Opera Grove

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Opera
Opera
(It.,fromLat.opera,pluralofopus:workFr.opraGer.Oper).
Thepresentarticlesurveystheoriginsandthehistoryofoperaandits
presentation.Forfullerdiscussionofthehistoryofindividualsubgenresand
relatedgenres,thereaderisreferredtotheentrieslistedbelow.Discussionof
operahousesandoperaticactivityinparticularcitieswillbefoundinentriesonthe
citiesconcerned,andoftheworksofindividualcomposerswithintheirentries.
SeealsoAzioneteatraleBalladoperaBalletdecourBallethroqueBurlesque
BurlettaChamberoperaComdieballetDivertissementDramelyriqueDramma
giocosoDrammapermusicaEntreExtravaganzaFarsaFavolainmusica
FestateatraleFilmmusicalGrandopraIntermdeIntermedioIntermezzo(ii)
JesuitsLehrstckLibrettoLiederspielMadrigalcomedyMrchenoperMasque
MedievaldramaMelodramaMelodrammaMonodramaMusicalMusicdrama
MusictheatreNumberoperaOpraballetOprabouffonOperabuffaOpra
comiqueOpraferieOperasemiseriaOperaseriaOperettaPantomime
PasticcioPastoralPastoralehroquePossePuppetopera,puppettheatre
RappresentazionesacraRescueoperaSaineteSchuldramaSchuloperSemi
operaSepolcroSerenataSingspielSpieloperTonadillaTourneyTragdieen
musiqueVaudevilleVerismoZarzuelaZauberoperandZeitoper.
I.Opera
II.Origins
III.Earlyopera,160090
IV.The18thcentury
V.The19thcentury
VI.The20thcentury
VII.Production
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HOWARDMAYERBROWN(I,II),ELLENROSAND(III),REINHARDSTROHM
(withMICHELNOIRAY)(IV),ROGERPARKER(V),ARNOLDWHITTALL(VI),
ROGERSAVAGE(VII,15),BARRYMILLINGTON(VII,6,7)
Opera
I.Opera
Mostnarrowlyconceived,thewordoperasignifiesadramainwhichtheactors
file:///home/amed/Documentos/Documents/Libros/Libros%20M%C3%BAsica/Grove/Entries/S40726.htm
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singthroughout.Thereare,however,somanyexceptionsamongtheoperatic
worksoftheWestsomanyworkspopularlycalledoperasinwhichsomeparts
arespokenormimedthatthewordshouldbemoregenericallydefinedasa
dramainwhichtheactorssingsomeoralloftheirparts.Numeroussubgenres,
suchasoperaseria,operabuffa,tragdieenmusiqueandthelike,havegrownup
inthehistoryofopera(informationaboutthesesubgenreswillbefoundin
separateentries).Someofthesubgenresmixspokenandsungdramain
conventionalways.Thus,inoperetta,Singspiel,opracomiqueandmusical
comedythedialogueisnormallyspokenandmusicalnumbersinterrupttheaction
fromtimetotime.Thehistoryofoperaisinextricablyintertwinedwiththehistoryof
spokendrama.Moreover,sincealloperaticworkscombinemusic,dramaand
spectacle,thoughinvaryingdegrees,allthreeprincipalelementsshouldbetaken
intoaccountinanycomprehensivestudyofthegenre,eventhoughmusichas
traditionallyplayedthedominantroleintheconceptionandrealizationofindividual
works.
