;
Franklin, 1990; Dickson, 1996). Besides learners level, teachers professional
experience impacts the degree to which they resort to L1. The more they are
experienced, the less they use L1 (Crawford, 2004). Using L1 for creating a rapport
with learners and giving class instructions formed other cases (Franklin, 1990;
Macaro, 1995, cited by Macaro, 1997). In accordance with previous research
findings, Cameron (2001) provides precise guidelines for teachers for the beneficial
use of L1 with children. For example, teachers can resort to L1 for translating new
language, chatting with learners, giving instructions, providing feedback and error
correction and checking learners' comprehension. She points out that L1 should be
used after trying other tools, such as pictures and gestures. The advice being "Use
as much of the target language as possible, and ensure that use of first language
supports the children's language learning" (Cameron, 2001: 199). Having discussing
teachers reasons for using L1, the discussion now will move on to include learners
reasons for L1 application. Research on learners' use of L1 Research has
investigated learners' reasons for switching to L1 in EFL classrooms. For example, in
Kharma and Hajjaj's (1989) study, 81% of the Arab students were in favour of using
L1, especially when they could not express their ideas in L2. Moreover, they thought
that their students felt happy about using L1. Swain and Lapkin (2000) studied
learners' use of L1 (English) while doing two tasks in French (L2). According to the
study, learners purposes for using L1 were grouped into three main categories:
moving tasks along, as in ordering events, focusing attention on grammar and
vocabulary search and finally interpersonal interaction as in explaining

disagreement. Besides these findings, it was noticed that lower achieving learners
tended to use L1 more excessively than high achieving learners. Cook (2001)
recommends learners to use L1 with each other when explaining tasks, negotiating
their roles and checking their production and understanding. A similar view is taken
by Cameron (2001) who mentions that learners prefer using L1 when seeking help
from peers or teachers. More reasons justifying learners use of L1 have been
discussed by Nation (2003). He mentions that learners tend to apply L1 either
because they are not proficient, or are shy or unmotivated to communicate in L2.
Although Nation (2003) acknowledges the importance of L1 in L2 classrooms, he
calls for increasing learners' focus on L2 setting out some helpful hints for this
purpose. Tasks, as mentioned by Nation (2003) should be within learners level, and
this view is in tune with Vygotskys sociocultural theory. According to Vygotsky
(1978), children can develop their language through interacting with each other
and/or with adults. During this interaction, they have good opportunities to receive
help from others. Vygotsky (1978) refers to children's abilities towards assisted
language learning as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Another helpful hint
by Nation (2003) is that teachers should use tasks that encourage learners to use
L2 such as role plays and telling stories. Moreover, teachers should increase
learners awareness of the importance of learning L2 and

TEACHERS' REFLECTIONS ON THEIR ATTITUDE TOWARD STUDENTS Andreja Lavri,

Ph. D. Training centre for civil protection and disaster relief
andreja.lavric@guest.arnes.si Abstract In the educational process directed at
students, the responsibility for successful learning is divided between the teacher
and the students. Both, the teacher as well as the students have to realize their own
part of the responsibility burden. The teacher has to be aware that regardless of the
fact that he/she invested a lot of effort into providing the students with quality
knowledge, the students will not necessarily acquire the offered knowledge; proper
conditions must first be created for that. A teachers responsibility within the
educational process includes expertise in his own teaching approaches as well as
his/her educational (rearing) style. There are several different theoretical concepts
that provide teachers with plenty of opportunity to assess their own teaching styles
(e.g. analytic holistic, deep surface, etc). One of the possibilities enabling a
teacher to reflect on his/her attitude towards students is a model composed of three
categories: demands, awards (praises) and punishments (reprimands). Teachers
reflected on their educational (rearing) styles during teachers education, where
they agreed to the existence of educational components in the educational process;

