A Historical and Critical Survey of Recent Pedagogical Materials for the Teaching and Learning
of Jazz
Author(s): Robert Witmer and James Robbins
Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 96, Research in Jazz
Education II (Spring, 1988), pp. 7-29
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music
Education
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10
Teachingand LearningofJazz
scale exercises. There is a discussion of "basic syncopations" (includinganticipations),witha drillon "the 60 arpeggios" (p. 136).
In the second volume of the Mehegan series, Jazz Rhythmand the
formspartof a broader
ImprovisedLine (1962), discussion of rhythm
consideration of jazz styles and of the elusive phenomenon of
"swing." According to Mehegan, swing has three components:
"melodic swing," "harmonic swing," and "rhythmicswing." Fortunately,the three are not completely separated into homostatic
elements. For example, one of the twelve points comprised by
"Melodic swing" is the relationof the line to the pulse. An extensive
treatsvarious types of
descriptionof style-specificaspects of rhythm
and
tempo ranges, and
"rhythmiccounterpoint,"average tempos
ranges fornote values in the melodic line. The latteris demonstrated
by a paradigmatic transcriptionof twelve well-knownsolos over a
twelve-barblues progression.
The presentationof the materialon rhythmin this volume is problematic in thatthe approach is primarily
analyticaland thereare few
exercises forthe student.The second section of the volume,"The improvised line" (pp. 59-137), goes even furtherin this direction,conwithoutcommentary.
sistingsimplyofa numberofsolo transcriptions,
Similarilyproblematicis a two-page section (pp. 200-201) on ear
trainingand memorization.Typical of subsequent literatureas well,
the caveats about the importanceof ear trainingare belied by the
relativelack of space givento it,and the failureto integrateear trainingwiththe rest of the text.
The most impressive of the immediatesuccessors to Mehegan's
1959 and 1962 volumes is Coker's Improvising
Jazz (1964), a concise,
readable, and practical text. Many of its emphases overlap with
Mehegan: modal-chordalrelations,Roman numeral notationof progressions to standards3,a sense of "rhythmiccounterpoint,"and a
similarapprach to harmony.In addition,Coker emphasizes "motivic"
organization of melody. There is proportionatelymore attention
devoted to ear training(pp. 34-37) than in most general works.Special
attentionis given the rhythm
section (pp. 20-25), and there are exercises for group performance throughoutthe book. A chapter on
"swing" (pp. 45-49) anticipates books designed primarilyto teach
students how to properly interpretjazz charts (Niehaus, 1966;
Niehaus, 1964; Giuffre,1969) by suggesting that writtenexamples
witheighthnotes be played as tripletquarter-eighth,
withupbeat accents and "jazz articulation,"and withupbeats slurredto subsequent
downbeats. Coker furthersuggests that performancesof writtenexamples be "followedby an improvisedchorus, attemptingto carryon
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Teachingand LearningofJazz
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WitmerRobbins
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Teachingand LearningofJazz
This book does not deal with the aesthetic aspects of jazz, nor does it
cover rudimental jazz theory ... It merely presents a method of studying
scales and chords (Ricker 1977, p. 1).
We have made no attempt in the course of this text to dictate or even
discuss style or related areas like phrasing and articulation (Kynaston and
Ricci, 1978, p. 215).
This is a book of tools; itshould in no way replace the experience of actually performing music (Schenkel 1983 p.vi).
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WhileLaPorta's book is restrictedin scope, in the contextof beginningimprovisationthis may well be a virtueratherthan a defect: the
essential material on phrasing,ear training,and articulationis not
buriedin a mass of scale/chordtheory;norare beginningstudentsintimidatedbysuggestions theyliftCharlieParkersolos fromrecordings
or read Susanne Langer to get theirmusical sensibilitiestogether(cf.,
Baker 1971a, p. 11 and p. 162). Itpresents,inshort,a farmore holistic
approach than do the contemporaneous works of otherauthors.