ThecentralimportanceofItalianmusiciansandpoetsinthedevelopmentand
earlyhistoryofoperaissuggestedbythefactthatthewordoperameanssimply
workinItalianandassuchwasappliedtovariouscategoriesofwrittenor
improvisedplaysinthe16thandearly17thcenturies.Tocitebutoneexample
arbitrarily,FrancescoAndreinisplayLingannataProserpina(1611)accordingto
itsdedicationintendedtobeeitherrecitedorsungdependingonthewishesofits
producerswascalledanoperarappresentativa,escenica.Theearliestoperas
eitherhadnogenericsubtitle(likeOttavioRinuccinisDafneof1598andhis
Euridiceof1600)orelseadoptedoneoranotheradhocdefinition:favola,opera
scenica,tragediamusicale,operatragicomicamusicale,drammamusicaleorthe
like(seeRosand,C(i)1991).Ithasbeensuggested(byGrout,A1947,andPirrotta,
LidueOrfei)thateitherthetermoperascenicaorthetermoperaregia(thelatter
meaningadramawithroyalprotagonistsandahappyending,atermappliedto
variouscommediadellartescenariosaswellastoMonteverdisLincoronazionedi
Poppeaof1643)mightbetheoriginoftheusagethatdefinesoperaasa
specificallymusicodramaticwork.Inthesecondthirdofthe17thcentury,
however,drammapermusicabecamethenormaltermforopera,althoughin
Englandthewordoperawasusedinthiswayasearlyasthe1650stomeana
dramaticworksettomusic(G.Strahle:AnEarlyMusicDictionary:MusicalTerms
fromBritishSources,15001740,Cambridge,1995JohnEvelynusedthetermin
1644).Nevertheless,theuseofthewordoperawiththismeaningseemstohave
developedonlygraduallyitbecamewidespreadmuchlaterthantheinventionand
earlydevelopmentofthegenre.
Opera
II.Origins
1.Background,precursors.
2.Immediateorigins.
Opera,III:Earlyopera160090
1.Background,precursors.
MusicwasinsertedintoplaysasearlyasancientGreektimes.Choralsongs,
performedonoccasiontotheaccompanimentofmimeticdancing,servedtodivide
theplayintosectionsandcommentedontheactioninancientGreektragedyand
comedy.Duringthe16thcentury,whenGreekdramacametoserveasamodelfor
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certainaspectsofmusicaltheatre,scholarsdebatedthepossibilitythattheplays
weresungfrombeginningtoend,aspeculationlongsinceabandoned,althoughit
seemsprobablethatsomeportionsofGreekplaysotherthanthechoralinterludes
mayalsohavebeensungoratleastdeclaimedmusically,bysoloistsor
ensemblesofsingers.Thetraditionofincludingmusicasanintegralpartof
theatricalactivitiescontinuedandevenexpandedinRomantimes.Withthe
destructionoftheRomantheatresinthe6thcentury,however,alltraceofofficial
theatricalactivity,musicalorotherwise,disappearedfromthearchivalrecords.
Professionalentertainersmimi,histriones,joculatoresandthelikecontinuedto
performplaysandskitswhichcombinedmusicwithactingduringtheearlyMiddle
Ages,thoughthereisonlyfragmentaryevidenceofthis.
Avastcorpusofmedievaldramawithmusicsurvives.Itcanberoughlydivided
intotwokinds:socalledliturgicaldrama(seeMedievaldrama),andvernacular
playswithincidentalmusic.Somepartsofthesacredservicecametobe
dramatizedinordertomaketheeventsdepictedandespeciallytheResurrection
ofChrist,hisNativity,andtheeventsleadinguptoitmorevividandimmediate.
Theseliturgicalandparaliturgicaldramas,whetherperformedinchurchaspartof
aserviceorsomewhereelse,weresunginchantfrombeginningtoend.Forthis
reasontheyhavebeencalledthefirstmusicdramas,thoughitshouldbestressed
thatthevariousrepertoriesofreligiousdialogues,ceremoniesandplaysfromthe
MiddleAgesarefarfromhavingcommonoriginsorasinglecontinuoushistory.