first they assessed themselves, while afterwards also receiving feedback from each
other. While making use of all three categories of the presented model, teachers
have to be aware that despite their superior position within the social hierarchy,
their attitude when communicating with their students should not be superior and
critical. They should instead maintain their authority through emphatic
communication suitable in a given situation. Keywords: educational model,
communication, teacher training Introduction Along with schooling, the school
environment also includes educational1 processes. Although we perceive
educational processes and the educational model as something comprehensive and
long-term, they are based on small steps, such as day-to-day communication
between parents and child at home and between teacher and child in school. The
educational model is composed of individual words and sentences, which means
that, to ensure successful education, the parents' and teacher's talk should contain
the right message and be communicated appropriately. Knowing types of
educational models and being aware of ones own educational model, or ones
attitude towards students, is a component part of the pedagogical proficiency of
teachers that should be subject to constant upgrading. This way, a teacher will
maintain and upgrade 1 For the purposes of this article thus, education will be
used to signify the (teachers) attitude toward a child/student, while schooling will
imply solely the teaching and learning components of the educational process. st
annual atee Association of Teacher Education in Europe conference 59 the quality of
presenting knowledge and skills to others. All this is a result of the new roles
teachers play and the changed perceptions of teacher competencies. The new roles
of teachers are being pointed out by various authors, e.g. Hirvi, Day and Niinisto
(Razdevek Puko and Rugelj, 2006), who base their reasoning on changes in the
society and the resulting changes in schools. They reflect on how certain roles
teachers used to have so far have changed, while some others they either still need
to change or discard. Teachers are losing their traditional function of being the sole
source of information, which is why the authors particularly stress that teachers
should become more open for change, as one of their newly assumed roles.
Teachers are not, however, seen solely as the ones that should change themselves,
but instead as a vehicle of change. Teachers are being ever more associated with
the role of the mentor and organiser of learning processes, which is why they are
inclined to perfect their methods and improve their lesson organisation. One of the
new teacher roles arises also from the learning organisation, where teachers are
stimulated to develop personally as well as professionally; the teacher qualifications
acquired during university studies have namely become insufficient. The increasing
number of professional competencies one might yet acquire is why teachers are not
exempt from lifelong learning. Changes in the society are the source of learning,

behavioural and multicultural diversity among students, posing numerous problems

for teachers. In an attempt to achieve their teaching goals, they thus often have to
undergo special training to be able to work with different participants and know how
to adjust to them. To learn to be more tolerant toward various participants and to be
able to solve disputes among them, and among participants versus teachers, one
must be familiar with conflict management as well as be well versed in cooperating
with other teachers and other professional staff of schooling institutions. The end of
a teaching process should include the teachers ability to reflect on, explore and
question their own work. Along with the need for self-evaluation, which enables
teachers to improve their teaching, outside evaluation is also gaining ground. The
changing of teachers roles and their assuming new ones demand a change in the
methods of teaching. As opposed to being something a teacher did, teaching is
beginning to focus more on students now. Such an approach naturally calls for more
activity on part of the students, as critical and innovative thinking is encouraged,
and underlines the practical side of teaching, where students are invited to use their
acquired knowledge in unfamiliar circumstances. Due to teachers changing roles
and competencies, authors (Punik and Zorman, 2004) have markedly investigated
teachers professional competencies. They have concluded that teacher qualities of
a successful teacher can be divided into professional characteristics and
professional competencies. Professional characteristics comprise professional
values, professional and personal development, communication and relationships,
along with synthesis and use. Professional competencies of a successful teacher, on
the other hand, include knowledge and understanding, as well as skills. Knowledge
and understanding further encompass the knowing of students and their ways of
studying, professional knowledge of the taught subject, being familiar with the
curriculum, educational system and teacher roles (ability to reflect, administrative
chores, legal responsibility, team work). Finally, skills stand for the ability to plan
content, time, materials and methods, all of which make up teaching st annual atee
Association of Teacher Education in Europe conference 60 preparations, as well as
teaching techniques, how to lead a class, how to mark and examine, and how to
assume a more complex function. The metacognitive dimension stimulates
reflection on own learning and teaching, understanding, and the point of teaching
and learning. The most difficult thing is to change the authenticity of a teacher's
personality, which demands extensive self-training, carried out through counselling
and therapy. A teacher's changing and growth depend on metalearning, stimulation
of reflection on own teaching, understanding and the purpose of teaching, and have
long-term effects on the educational process. At teacher training courses, we
encouraged teachers to reflect on their relationships with the students and thus
made them think about the day-to-day communication between them. We focused