Benward and Wildman(1984) attempta more integrativeapproach
than manyof theirpredecessors. They are perhaps representativeof
an emergingtrendin the literaturereactingto the overlyrigidthinking
that has oftendominated it in the past:
[It is not] sufficient for students to memorize changes from a number of
tunes if their improvisations on these tunes more closely reflect the contents of a scale pattern book than the possibilities withinthe original music
. . . Without the element of individuality,a formal jazz education will simply
produce regurgitated "school music tradition" and not the subtle interplay
of traditional concepts and their maturation in a personal style ... (p. xv).
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Licks
Among the more enduringmethods of teaching various types of
NorthAmerican vernacular music is the masteryof a repertoireof
shortmusical fragments,eitherforinsertionat appropriatetimes,or to
stringtogetherin orderto create a longermusical fabric.Winn'sHow
to Play Breaks and Endings (1924) featured"more than 100 novelty
jazz and blues 'breaks', endings,space 'fillers',and moderncounter
melodyforms." Readers of the April,1937 Down Beat (Vol. 4, No. 4)
were beckoned withthe advertisement,"Hey Cats, Get the Book-oLix" (p. 20). The more soberlytitledProgressiveJazz Patterns(Smith,
1972) exemplifieswhat could be termedthe puristapproach to licks:
the firstsection consists of short melodic fragmentstaken fromthe
solos of "Jazz greats," all transposed to the keyofC "so thattheycan
be pieced together"(p.i). The second section comprises "Jazz" and
"Blues Cocktails" - "constructedfromthe phrases inthe firstpartof
the book'" (p.i) - whose "ingredients" are attributedto musicians
such as Miles Davis, Joe Newman and ShortyRogers. The finalsection offersstudents opportunitiesto concoct theirown "cocktails":
chord progressionsare providedfora "Modern Jazz solo," a "Swing
Solo," a "Rock 'n' Roll Solo," and so on.
Stillmore soberlytitled,Alston's ImprovisationAnalyzed(1975) is a
late representativeof the "old school". Here, separate sections are
chordtypes(1,17, V7) and progressions
devoted to licksover different
(ii-V).A similarformatis foundin some of Baker's books (1979b and
1979c). Alstonincludes some patternsbuilton fourths,notassociated
with particularchord types, and provides "Rhythm" changes and
blues changes (in C) forthe applicationof the licks.
materials
Whilethe "lick" approach is stillprevalentin instructional
individual
instruments
on
with
(space does not
improvisation
dealing
it lost
of
of
this
extensive
examination
an
materials),
category
permit
ground duringthe sixties to the chord/scale approach in the books
Perhaps forthat reason, Coldesigned foruse by all instrumentalists.
Iverprefaced his 100 Jazz Cliches (1972) withthis defense:
Cliches are a vital part of improvisationas they can 'bail you out1when
The 'language' ofjazz is based a great
originalideas are notforthcoming.
and melodiccliches, therefore,theyare always accepdeal upon rhythmic
table and can oftenbe passed offas originalideas ifdone tactfully
(1972,
P. 1).
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Teachingand LearningofJazz
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Conclusions
Earlyinthisarticlewe dweltat some lengthon the firsttwovolumes
ofthe Megegan series, because theyexhibitmostofthe strengthsand
weaknesses foundin books which have followedthem,and similarity
of presentation.Amongthese salient features are the following:
1. Heavy emphasis on "tonal principles,"approached via the twinroutes
of chords and scales, the latterusuallydescribed withmodal terminology
(e.g., Mehegan) or, more rarely,withreferenceto Russell (e.g., Baker). Exercises are usuallymechanical, beginningon rootsand downbeats and using perpetual motion or eighth notes sprinkledwith tripletsor quarter
notes to make the exercises repeatable at a bar-line.Followingsuch exercises, some licks may be presented. Nonmodal scales are usuallygiven,
especially the diminished,whole-tone and some version of a "blues
scale." The exercises forthese scales conformas much as possible to
those givenforthe modal scales, while"blues scale" exercises tendto be
more lick-oriented.
and "swing," generallywithfarless
2. Some general discussion of rhythm
space and farfewerexercises thanfor"tonal principles."(Mehegan is exbut not in the contentof exerceptional in the space devoted to rhythm,
patternsof a
cises.) Such exercises as thereare take the formof rhythmic
few bars, and perhaps some systematic presentation of syncopated
quarter notes.