Similarlydiverseinorigin,destinationandnaturearethevarioussortsofplayin
thevernacularthatsurvivefromasearlyasthe13thcentury,thoughmost
copiouslyfromthe15thand16thcenturies.Ontheonehand,vastmedieval
mysteryandmoralityplaysthatoftenlastedseveraldayswereorganizedbytowns
forthepurposesofbothreligiouscelebrationandcommercialgain.Ontheother
hand,duringthe15thand16thcenturies,troupesofprofessionalactors,members
ofvariousguilds,andevenamateursperformedamoremodestrepertoryof
comediesandshortplaysforavarietyofoccasionsinmanycountriesofwestern
Europe.Boththelongreligiousplaysandtheshortercomediesmadeuseofmusic
asanincidentalpartoftheaction.Indeed,thisuseofmusicisoneofthefew
thingsbothkindsofplayhaveincommon.Onlyrarelydidmusicplayalargerrole
invernaculardrama.AdamdelaHallesJeudeRobinetMarion,forexample,
writtenduringthe1280s,isanexceptioninincorporatingsomanymelodies(most
ofthempresumablypreexisting)intoitsaction.
Noneoftheseearlymusicaldramaticactivitiesseemstohavebeenconnected
historically.Nosinglegrandnarrativecanbewrittentolinkmedievaldramatothe
historyof16thcenturyItaliancomedyandtragedy,letalonetotheeventsthatled
totheinventionofoperaintheearly17thcentury.ThehistoryofItalianupperclass
theatreintheRenaissanceshouldprobablybeginwiththeseriesofclassicalplays
performedattheFerraresecourtinthelate15thandearly16thcenturies,and
especiallytheperformancesofcomediesbyPlautusandTerencethatbecame
modelsformanyoftheeruditewrittencomediesduringthecentury.Thesecourtly
performancesofclassicalplayswerecommissionedbythedukeandactedbythe
courtiersthemselves.Laterinthecentury,eruditeneoclassicalcomediescameto
beperformedbyamateurs,bymembersofthelearnedacademiesthatflourished
duringthecentury,orevenbythoseprofessionaltroupesofactorswhowere
betterknownfortheirabilitytoimprovisecomedies,thesocalledcommedie
dellarte(seeCommediadellarte).
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Learnedcomedywas,ofcourse,nottheonlygenrecultivatedinItalyduringthe
15thand16thcenturies.Sacrerappresentazioni,churchpageantsenlivenedwith
music(muchofitrelatedtolaude),flourishedtheymayevenhavehadan
importantinfluenceontheestablishmentofthepastoralasagenre,orontheidea
ofvernaculardramawithmusic,butthoseconnectionshaveyettobesolidly
established.Arepertoryofrusticplaysfeaturingpeasantsandothermembersof
thelowerclassesalsocametobewrittenandperformed.Eventually,too,the
genreoftragedywascultivated.
Someexceptionalplaysdidnotfitcomfortablywithinanyoftheprincipalgenres.
AngeloPolizianosOrfeo,performedatthecourtinMantuaabout1480,wassuch
anexception.Polizianocalleditafavola.Musicplayedacentralpart.Noneofit
survives,probablybecauseitwasnotlearnedwrittenmusicbutbelongedrather
tothetraditionofimprovisedorsemiimprovisedmusiccultivatedbyItalianpoet
musiciansinthe15thcentury.Onesuchpoetmusician,BaccioUgolini,playedthe
roleofOrpheusandaccompaniedhimselfonthelira,almostcertainlythelirada
braccio.InadditiontoUgolinissolosections,therewereseveralchoruses.Ithas
beenarguedpersuasivelythatthereissomeconnectionbetweenUgolinis
performanceandthephilosopherMarsilioFicinosOrphicsingingtothelyre,ifnot
betweenFicinosideasandPolizianosplay(Tomlinson,B1988).Inanycase,
PolizianosOrfeowasanimportantlandmarkintheprehistoryofopera,notso
muchforitsformoritsinfluenceasforitssymbolicsignificanceasahighlymusical
playoutsidetheAristoteliangenres(itwasneithertragedynorcomedy)thatdealt
withthepowerofmusicinaclassicalsetting.
Opera,III:Earlyopera160090
2.Immediateorigins.