on individual words and sentences making up the educational model. The teachers'
starting point for own reflection was their commonly accepted premise that in order
to achieve teaching goals, the role of educational processes cannot be overlooked.
Educational model There exist various educational techniques to be used in schools
or at home, all of which derive from various educational models. One of them is the
three-part model, composed of three categories (Steiner et al, 2004). The first
category represents the demands or expectations one has of a child. Both in school
and at home, a child is faced with certain expectations they are supposed to meet.
In school this means rules such as clean the board after class or come to class on
time, while at home similar expectations include taking out the trash and cleaning
one's room. How many things are required of a child depends on the teachers in
school and on the parents at home, although the two tend to be in discord regarding
the quantity of their expectations. They can be either too demanding or too mild,
while both extremes can affect the child's developing personality. After the
expectations and requirements have been successfully met, praise or a reward
should follow; this represents the second category of the presented educational
model. Praise and rewards tell the children which behaviour we expect from them,
and help to build up the their positive attitude towards themselves. Exaggerating
with praise and rewards does, however, not breed the desired effects, as it often
results in a spoiled child. The absence of praise and rewards, on the other hand,
could result in a child unsatisfied with himself, utterly trying to please the teachers
and parents just to be commended. The third category is criticism and punishment.
A child should know which lines he cannot cross and be aware of the consequences
of disobeying. Criticism and punishment tell the child when he has broken a rule or
crossed the set lines. When children are criticised or punished, they should be made
well aware of what they had done wrong. Extensive punishment can breed an
aggressive child, while insufficient punishment regimes can result in children being
spoiled. Students should be equally exposed to all three categories. They should
know the rules, what is expected of them and what sort of punishment awaits if
they fail to live up to them. If students follow the rules and successfully completes
their tasks, they will be commended. st annual atee Association of Teacher
Education in Europe conference 61 Both praise and reprimand work best if the
relationship between teacher and students is good and based on respect and trust.
In most cases it is advisable to praise or reprimand a student in private, while it can
only be done in front of the entire group if the classroom is pervaded by enough
team spirit. Praise should be spontaneous, genuine, diverse, and should be directed
at tangible merits of an achievement or activity. Praise should be bestowed on the
level of progress made by a student and should not be used as a means of
comparison with the others in the class. When praising somebody for an

achievement, the emphasis should be put on the invested efforts and not solely on
their skills, the simplicity of the task or pure luck. Where students is already
internally motivated to learn a certain topic, all they need is feedback to guide they
further; in such cases, the teacher's praise or punishment do not account for much.
An externally motivated student, on the other hand, especially one that fears
failure, can gain from an appropriately communicated praise, though. The same
goes for non-independent students who need the teacher to provide them with
social backup and emotional support (Marenti Poarnik, 2000). Teachers'
communication with the students is affected by their internal psychological states,
personality states, the so-called I-states that determine our behaviour and our
communication. Depending on the prevailing I-state in teachers, their
communication can be parent-like critical, parent-like protective, grown-up, childlike free, child-like flexible and child-like rebellious (Braja, 1993). The parent-like
critical communication is characterised by prohibitions and criticism, by the person
being judgemental of the work of others, giving predictions, speaking loudly and
clearly with a frowned forehead and a lifted finger. The parent-like communication is
typical of teachers who are protective of their students, who address them warmly
and compassionately, have a worried face and spread arms. The grown-up
communication involves teachers expressing their opinion, analysing the situation,
speaking in a confident and non-biased manner with a clear expression on their face
and standing erect. Teachers characterised by a child-like free communication are
expressive of their wishes and needs, speak loudly and enthusiastically, and have a
relaxed posture. The child-like flexibility communicates insecurity and fear, the
person is shy and has an insecure and whining voice, while their face reveals a timid
character. Teachers employing a child-like rebellious communication tend to oppose
colleagues, the headmaster, students' parents, etc, whereby they act irritably, have
a repulsive expression on their face and a stiff body (Braja, 1993). Teachers'
reflecting on their attitude towards students, and the results The reflection of
teachers' attitude towards their students was studied within a programme of the
Pedagogical education centre at the University of Ljubljana Faculty of Arts, intended
for teacher training. During the 2005/2006 school year, we organised seminars on
communication and educational models for primary and secondary school teachers.
Teachers' reflections on their attitude towards students were, however, studied a
year prior to that, within the framework of other seminars, so that all in all we
analysed some one hundred teachers as to their reflections. The analysis of their
reflections was carried out by means of a questionnaire that asked the teachers how
much they demanded of their students, how much they praised them and how
much they criticised them. They had to explain whether they set demands, award
praise and st annual atee Association of Teacher Education in Europe conference 62

