4.

1
Recent techniques used in transmission
line pro-tection
4.1.1 Artificial Neural Network Approach
The reach accuracy of an electromechanical, static or a microprocessor based
distance relay is affected by different fault conditions and network configuration
changes. So ANN techniques are under investigation over the past 15-20 years,
which can adapt dynamically to the system operating conditions at a high speed.
The ability of ANN to learn by training any complex input/output mapping and
recognize the noisy patterns (those with desired segments missing and/or undesired segments added) gives them the powerful property of pattern recognition and
classification (Haykin, 1994). ANNs can solve the overreach and the under reach
problems which are very common in the conventional distance relay design. ANN
utilizes samples of currents and voltages directly as inputs without compu-tation of
phasors and related symmetrical components. Various kinds of neural network
such as multi-layer perceptron (MLP), recurrent, radial basis function (RBF),
probabilistic neural network etc. are being applied for fault classifica-tion and fault
location. These are designed by different training algorithms like back propagation,
orthogonal least square, extended kalman filter etc.. The use of ANNs can extend
the first zone of distance relays and enhance system security (Coury et al., 1998).
For selecting the appropriate network configurations, the performance criteria are
fault tolerance, minimal response time and generaliza-tion capabilities. ANN
approach has been used to improve some of the standard functions used in
protection of transmission lines. They have been related to fault direction
discrimination (Sidhu et al., 1995; Sidhu et al., 2004), fault detection and
classification (Dalstain et al., 1995; Kezunovic et al., 1996; Sanaye-Pasand et al.,
2006; Jain et al., 2006; Couryet al., 2002), distance protection (khaparde et al.,
1991; Coury et al., 1998; Cho et al., 1999), improvements in fault distance computation (Bouthiba, 2004; Zahra et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2000; Purushothama et
al., 2001; Tawfik et al., 2001; Ekici et al., 2009), protection of series compensated
lines (Novosel et al., 1996), adaptive distance protection(Khaparde et al., 1996;
Jongepieret al., 1997; Bhalja et al., 2007; Aggarwal et al., 1999) and adaptive reclosing (aggarwal et al., 1994).
To make the ANN responsive to time varying voltage and current waveforms different types of recurrent networks were considered that allow the hidden
units of the network to see their own previous output, so that the subsequent behavior can be shaped by previous response. Such an Elman recurrent network
designed to act as the fault direction detection module of a transmission line is

4.2

proposed by Sanaye-Pasand et al., (1998), Sanaye-Pasand et al.,

(1999). Inside these ANNs the operations that take place are not clearly
defined and hence they are not considered highly reliable. Further
development is the concept of super-vised clustering to reduce the number
of iterations in the learning process of multi layer feed forward networks
(Kezunovicetal., 1995). A neural network simulator is developed by
Venkatesan et al., (2001), to identify the optimum ANN structure required
for training the data and to implement the ANN in hardware. Still the
problem with ANNs is that no exact rule exists for th choice to the number
of hidden layers and neurons per hidden layer. So it is uncertain whether
the ANN based relay gives the optimum output, to maintain the integrity of
the boundaries of the relay characteristics. A high speed distance relaying
scheme based on radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) is
proposed by Pradhan et al., (2001), due to its ability to distinguish faults
with data falling outside the training pattern. A sequential procedure is
presented by Dash et al., (2001), for distance protection using a minimal
radial basis function neural network (MRBFNN), to determine the optimum
number of neurons in the hidden layer without resorting to trial and error.
The use of separate ANNs, for faults involving earth and not involving earth
has proved to be convenient way of classification of transmission faults
based on RBF neural networks by Mahanty et al., (2004). For simple and
reduced architec-ture and better learning capability a modular neural
network, is proposed by Lahiri et al. (2005), Pradhanetal., (2001) to

Recent techniques used in transmission line

pro-tection
d

4.1.1 Artificial Neural Network Approach

The reach accuracy of an electromechanical, static or a microprocessor based
distance relay is affected by different fault conditions and network configuration
changes. So ANN techniques are under investigation over the past 15-20 years,
which can adapt dynamically to the system operating conditions at a high speed.
The ability of ANN to learn by training any complex input/output mapping and
recognize the noisy patterns (those with desired segments missing and/or undesired segments added) gives them the powerful property of pattern recognition and
classification (Haykin, 1994). ANNs can solve the overreach and the under reach
problems which are very common in the conventional distance relay design. ANN
utilizes samples of currents and voltages directly as inputs without compu-tation of
phasors and related symmetrical components. Various kinds of neural network
such as multi-layer perceptron (MLP), recurrent, radial basis function (RBF),
probabilistic neural network etc. are being applied for fault classifica-tion and fault
location. These are designed by different training algorithms like back propagation,