3. Some discussion of typicalprogressions.Often,this is presented with
extensive examples of lines forii-V-land blues progressions. More often,
thereare arpeggios and scales startingon the rootsof such progressions,
laboriouslywrittenout in all keys.(Mehegan is again exceptional inbasing
so manyexercises on standard tunes.)
4. Transcribed examples of solos, often with very littlecommentary
beyond "analyze this and use what you can fromit in yoursolos."
5. A very brief section on ear training.(Later books often suggest
transcriptionand call-response exercises, which are absent from
Mehegan.)
6. Beyondthe "meat and potatoes" ofchord/scalerelationsand basic progressions,theremaybe foundthe occasional "condiment"ofthe author's
insight.This, in Mehegan's case, is exemplifiedby his treatmentof interpretationof commercial sheet music for the purpose of soloing (i.e.,
harmony,rationalizingharmonic rhythm,altering meter
simplifying
on
few
ideas
be
a
it
201
Elsewhere,
phrasing
186,
may
165,
1959, pp.
ff.).
or articulation,advice on expressive effects,shaping solos, group interaction, developing ideas, and so on. The quality, usefulness, and
thoroughnessof these musical "relishes" varies dramatically.
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needed are more thorough,exhortative,well-explicatedand programmed approaches thanare presentlyavailable to teach studentshow to
do all of this: whatto listenfor;how to avoid a mindless or obsessive
(and time-consuming)'transcriptionhabit' and instead transcribepurposefully;how to absorb, apply (and transform)the aural and visual
stimuliof recordingsand transcriptions.
The factthatestablished jazz
musicians have oftenbeen heard to mutter"school jazz" when adjazz musijudicatingthe effortsof high school or college/university
cians is to some extenta tellingindicationof the inadequacies in the
students'training.Authorsofjazz methodbooks have beforethemthe
challenge of attendingmore conscientiouslyto these inadequacies.
Footnotes
1For more extensive bibliographiccoverage, we direct the reader to Meadows 1981
(items 2350-2563) and Kuzmich's "An annotated surveyof Dazz] teaching materials,"
which has appeared on a more-or-lessregularbasis in columnarformin the National
Association ofJazz Educators Journal- laterretitledJazz Educators Journal- since
the April-May1975 issue.
2For example, Mehegan employs a combinationof Roman numeraland figuredbass
chord notation,at variance withtypicaljazz notation(see Witmer,n.d.). While such
notationsare of value in certaincontexts,theyhave provenquite impracticalas vehicles
forjazz performance,and have been entirelysupplantedby the chord symbolsystem
diminished
(see Brandtand Roemer, 1976). The practicalvalue ofthisnotationis further
in Mehegan's materialsby his adherence to the common practice of needlessly writing
all transpositions(e.g., the "60 chords," 1959, p. 11).
3lnCoker's book, unlikeMehegan's chord progressionsto standards are not identified
by title.
4A briefRezeptionsqeschichte of Russell's theorymay be foundin Robbins n.d.
5We are followingRussell's terminologyin the use of the expression "lydianscale".
6Anexception among theoristsis Dick Grove,whose massivelypadded four-volume
Encyclopedia of Basic Harmonyand TheoryApplied to Improvisationon All Instruments
deals not only with progressions (1971b), but also with scale exercises (1975) and
chord/scalerelations(1971a) presented ina mannerreminiscentof "paint-by-numbers"
kits.
7Similarmusical thinking
is foundoutside of the NorthAmericanvernaculartradition,
of
course: one of many examples is the proliferation,
in the late-eighteenthcentury,of
"compose by dice" books (see Hedges, 1978).
aConversely,itshould be noted here that Baker,Aebersold,Coker,et al, have probably
had some influencein stimulatingthe development of 'patternplaying' in 1960s-80s
jazz.
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9Here,foronce, jazz scholars have not been caught "withtheirpants down". Sargeant
of
a blues scale, abstracted fromactual performances,thatwas a typification
identified
melodic tendencies, as early as 1938 (Sargeant, 1975, pp. 147-172).
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29
COMING
SPECIAL ISSUE ON CRITIQUE AND ARTICLE WRITING
One of the most popular articles ever printedin the Bulletin
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