criticise or punish several times a day or an hour, once a day, or just once a week.
They inserted their findings into the circumplex model where they drew a Mercedes
sign with lines of different lengths; if their answer was that they criticise several
times a day, the criticism line was the longest, while if they, on the other hand,
realised they were extremely unassuming, the shortest line was the one signifying
demands and expectations. The first part, where they determined their educational
model, was followed by the second one, the feedback; after the teachers drew their
own educational models, they each drew two others for two colleagues from the
same school whom they knew. They drew the models for others on the basis of
knowing the other teachers attitude towards students, and thus on the basis of
their subjective observations. After the three teachers had all finished drawing, they
compared the models they drew of themselves with those drawn of them by their
colleagues. In the majority of cases, the drawings were similar, signifying that the
teachers were well aware of their educational model and that it was perceived as
such by others as well. Along with their own insight into their educational model, it
was also the colleagues reflection of the other teachers attitude towards students
that showed the teachers which communication they make use of too often or not
enough. If all three lines were almost level, it meant that the teachers actions
during the school day (or week) were well balanced. The analysis showed, however,
only a tenth of all the teachers to think of themselves as being demanding, praising
and critical in a proportionate manner. In the most common drawing, the longest
line was the one representing the setting of demands, the somewhat shorter one
representing criticism, while the shortest spoke of the teachers sparing praise and
rewards. Such drawings testified to the teachers using a prevailingly parent-like
critical communication, with emphasis on demands imposed on students, as well as
to an extensive use of prohibitions and criticism. The child-like free communication
was somehow in the minority, and so were the teachers associated enthusiasm and
praise. Reflections on their attitude towards students showed them schematically if
they demanded too much of their students or not enough, if they were too strict or
too indulgent. This helped them to become more aware of their attitude towards
students and to realise they can balance and thus perfect it. Paying attention to
their attitude toward students can also enable them to achieve better teaching
results. Being aware of their critical, rebellious and flexible communication paves
the way for a successful and quality teacher communication. By recognising their
own way of communicating and that of their partner in a conversation, teachers
come in control of their communication, learn to adjust to the student and respond
in the most appropriate manner. When using these three categories, however,
teachers should control themselves and, irrespective of their socially defined
hierarchical role, refrain from acting superior and being critical of the student. They

should instead strengthen their authority through emphatic communication

appropriate to the given situation. Teachers have at the training courses also not
failed to stress that communication with the students should be based on mutual
respect. With elements of good communication towards an efficient educational
model Knowledge of educational models ensures a wider base for establishing
quality relationships between teacher and student. In concrete situations, when
teacher and student are in dialogue, what is important is to establish a quality line
of communication. The messages teachers send st annual atee Association of
Teacher Education in Europe conference 63 to students can be realistic or
unrealistic, positive or negative. When communicating with people, we try to only
use realistic messages. These can be positive when we commend something we like
about a person, or negative when we criticise what we dislike in a persons
behaviour. We make use of realistic criticism of a persons behaviour when we want
them to start behaving differently. When we like and approve of the way a person
behaves, we express a realistic praise; this will stimulate the person to continue to
behave in the liked manner and thus adopt it as their own (Gordon, 1983). At
teacher training courses dedicated to educational models, teachers also
emphasised the role of parents and their wish to share with them their responsibility
as educators in school. They stressed they would like to cooperate with them more
closely and establish a two-way communication. Through the teachers reflection of
their attitude towards students, we have, however, ascertained, that teachers tend
to be mostly parent-like critical and communicate through prohibitions and criticism,
as well as be judgemental of the work of others this implies an often defensive
posture in relation to the students parents. As a result, parents assume the parentlike critical communication strategy as well, which does, though, not lead to
dialogue, but rather to conflicting exchanges. The way to an improved relationship
between teachers, students and parents is adult communication (Braja, 1993),
when teachers and parents express their opinions, analyse the situation, and speak
in a neutral manner, without criticising and repeated accusations. At teacher
training courses, teachers like to point out that parents should also be invited to
take part in the process and give suggestions and that a form of communication
between them should by all means be established. It is namely often the case that
due to the teacher shying away from dialogue with the parents and being reluctant
to hear their suggestions, parents turn to headmasters and thus cause new
communication problems. Teachers at teacher training courses also stress the
importance of schools for parents and that schools should be organised as soon as
at pre-school or nursery level. The parents trust in institutions does not begin to
build when their child enters primary school it is based on their previous
experience with the educational institutions and nurseries, social centres, etc.