orthogonal least square, extended kalman filter etc.. The use of ANNs can extend
the first zone of distance relays and enhance system security (Coury et al., 1998).
For selecting the appropriate network configurations, the performance criteria are
fault tolerance, minimal response time and generaliza-tion capabilities. ANN
approach has been used to improve some of the standard functions used in
protection of transmission lines. They have been related to fault direction
discrimination (Sidhu et al., 1995; Sidhu et al., 2004), fault detection and
classification (Dalstain et al., 1995; Kezunovic et al., 1996; Sanaye-Pasand et al.,
2006; Jain et al., 2006; Couryet al., 2002), distance protection (khaparde et al.,
1991; Coury et al., 1998; Cho et al., 1999), improvements in fault distance computation (Bouthiba, 2004; Zahra et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2000; Purushothama et
al., 2001; Tawfik et al., 2001; Ekici et al., 2009), protection of series compensated
lines (Novosel et al., 1996), adaptive distance protection(Khaparde et al., 1996;
Jongepieret al., 1997; Bhalja et al., 2007; Aggarwal et al., 1999) and adaptive reclosing (aggarwal et al., 1994).
To make the ANN responsive to time varying voltage and current waveforms different types of recurrent networks were considered that allow the hidden
units of the network to see their own previous output, so that the subsequent behavior can be shaped by previous response. Such an Elman recurrent network
designed to act as the fault direction detection module of a transmission line is

proposed by Sanaye-Pasand et al., (1998), Sanaye-Pasand et al., (1999). Inside

these ANNs the operations that take place are not clearly defined and hence they
are not considered highly reliable. Further development is the concept of supervised clustering to reduce the number of iterations in the learning process of multi
layer feed forward networks (Kezunovicetal., 1995). A neural network simulator is
developed by Venkatesan et al., (2001), to identify the optimum ANN structure
required for training the data and to implement the ANN in hardware. Still the
problem with ANNs is that no exact rule exists for th choice to the number of hidden
layers and neurons per hidden layer. So it is uncertain whether the ANN based
relay gives the optimum output, to maintain the integrity of the boundaries of the
relay characteristics. A high speed distance relaying scheme based on radial basis
function neural network (RBFNN) is proposed by Pradhan et al., (2001), due to its
ability to distinguish faults with data falling outside the training pattern. A sequential
procedure is presented by Dash et al., (2001), for distance protection using a
minimal radial basis function neural network (MRBFNN), to determine the optimum
number of neurons in the hidden layer without resorting to trial and error. The use
of separate ANNs, for faults involving earth and not involving earth has proved to
be convenient way of classification of transmission faults based on RBF neural
networks by Mahanty et al., (2004). For simple and reduced architec-ture and
better learning capability a modular neural network, is proposed by Lahiri et al.
(2005), Pradhanetal., (2001) to ddiscriminate the direction of faults for transmission line protection. Such a network considers corresponding phase/ground
voltage and current information as input and thereby the redundant inputs in conventional approaches are eliminated.[4]
The existing ANN based solutions easily converge on local minima whenever input patterns with large dimensionality are present and when designed for
specific applications, are prohibitively expensive or infeasible for real time implementations. It is observed that the ANN based distance relays need much
larger training sets and hence the training of these networks is time consum-ing
and further research work shall produce a hardware realization with proper
modification in the learning methodology and preprocessing of input data that
would improve the learning rate performance, efficiency and the reliability many
folds. Presently research efforts are in the direction of evolutionary
computational techniques such as genetic algorithms (GA) for determining the
neural network weights and thereby avoid training of ANN.

4.1.2 Fuzzy Logic and Combined Neural Network/Fuzzy

Logic Approach

4.2

Zadeh introduced the concept of fuzzy set theory in 1965 for

dealing with un-certain and ambiguous properties of events (Zadeh, 1965).

It was introduced in power system networks to solve uncertainty problems
that arise due to the contin-uously varying power system parameters. The
key benefit of fuzzy logic is that its knowledge representation is explicit,
using simple IF-THEN relations. The fuzzy set theory is used for fault type
identification on a transmission line by Ferrero et al., (1995), Das etal.,
(2005), without any computationally expensive training of ANN or expert
domain knowledge. These algorithms are fairly accurate only under certain
assumptions of fault distance, prefault power flow, fault resistance and line
length. Fuzzy sets are good at various aspects of uncertain knowledge
representation, while neural networks are efficient structures capable of
learning from examples. Neural network has the shortcoming of implicit
knowledge rep-resentation, whereas fuzzy logic systems (FLS) are
subjective and heuristic. In a fuzzy neural network (FNN), a neural network
is used to implement a fuzzy rule-based system from input/output data to
enhance the learning capabilities, plus knowledge illustration of fuzzy logic
system. Wang et al., (1998), proposed three different neuro-fuzzy networks
in series to classify the fault in transmission line protection using both
designers experiences and sample data sets. A distance re-laying scheme
based on FNN is proposed by Dash et al (2000) in which the fuzzy view
point is utilized to simply the model, but the FNNs calculate the fault distance within 80 percentage of the line. A new concept of transmission line
fault classification algorithm using a self-organized neural network based
on adaptive resonance theory (ART) with fuzzy K-nearest neighbor (K-NN)
decision rule is proposed by Vasilic et al., (2005), to improve algorithm
selectivity for avariety of real events not necessarily anticipated during
training. An algorithm is de-veloped by Yeo etal., (2003), using

