In electronics, a logic gate is an idealized or physical device

implementing a Boolean function; that is, it performs a logical

operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces a single logical
output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic
gate, one that has for instance zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or
it may refer to a non-ideal physical device.
Logic gates are primarily implemented
using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches, but can also be
constructed using vacuum tubes, electromagnetic relays , fluidic logic,
pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements.
With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that
Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a
physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the
algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.
Logic circuits include such devices
as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer
memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors, which may
contain more than 100 million gates. In modern practice, most gates are
made from field-effect transistors (FETs),
particularly MOSFETs (metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect
transistors).
Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert
(OAI) are often employed in circuit design because their construction
using MOSFETs is simpler and more efficient than the sum of the
individual gates.
In reversible logic, Toffoli gates are used.

ELECTRONIC GATES :
To build a functionally complete logic system, relays, valves (vacuum
tubes), or transistors can be used. The simplest family of logic gates
using bipolar transistors is called resistor-transistor logic (RTL). Unlike
simple diode logic gates (which do not have a gain element), RTL gates
can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more complex logic functions.

RTL gates were used in early integrated circuits. For higher speed and
better density, the resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes resulting
in diode-transistor logic (DTL). Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) then
supplanted DTL. As integrated circuits became more complex, bipolar
transistors were replaced with smaller field-effect
transistors (MOSFETs); see PMOS and NMOS. To reduce power
consumption still further, most contemporary chip implementations of
digital systems now use CMOS logic. CMOS uses complementary (both
n-channel and p-channel) MOSFET devices to achieve a high speed with
low power dissipation.
For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated logic gates from
families of devices such as the TTL 7400 series by Texas Instruments,
the CMOS 4000 series by RCA, and their more recent descendants.
Increasingly, these fixed-function logic gates are being replaced
by programmable logic devices, which allow designers to pack a large
number of mixed logic gates into a single integrated circuit. The fieldprogrammable nature of programmable logic devices such as FPGAs has
removed the 'hard' property of hardware; it is now possible to change the
logic design of a hardware system by reprogramming some of its
components, thus allowing the features or function of a hardware
implementation of a logic system to be changed.
Electronic logic gates differ significantly from their relay-and-switch
equivalents. They are much faster, consume much less power, and are
much smaller (all by a factor of a million or more in most cases). Also,
there is a fundamental structural difference. The switch circuit creates a
continuous metallic path for current to flow (in either direction) between
its input and its output. The semiconductor logic gate, on the other hand,
acts as a high-gain voltage amplifier, which sinks a tiny current at its
input and produces a low-impedance voltage at its output. It is not
possible for current to flow between the output and the input of a
semiconductor logic gate.
Another important advantage of standardized integrated circuit logic
families, such as the 7400 and 4000 families, is that they can be
cascaded. This means that the output of one gate can be wired to the
inputs of one or several other gates, and so on. Systems with varying
degrees of complexity can be built without great concern of the designer
for the internal workings of the gates, provided the limitations of
each integrated circuit are considered.

The output of one gate can only drive a finite number of inputs to other
gates, a number called the 'fanout limit'. Also, there is always a delay,
called the 'propagation delay', from a change in input of a gate to the
corresponding change in its output. When gates are cascaded, the total
propagation delay is approximately the sum of the individual delays, an
effect which can become a problem in high-speed circuits. Additional
delay can be caused when a large number of inputs are connected to an
output, due to the distributed capacitance of all the inputs and wiring and
the finite amount of current that each output can provide.

Boolean ALGEBRA
Boolean Algebra is the mathematics we use to analyse digital gates and
circuits. We can use these Laws of Boolean to both reduce and
simplify a complex Boolean expression in an attempt to reduce the
number of logic gates required. Boolean Algebra is therefore a system
of mathematics based on logic that has its own set of rules or laws
which are used to define and reduce Boolean expressions.
The variables used in Boolean Algebra only have one of two possible
values, a logic 0 and a logic1 but an expression can have an
infinite number of variables all labelled individually to represent inputs

to the expression, For example, variables A, B, C etc, giving us a

logical expression of A + B = C, but each variable can ONLY be a 0 or
a 1.
A set of rules or Laws of Boolean Algebra expressions have been
invented to help reduce the number of logic gates needed to perform a
particular logic operation resulting in a list of functions or theorems
known commonly as the Laws of Boolean Algebra.
The basic Laws of Boolean Algebra that relate to the Commutative
Law allowing a change in position for addition and multiplication, the
Associative Law allowing the removal of brackets for addition and
multiplication, as well as the Distributive Law allowing the factoring of
an expression, are the same as in ordinary algebra.
Each of the Boolean Laws above are given with just a single or two
variables, but the number of variables defined by a single law is not
limited to this as there can be an infinite number of variables as inputs
too the expression. These Boolean laws detailed above can be used to
prove any given Boolean expression as well as for simplifying
complicated digital circuits.