Childrens reactions cannot be interpreted correctly without knowing their family

background. It is therefore vital that we establish a good communication with their
parents and try to decipher what is the level of demand, praise and criticism
children face at home. A teacher who, for instance, gives a student an encouraging
pat on the shoulder and is then slapped in return, would decode the students
reaction faster if she knew his/her parents use corporal punishment as a constituent
part of raising their child and that the child is thus very sensitive to touch,
perceiving it as a physical treat. Teacher-parents communication can assume many
forms, such as the open door day at school, telephone conversations, emailing,
parents meetings and others. Along with the parents receiving an update on their
childs progress in school, these meetings are also an opportunity to exchange
useful information, such as the childs interests and aptitudes. Such exchanges are
likewise a chance for the teacher to learn of the childrens family dynamics and of
the factors explaining their behaviour, as well as a chance for the parents to
actively participate in the educational process and endeavour to reach a consensus
with the teacher on the commonly adopted objectives, etc (Kottler and Kottler,
2001). Such contacts can result from the school system encouraging regular and
planned meetings of teachers and parents, they can be st annual atee Association
of Teacher Education in Europe conference 64 initiated by parents who begin to
sense a problem, or by a teacher inviting the parents to help him/her resolve a
problem their child has in school. Conclusion Reflections of own educational style
were carried out during teacher training courses, where teachers confirmed the
existence of educational components in the teaching process and discovered which
categories prevail in the teachers attitude towards students first they each
reflected on themselves and were then given feedback also from their colleagues.
The teachers taking part in the teacher training courses also agreed that, along with
being familiar with educational models and ones own attitude towards students, it
is also crucial to look for several other factors conditioning the building of quality
relationships with their students. Teachers point out that in the education and
schooling process focused on the student, the responsibility for the teaching and
learning success rests equally divided on the shoulders of teacher and student. In
debates on education, teachers also stress that their competence as regards
education is too limited and that, with all the work they are burdened with when
they assume the responsibility of schooling children, there is not enough time to
educate. They also underline the fact that they should learn more about education
themselves and that more pedagogical topics should find their way into school
conferences. They expect institutions to provide more pedagogical training, unified
opinions regarding education and methods of teaching within teaching collectives,
and more support from counselling services. Schools should, further, provide

teachers with safety and protection. It is vital that both teachers and students
realise their share of responsibility in the pedagogical process. Teachers should also
be aware of the possibility that even though they might do their best to provide
students with quality knowledge, the latter might not get across. By trying, though,
they might prepare ground for success. Literature: Braja, P. (1993). Pedagoka
komunikologija, Ljubljana: Glotta Nova Gordon, T. (1983). Trening veje uinkovitosti
za uitelje. Ljubljana: Svetovalni center za otroke, mladostnike in stare Kottler, J. A.
in Kottler, E. (2001). Svetovalne spretnosti za vzgojitelje in uitelje, Ljubljana:
Intitut za psihologijo osebnosti Marenti Poarnik, B. (2000). Psihologija uenja in
pouka, Ljubljana: DZS. Marenti Poarnik, B. (2006). Uveljavljanje kompetennega
pristopa terja vizijo, pa tudi strokovno utemeljeno strategijo spreminjanja pouka,
Vzgoja in izobraevanje 1/2006, 2733. Milivojevi, Z., Bilban, K., Kokelj, V. in
Steiner T. (2004). Mala knjiga za velike stare, Ljubljana: Mladinski dom Jare Punik
M. in Zorman M. (2004). Od znanja h kompetencam, Vzgoja in izobraevanje 3/2004,
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Vzgoja in izobraeva

LITERATURE REVIEW The importance of educational inclusion The implementation of

educational inclusion in regular schools, according to Mukhopadhyay et al. (2012), is
a complicated process, and in order for this process to be successful, parents,
teachers, students, and key community members have to be involved in its
planning. Further, promoting a culture of inclusion at whole-school level is required
for implementing inclusion, developing inclusive practices at classroom level,
removing barriers to inclusion, educating teachers to promote inclusive schooling
and identifying factors to make inclusion works (Abbott, 2006).Some experts
highlight that educational inclusion has increased expectations for general
educators and has sparked discussion, debate, and structural changes in the
preparation process of such a program (e.g., Blanton, Griffin, Winn, &Pugach, 1997;
Fisher, Frey, & Thousand, 2003; Kilgore & Griffin, 1998; Stayton & McCollum, 2002;
Straw derman & Lindsey, 1995). However, the implementation and effectiveness of
educational inclusion is still debatable among educational professionals (Kauffman
et al., 2004;Lindsay, 2003; Turnbull et al., 2002). According to Abbott (2006),
schools adopting the inclusive education approach should provide a climate of high
expectation, value a broad range of abilities and achievements, remove barriers to
learning, and promote a positive appreciation of the diversity of individuals. In
addition, inclusion is seen by Ainscow (1999) as a reform that supports and
welcomes diversity among all learners. However, the biggest challenge for