Approaches to the Estimation of Lightening

per-formance of lines
4.2.1 Lightning Outage Estimation Methods

the lightening performance of transmission lines require extention of analytical

Methods of estimating modelfor the back flashover mode of insulation flashover

to include substistical distribution of current wave-shapes, grounding

parameters leader approach angle and flashover density. Moreover shielding
failure outage must alsobe estimated. Such an extenssion is beyond the scope
of thios chapter, but it will be useful in the outline the approaches.

The utility transmission engineer is vitally concern with providing a

level of transmission line reliability consistent with the load capability of the
line and its role within the transmission network, to provide an estimate of
this reliability with perticularreferance to lightening hazard, lightening
specialist have devised various system of estimating the lightening outage
rate for proposed lines to oper-ate in a specialised environment.

4.2.2 The A.I.E.E. Method

The A.I.E.E. Committee report(1950) was based on the work of Harder and
Clayton (1950) with the exceptions that a 4/40 micro second wave-shape was selected as representative of higher lightening current required for insulation
flashover. The resulting Wave-shapes of voltage across the insulation were
determined for various span length and ground resistance by injection of the
current wave into a model transmission line and measurement of the voltage by a
cathode-ray oscillo-scope. This analog computing system was called the Anacom
method. Shielding was considered effective ; with only 0.1 percentage of the
stroke assumed to re-sult in stroke to the conductor. This assumption lay at the
root of the puzzeling result that the method predicted the performance of the
some lines with uncanny accuracy, while failing completely for others.

4.2.3 AModernise Version of A.I.E.E. method

Clayton and Young (1964), taking the advantage of improved concept developed over the interverning years, modernized and extended the basic ideas of
the A.I.E.E. report and recommended separate studies to determine shielding
require-ments. Wave-fronts of 2, 4 and 6 micro seconds were employed instead
of a single value for this parameter. System voltages was taken into
consideration and the re-sponse of counterpoises was studied by means of an
analog circuit made up of pi sections. This estimation method was used very
successfully in the design stages of a EHV transmission lines.

4.2.4 Method of Limiting Parameters

Based on the work of Razevlg (1959), Alizade et al. (1968) and others,
Popolan-sky has applied this method in Popolanasky (1970) and in
Darveniza et al. (1975). The method employs independent current
amplitude and current steepness fre-quency distribution with ground

Analytical Model
of generally used Transmission
Line
resistance value serving to define bo

Shielding-failure flashovers can be reduced to rare events by providing prop-erly

shielding comductors. Even poorly located shields wires failed to intercept some of
the strokes to the line and even poorly located shield wires intercept most of the
strokes to the line and even popularly located shield wires failed to in-tercept some
of the strokes having prospective currents to earth above minimum amplitude the
design problem then consist of steps required to locate the shield wires son to
intercept strokes having prospective currents to earth above minimum amplitude. It
is convinient to an analytical model which exhibits the relations be-tween the
structural and electrical parameters of the problems. In such a model, the mean
structural dimmenssion of the of the line together with the means of striking
distance of the stroke constitute the geometrical parameters. It is desir-able that the
the base case of reference model be assimple as possible , yet yet provide for
deviations from reference assumptions by means of fig (A), adopted from Gillman
and Whitehead (1973) , illustrate the principal geometrical features

. The complete analytical model consist of geometry together with an

associated set of basic assumptions and mathematical relations .[1] and[5]

(a) The mean conductor height can Hg can be computed from the
profile Draw-ings or, alternatively, estimated for primainary purposes
from the following rela-tion : Hg =Hgt-(2/3)(Sc)
Hgt= height of conductor at the
tower ,Sc= sag of the conductor;
rolling profile
Hgr=Hgt; mountaneous profile
Hgm=2Hgt; for all cases

Hg = Hp +
27

Figure 5.1: Analytical model of transmission line

Hgt = height of the dhield wire at the tower
Ss = sag of the shield wire (b) The mean Spacing between the phase
conductor and the shield wire can be estimated from a preliminary
configuration. If none are yet avilable an estimate of
C = U(50percent)=145m
may be used for initial studies (c) The striking distance to be used is
the value corresponding to prospective current to earth of
Ioc = 2:2U(50percentage)=ZckA:

U(50percentage) = criticalimpulseflashovervoltageoftheinsulation(kV );
Zc = surge impedance of the comductor in the presence of shield wires (ohm).