Rules in Boolean Algebra :

Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra.
Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for HIGH and
Binary 0 for LOW.
Complement of a variable is represented by an over bar (-). Thus,
complement of variable B is represented as . Thus if B = 0 then
= 1 and B = 1 then = 0.
ORing of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign between
them. For example ORing of A, B, C is represented as A + B + C.
Logical ANDing of the two or more variable is represented by
writing a dot between them such as A.B.C. Sometime the dot may
be omitted like ABC.

Description of the Laws of Boolean Algebra

Annulment Law A term ANDed with a 0 equals 0 or OR
ed with a 1 will equal 1.

o A . 0 = 0 A variable ANDed with 0 is always equal to 0.

o A + 1 = 1 A variable ORed with 1 is always equal to 1.
Identity Law A term ORed with a 0 or ANDed with a
1 will always equal that term.
o A + 0 = A A variable ORed with 0 is always equal to the
variable.
o A. 1 = A A variable ANDed with 1 is always equal to the
variable.
Idempotent Law An input that is ANDed or ORed with
itself is equal to that input.
o A + A = A A variable ORed with itself is always equal to the
variable.
o A . A = A A variable ANDed with itself is always equal to the
variable.
Complement Law A term ANDed with its complement
equals 0 and a term ORed with its complement equals 1.
o A. A = 0 A variable ANDed with its complement is always
equal to 0.
o A + A = 1 A variable ORed with its complement is always
equal to 1.
Commutative Law The order of application of two separate
terms is not important.
o A. B = B . A The order in which two variables are ANDed
makes no difference.
o A + B = B + A The order in which two variables are ORed
makes no difference.
Double Negation Law A term that is inverted twice is
equal to the original term.

o A = A A double complement of a variable is always equal to

the variable.
Distributive Law This law permits the multiplying or
factoring out of an expression.
o
o

A(B + C) = A.B + A.C (OR Distributive Law)

A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A + C) (AND Distributive Law)

Absorptive Law This law enables a reduction in a

complicated expression to a simpler one by absorbing like terms.
o
o

A + (A.B) = A (OR Absorption Law)

A(A + B) = A (AND Absorption Law)

Associative Law This law allows the removal of brackets

from an expression and regrouping of the variables.
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C (OR Associate
Law)
o
A(B.C) = (A.B)C = A . B . C (AND Associate Law)
o

TYPES OF LOGIC GATES :

AND Gate
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output only if all
its input are high. A dot(.) is used to show the AND operation. i.e. A.B

Symbol

Truth Table
A

A.B

1
Boolean Expression Q = A.B

Read as A AND B gives Q

OR (Inclusive OR) Gate

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output only if one
or more of its input are high. The Plus (+) is used to show the OR
operation.

Symbol

Truth Table

Boolean Expression Q = A+B

A+B

Read as A OR B gives Q

NOT Gate
The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of
the output at its input. It is also known as inverter. If the input variable is
A, the inverted output is known as NOT A.
Symbol

Boolean Expression Q = NOT A or A

Truth Table

Read as inversion of A gives Q

In the 1980s, schematics were the predominant method to design

both circuit boards and custom ICs known as gate arrays. Today custom

ICs and the field-programmable gate array are typically designed

with Hardware Description Languages (HDL) such as Verilog or VHDL.

Distinctive shape
c

(IEEE Std 91/91a1991)

Rectangular shape
(IEEE Std 91/91a-

Boolean algebra between A &

1991

Truth table

IEC 60617-12 : 1997)

INPUT OUTPUT

A AND B

AN
D

INPUT OUTPUT

A OR B

OR

NO
T

INPUT

OUTPUT

NOT A

Summary of Logic Gates :

The following Truth Table compares the logical functions of the 2-input
logic gates above.
Inputs

Truth Table Outputs For Each Gate

AND

NAND

OR

NOR

EX-OR

EX-NOR

The following table gives a list of the common logic functions and their
equivalent Boolean notation.

Some Common Applications of Logic Gates

Under Digital Electronics During the course of discussion about
various digital logic gates, we have mainly discussed about the design,
property and operation of them. In this article we will look at various
applications of logic gates. Their applications are determined mainly
based upon their truth table i.e. their mode of operations. In the
following discussion we will look at the applications of basic logic
gates as well as many other normal logic gates as well.