education systems around the world is responding to learner diversity (Ainscow,

2007; Florian, 2008). Further, inclusive education is increasingly accepted as a
unified approach to education for all (Florian, 2012). Although students with
disability have the right to learn in the natural environment where their typical
peers learn (Muijs & Reynolds, 2002), inclusion has many benefits such as
improving students social growth and skills (Ainscow, 1999; Cole & Meyer, 1991;
Muijs & Reynolds, 2002) and developing a language of practice among students
(Ainscow, 1999, p. 14). Further, it helps to improve students behavioral skills (Lee &
Odom, 1996) and increases achievement of individual education program (IEP)
objectives (Brinker &Thorpe, 1984). 28 The Journal of Human Resource and Adult
Learning, Vol. 9, Num. 1, June 2013 Regular classroom teachers attitudes towards
educational inclusion Attitudes of regular classroom teachers towards educational
inclusion are considered a central point to include students with disabilities in
regular schools. Several studies reported that regular classroom teachers do not
hold supportive attitudes towards educational inclusion (e.g., Minkeet al., 1996;
Reiter et al.,1998) while others (e.g. Villaet al.,1996; Ward et al.,1994) stated that
regular classroom teachers hold more favorable attitudes. According to Florian
(2012), many general classroom teachers in Scotland resist to include children with
special needs in their classes believing that inclusion interferes with the effective
education of other students. In another study conducted by Zoniou-Sideri and
Vlachou (2006) on Greek teachers beliefs towards educational inclusion, the results
revealed that regular education teachers hold a number of restrictive as well as
conflicting beliefs towards disability and educational inclusion. These teachers
reported that although educational inclusion is necessary as a means of improving
the way ordinary school functions and reducing the marginalization and
stigmatization of students with disabilities, special segregated education is
important as a means of providing a secure and protective shelter to these students
and as a way of covering a number of ordinary educations deficiencies. Teachers
attitudes towardsinclusionand their age, gender and years of teaching experience
The relationship between teachers attitudes towards inclusion and their age,
gender, and years of experience was investigated in several international and
regional studies such as Botswana, Italy, the United Kingdom, UAE and Saudi
Arabia. For example, the Botswana study found no significant correlation between
attitudes and age (Chhabra, Srivastava&Srivastava, 2010) while the Italian study
found that teachers attitudes were significantly associated with their age (Cornoldi,
Terreni, Scruggs &Mastropieri, 1998) in which younger teachers showed more
positive attitudes. Regarding gender, the studies conducted in Botswana, Italy and
China found no significant relationships between teachers attitudes and their
gender (Chhabra et al., 1998;Cornoldi et al., 1998; Peng, 2000; Wan & Huang, 2005;

Wei & Yuen, 2000) while the studies conducted in the UAE, UK, Nigeria and Saudi
Arabia found a significant relationship between the two variables for the favor of
female teachers (Algazo & Gaad, 2004;Avramidis et al., 2000; Fakolade & Adeniyi,
2009;Qaraqish, 2008). The teachers years of experience in relation to attitudes was
only examined in the Nigerian study which found that the teachers years of
experience had no influence on their attitudes towards inclusion (Fakolade &
Adeniyi, 2009). Teachers attitudes towards inclusion and students type of disability
The students types of disability can also impact teachers attitudes towards
inclusion. In Algazo and Gaad (2004) study in the UAE, it was found that teachers
were more accepting students with physical disability for inclusion than students
with other disabilities such as specific learning difficulties, visual impairments,
hearing impairment, behavioral difficulties and intellectual disability, on descending
order. In Qaraqish (2008) study, the results found that teachers in Saudi Arabia
showed positive attitudes towards including students with learning problems in the
regular classroom while they showed negative attitudes towards the inclusion of
students with physical and behavioral problems in classroom. Based on the above,
the current research sought to answer the following questions: 1. What are the
attitudes of regular classroom teachers towards inclusion? 2. Do regular classroom
teachers gender, age, and years of experienceaffect their attitudes towards
inclusion? 3. Do the teachers views about educational placements for students with
various disabilities influence their attitudes towards inclusion in the regular
classroom?
Environmental Factors 1. Placement of subjects in schools 2. Ranking of Subjects 3.
Peer Influences 4. Parental Influences 5. Students Feedback 6. Nature of Talents 7.
Career Figure 1. Factors determining attitudes towards art and design curriculum.
Technology and Home Science (Wanjira, 2009). The attitudes have extended to
school administrators who have the authority to decide on which curriculum to
include among the existing ones and which stream should offer Art as an optional
subject. The clustering of subjects into various groups by the Ministry of Education
specifies the optional subjects the students in the 8-4-4- system of education should
choose or not to choose at all based on their interest (M.O.E, 2008).The required
secondary subjects are categorized into groups as follows: Group 1: English,
Mathematic, and Kiswahili; Group 2: Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Physical Sciences,
and Biological Sciences; Group 3: History and Government, Geography, Christian
Religious Education, Islamic Religious Education, Hindu Islamic Education; Group 4:
Home Science, Art and Design, Agriculture, Woodwork, Metalwork, Building
Construction, Power Mechanics, Electricity, Drawing and Design, and Aviation
Technology; and Group 5: French, Germany, Arabic, Music, Business Studies and