(d) The striking distances are given by

R = 10Ip

0:65

::::::::::(accordingtothestandardIEEEmodelof T ransmissionline)

As leader immerges to transmission line protective theory says that the Both
Ground wire and Phase conductor produces protrctive arc around them. This protectivearcs cuts each other in space at a point terminating point. The termination

point of a lightning stroke to a transmission line can be a ground wire, a

phase conductor, a metal tower or even the ground. According to the
electro-geometrical model theory , it is able to determine the termination
point, when the striking dis-tance is known. The striking distance, r in m, is:
b

r = A:i ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::(f romeq:(4))

where A and b are constants. The striking distance is depending on the peak
current amplitude of the leader stroke it is also considered that with respect to
leader stroke current a protective plane appears above ground whose distance
from ground os given by (Kg.R) where Kg is constant given by IEEE working group
between (0.5 to 1) varies according to transmission line model.

(note : this derivation will also be work for negative shielding angle)
as we got the positions of the striking Points (Say P1 and P2) so we get
the area of striking to transmission line)
fig clearly explains the striking position of leader to variously Now
following points can be considered with respect to diagram
(1) The lightening strokes emmerges before point P1 will goes to ground
wire i.e. the transmission line has been saved
(2) If lightening strokes goes between points P1 and P2 then it will imerges
di-rectly to the phase conductor i.e. it will cause damage to the
transmission line and can harm to useful equipments.
(3) If lightening stroke immerges after point P2 then it will goes to ground
and transmission line will be saved.
From above conclusions point to be considered ti is very important to
reduce the area of gap between point P1 and P2

Figure 5.2: Area of region showing immerging llightening stroke

Chapter 6
Examples of analysis with
pracrical Transmission line
analytical structure .
6.1
Derivation for estimating the co-ordinates of
points P1 and P2
Figures below shows the typical structure of the (220kV or 400kv
transmission tower and 765kV transmission tower)
consider the analytical model structure of 220kV transmission tower as
shown in fig 6.1 in this paper. here various physical parameters are as follows:
Hg = Height of ground wire from earth Hp
= Height of phase conductor from earth

= Hg Hp
R = radius of protective arc produced by both conductor during lightening

= Shielding angle between Ground wire and phase conductor now

considering fig 7
appplying geometrical method for calculating coordinates in traiangle ABC
AB = Hg HpAnd
is shielding angle
henceBC = tan( )
30

Figure 6.1: Fig for calculating co-ordinate of P1

and by pythagoras theorem
p
2
2
2
AC = + ( tan ( )) = sec( ) now coordinates of ground wire and phace conductor are
A(0; Hg)
and
C( tan( ); Hp)
now triangle ACP1 is isoscelus triangle now
= \y + ]X

cos( ) = ( =2 sec( ))
R

(=2sec( ))
theref ore:::=cos 1(
)
=y+x
= 90 (

=cos 1(

(=2sec( ))
R

y)

) = (90 (

y))

undries be-tween amplitude and steepness resulting in insulation flashovers

and region which do not. Shielding- failure outages are estimated as a friction of
the strokes at-tracted to the line using the method of Burgsdorf (1969).

4.2.5 MonteCarlon Methods

Monte Carlo methods derive their name from the random selection of a
defined set of parameters constituting a trial, followed by the use of set of this
parameters in an analytical model to determine theoutcome of trial. The
process is applica-ble to shielding failure as well as the back flashover mode of
insulation flashover. Since there can be a large number of frequency
distribution involved, a corre-spondingly large number of trials is required to
reach convergence of the outage rate. Such methods clearly require the use of
computers having memmories and programming flexibility.
the adaptive network-based fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) for fault detection
and classification in transmission lines based on root mean square value of phase
current and zero sequence current, under a wide variety of system and fault
conditions including contingencies such as high impedance faults. In fuzzy logic
based protection system, accuracy cannot be guaranteed for wide variations in
system conditions. So consequently a more de-pendable and secure relaying
algorithm during real time implementation is needed for classifying the faults under
a variety of time-varying network configurations. The fuzzy-neuro approaches are
sensitive to system frequency changes and re-quire large training sets and a large
number of neurons affecting their accuracy and speed in protecting large power
networks.