Application of OR Gates :
Wherever the occurrence of any one or more than one event is needed
to be detected or some actions are to be taken after their occurrence, in
all those cases OR gates can be used. It can be explained with an
example. Suppose in an industrial plant if one or more than one
parameter exceeds the safe value, some protective measure is needed to
be done. In that case OR gate is used. We are going to show this with
the help of a diagram.

The above figure is a typical schematic diagram where an OR gate is

used to detect exceed of temperature or pressure and produce command
signal for the system to take required actions.

Application of AND Gates :

There are mainly two applications of AND gate as Enable gate and
Inhibit gate. Enable gate means allowance of data through a channel
and Inhibit gate is just the reverse of that process i.e. disallowance of
data through a channel. We are going to show an enabling operation to
understand it in an easier way. Suppose in the measurement of
frequency of a pulsed waveform. For measurement of frequency a
gating pulse of known frequency is sent to enable the passage of the
waveform whose frequency is to be measured. The diagram below
shows the arrangement of the above explained operation.

Application of NOT Gates or Inverters :

NOT gates are also known as inverter because they invert the output
given to them and show the reverse result. Now the CMOS inverters

are commonly used to build square wave oscillators which are used for
generating clock signals. The advantage of using these is they consume
low power and their interfacing is very easy compared to other logic
gates.

The above figure shows the most fundamental circuit made of ring
configuration to generate square wave oscillator. The frequency of this
type generator is given by
Where n represents the number of
inverters and tp shows the propagation delay per gate.

Universal logic gates :

The 7400 chip, containing four NANDs. The two additional pins supply
power (+5 V) and connect the ground. Charles Sanders Peirce (winter of
188081) showed that NOR gates alone (or alternatively NAND gates
alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic gates,
but his work on it was unpublished until 1933.The first published proof
was by Henry M. Sheffer in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is
sometimes called Sheffer stroke; the logical NOR is sometimes called
Peirce's arrow.
Consequently, these gates are sometimes called universal logic Gates.

The 7400 chip, containing four NANDs. The two

additional pins supply power (+5 V) and connect
the ground

Digital Logic Gates:

A Digital Logic Gate is an electronic device that makes logical decisions
based on the different combinations of digital signals present on its
inputs. Digital logic gates may have more than one input but generally
only have one digital output. Individual logic gates can be connected
together to form combinational or sequential circuits, or larger logic gate
functions.
Standard commercially available digital logic gates are available in two
basic families or forms, TTL which stands for Transistor-Transistor
Logic such as the 7400 series, and CMOS which stands for
Complementary Metal-Oxide-Silicon which is the 4000 series of chips.
This notation of TTL or CMOS refers to the logic technology used to
manufacture the integrated circuit, (IC) or a chip as it is more
commonly called.

Digital Logic Gate

Generally speaking, TTL logic ICs use NPN and PNP type Bipolar
Junction Transistors while CMOS logic ICs use complementary
MOSFET or JFET type Field Effect Transistors for both their input and
output circuitry.
As well as TTL and CMOS technology, simple Digital Logic Gates can
also be made by connecting together diodes, transistors and resistors to
produce RTL, Resistor-Transistor logic gates, DTL, Diode-Transistor
logic gates or ECL, Emitter-Coupled logic gates but these are less
common now compared to the popular CMOS family.

De-Morgan's theorems:
Before discussing De-Morgan's theorems we should know about
complements. Complements are the reverse value of the existing value.
We are trying to say that as there are only two digits in binary number
system 0 & 1. Now if A = 0 then complement of A will be 1 or A = 1
There are actually two theorems that were put forward by De-Morgan.
De Morgans theorem can be stated as follows:-

Theorem 1:
The compliment of the product of two variables is equal to the
sum of the compliment of each variable.
Thus according to De-Morgan's laws or De-Morgan's theorem if A and
B are the two variables or Boolean numbers.

 The left hand side (LHS) of this theorem represents a NAND gate
with inputs A and B, whereas the right hand side (RHS) of the
theorem represents an OR gate with inverted inputs.
This OR gate is called as Bubbled OR.

Table showing verification of the De Morgan's first theorem

Theorem 2:
The compliment of the sum of two variables is equal to the
product of the compliment of each variable.
Thus according to De Morgans theorem if A and B are the two variables
then.

The LHS of this theorem represents a NOR gate with inputs A and
B, whereas the RHS represents an AND gate with inverted inputs.

 This AND gate is called as Bubbled AND.

Table showing verification of the De Morgan's second theorem

For my project I have taken help from following sources;

1.Comprehensive (Physics Practical XII)
2.Internet - www.wikipedia.com,
www.encylopedia.com
3.NCERT Physics Textbooks
4.Dinesh (Physics Practical XII)