Computer. Students are required to take all the subjects in group 1 and at least two
subjects from group 2. They are also required to select subjects in the other three
remaining areas. The selection of subjects depends upon what the individual
schools offer. This in turn depends upon the resources and the teachers available in
the individual schools. art and design curriculum is shunned by educators and
stakeholders and considered of low status with the changing needs of societies
(Mwiria, 2005). Choice is a matter of preference and is largely determined by
attitudes. Understanding the environmental, curriculum and administrative related
factors are critical to understanding the choices made by the students and teachers
in art and design curriculum in relation to other subjects. Purpose and objectives of
the study The purpose of the study was to find out the factors determining students
and teachers attitudes towards Art and design Curriculum. The specific objectives
of the study were to establish; (1) Environmental factors influencing attitudes
towards Art and Design Curriculum. (2) Curriculum related factors influencing
attitudes towards Art and Design Curriculum. (3) Administrative related factors
influencing attitudes towards Art and Design Curriculum. Conceptual framework of
the study The study was guided by conceptual frame work based on theory of
attitude formation and change as discussed in the works of various scholars such as
Eagly and Chicken (1993), Radford and Govier (1991) and Robert (2001) as shown
in Figure 1. Attitudes impel people to react to objects, situations or propositions in
ways that can be called favorable or unfavorable (Guilford, 2004). Sprinthall (1987)
enumrates two general sources of attitudes: external influences 12 Int. J. Voc. Tech.
Educ. such as from parents, peer, teachers and students. The second general
source is internal influences due to personal conflicts such as students making a
choice of career to pursue. Career choice is a complex exercise involving
unconscious decisions that are constrained by culture and social traditions.
Environmental, curriculum and administrative related factors influencing students
and teachers attitudes towards art and design curriculum are moderated by what
happens in their schools, homes, cultural norms and labour market orientations
(Kithyo and Petrina, 2002). Factors influencing students and teachers attitudes
towards art and design curriculum may be formed due to past experiences
encountered identification and due to ones past behaviour and actions. All these
may be termed as environmental influences. Robert (2001) argues that attitude
generally involves an emotional or affective component (for instance, liking or
disliking) a cognitive component (beliefs) and a behavioural component (tendency
to act towards these items in various ways). In other words, attitudes as described
here indicate that they are strongly held beliefs, opinions and feelings, which are
reflected in peoples behaviours. Similarly, administrative related factors such as
the school policy may demand that art and design should only be offered in one

stream out of five or six streams (Wagah, 2009). This hinders talent nurturing for
the students who may not be in the stream that offers art and design curriculum.
Every body can be an artist except that the talent is never given room to grow
(Kiama et al., 2007). Art and design curriculum are demanding espe-cially the
practical part which carries 70%. If the school is not supportive in terms of facility
provision and favorable learning environment (Art Room), attitude development
may occur towards the curriculum such as the number of schools offering the
curriculum declining and students enrolment being as low as one student. Pettman
(1986) has shown that both feelings and information are critical factors in the
formation of attitudes and that attitudes are critical components of cross-cultural
understanding. In other words, attitudes as described here indicate that they are
strongly held beliefs, opinions and feelings, which are reflected in peoples
behaviours. Attitude also affects implementation of the objectives, content,
methods of teaching and evaluation procedures of art and design curriculum by the
students especially if the students attitude is negative. For example, when the time
stipulated on the time table is not sufficient for the teacher and the student to
handle a still life drawing and painting arranged before the students in a double
lesson, the teacher has to dismantle the still life which will affect the accuracy in its
arrangement in the next class. In the K.C.S.E examinations still life drawing and
painting is allocated four hours where as in the recent secondary school curriculum
the same practical was allocated a double lesson of 80 min. This implies that the
students may not be able to complete the same practical within the time stipulated
on the time table which may result in attitude formation. The triadic model of
attitude sees attitudes as having three components, affective, behaviour and
cognitive. The implication of the triadic model is that these three components form
a system and are interdependent. Radford and Govier (1991), Feldman (1990) have
noted that a change in one component of the system should produce changes in the
other components in order to maintain consistency. They further say that evidence
exists that the cognitive and affective components of attitudes are closely related.
The affective component encompasses our positive or negative emotions about
something-how we feel about it. The behaviour component consists of a
predisposition or intention to act in a particular manner that is relevant to our
attitude. Finally, the cognitive component refers to the belief and thoughts we hold
about the object of our attitude. Students may view art and design curriculum as a
subject involving talent and hence this factor leads to attitude formation. For
example students attitude toward art and design curriculum may consist of positive
emotions (the affective component). An intention to drop or proceed with art and
design curriculum (the behaviour component) and the belief that Art and Design is a
curriculum for talented students (the cognitive component). Attitudes can also take

different forms, especially in the process of change. For instance, they can be
selective, biased, arouse effect when challenged or resist change in the face of new
experience for example the teaching experience from teachers coupled with inservice training may lead to positive attitudes. Attitudes are hypothetical
constructs, they can not be directly observed and their existence is inferred from a
persons behaviour. This behaviour can of course take many forms for example
students dropping the Art and Design Curriculum and schools developing a low
priority towards Art and Design Curriculum. METHODOLOGY Venue and sample The
study was carried out in 15 public secondary schools offering art and design
curriculum in Nyanza Province, Kenya. Respondents in the study were 15 teachers
of Art and Design, 113 students taking art and design and 131 students who had
dropped Art and design curriculum. Saturated sampling was used to arrive at the
sample size of teachers and students of Art and design curriculum. To arrive at the
number of the students who had dropped art and design curriculum simple random
sampling was used to select 30% of the students. Only form four students were
selected for the study because of their being in a position to understand best the
dynamics of implementing the Art and Design Curriculum having been in the school
longest. Indoshi et al. 13 Table 1. Placement of Subjects in School (n = 131).
Students responses Art and design was offered in the Stream I joined in form one
(%) Art and design was compulsory in all form one and form two streams (%) No
78(59.5) 116(88.5) Yes 53(40.5) 15(11.5) Total 131 (100) 131(100) Research design
and data collection instruments This was basically qualitative research intended to
get opinions and perceptions of teachers and students towards conditions of
implementing Art and Design Curriculum. The questionnaire was designed to solicit
information on respondents perspectives on conditions for teaching Art and Design
including environmental, curriculum related factors and administrative support.
Observation schedule was used to counter-check the information generated by the
questionnaire. A survey design based on use of questionnaire and observation was
therefore used. Pilot study Prior to data collection, a pilot study was conducted in
two schools out of the total of 17schools. The pilot schools were not used in the final
study. The purpose of the pilot was to ensure that the instruments were reliable. To
ensure the validity of the instruments three judges on the topic of the study at
Maseno University were asked to examine the content in relation to the objectives
of the study. Their feedback was used to revise the instruments. Data collection
procedure Official permission to conduct the research was sought from the ministry
of education. The instruments were administered through personal visit on
appointment with school principals. The questionnaires were filled and observations
made in the schools on the day of the visit. Data analysis procedure The research
design generated qualitative data. The data was analyzed by use of descriptive

statistics on the thematic categories based on the research objectives. The data is
reported in the form of frequencies, percentages, mean and verbatim quotations to
afford despondence opportunity to speak for themselves. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Environmental factors The researcher established that environmental factors such
as art and design curriculum offered in the stream the student joined influenced the
choice of Art and design curriculum. Some schools made certain optional subjects
compulsory in particular streams such that not all the streams in the schools offered
art and design curriculum as shown in Table 1. This implied that talented students in
art and design Curriculum therefore missed such an opportunity to discover their
talents when they happened not to be admitted in streams offering the curriculum a
case causing art and design students enrollment as low as one student in form four
in some sch

Environmental Factors 1. Placement of subjects in schools 2. Ranking of Subjects 3.

Peer Influences 4. Parental Influences 5. Students Feedback 6. Nature of Talents 7.
Career Figure 1. Factors determining attitudes towards art and design curriculum.