Thetraditionalviewoftheoriginsofoperathatitdevelopeddirectlyfrom
discussionsinthe1570sledbyCountGiovannideBardiofFlorenceandhis
groupoffriendswhoconstitutedaninformalacademyknownastheCamerata,
andfromlaterdiscussionsinthecirclearoundJacopoCorsiremainsthebest
narrativeoftheeventsleadingdirectlytothefirstoperas:RinuccinisDafneof
1598withmusicbyJacopoPeriandJacopoCorsi,RinuccinisEuridiceof1600,
setbyPeriandbyGiulioCaccini,andGabrielloChiabrerasIlrapimentodiCefalo
of1600,setbyCaccini.(EmiliodeCavalierisRappresentationediAnima,etdi
Corpoof1600shouldalsobeincludedinthisgroupofearlydramaticworks,even
thoughitwasperformedinRomeandbyvirtueofitssubjectmatterisregardedas
thefirstexampleoforatorio.)AmongthemanytopicsdiscussedbyBardiandhis
friends,musicoccupiedanimportantplace,andspecificallythenatureofancient
Greekmusicandthesourceofitsemotivepower.Moreover,variousexperiments
inwritinganappropriatelydramaticmusicweremadeinFlorenceattheendofthe
century,mostnotablyVincenzoGalileislostsettingsoftheLamentationsforHoly
WeekandascenefromDante,andLauraGuidiccionisthreepastoralssetto
music,alsolost,byEmiliodeCavalieri.
Nevertheless,afullaccountofhowoperacameintoexistenceandhowitcameto
takepreciselytheformitdidneedstoconsideranumberofother16thcentury
developments,amongthem:(1)thehistoryofmusicineruditecomedy,and
especiallythenatureandroleoftheintermedi,themusicalcompositions,
sometimessungtotheaccompanimentofstageactionordancing,thatclosed
eachact(seefig.1)(2)thenatureofmusicin16thcenturytragedies,and
especiallyofthechorusesthatdividedthescenes(3)thedebateaboutgenres
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thatengrossedliterarycirclesin16thcenturyItaly,andespeciallythedebateabout
thenatureofthepastoral,sincepastoralecloguesservedasaprincipalmodel
(perhapstheprincipalmodel)fortheearliestoperasand(4)thenatureofthe
otherkindsofmusicwrittenforstagedorsemistagedpresentationatcourts,
academies,civiccelebrationsandthelikeshorterstagedscenesanddialogues
thathavenoagreedupongenericdesignation,althoughtheywerewidespreadin
16thcenturyItaly.Inaddition,weshouldtakeintoaccountnotonlytheactivitiesof
courtmusiciansandsingers,andthoseemployedasmusicianstomembersofthe
highestreachesofsociety,butalsocommediadellarteplayerswhofulfilledan
importantthoughnotasyetcompletelyunderstoodfunctioninthehistoryofItalian
musicaltheatre.
Asidefromthefewsongsintroducednaturalisticallyintotheplotsofvariousplays,
musicin16thcenturyeruditecomedyconsistedmainlyofmadrigals(orinsome
casesinstrumentalmusic),whichclosedeachact.Atsomeperformancesthe
musicianswerehiddenbehindthestage,butmoreoftentheyappearedonstage
tosingandsometimestodance.Inmanycases,theseintermedididnothingmore
thanmarkthepassingoftime,asinVerdelotsintermedimadrigalsfor
MachiavellisLaMandragolaandLaClizia,oneoftheveryfewsetsofnormal
madrigalesqueintermeditosurvive(someofthesamemusicservedforboth
plays).Inmanycases,themadrigalsusedasintermedimaynothavebeenwritten
specificallyforthatpurpose(oratleastnotforparticularplaysorperformances)it
sufficedthatthetextsdealtwithapproximatelytherightsubjectmatter.There
seemsnottohavebeenaparticulartheatricalstylethatdistinguishedthese
madrigalsfromothers,butitisdifficulttobepreciseaboutthis,sincesolittlemusic
survivesforthetextsthatappearinmanyplaybooks.
Forgreatoccasions,andespeciallyweddingswithintheMedicifamilyinFlorence,
moreelaborateintermediwerestagedbetweentheactsofaplay.Inthesecourtly
intermedi,severalmusicalcompositionswereperformedbetweentheacts,and
theywereaccompaniedbystageaction,includingelaboratemachinesand
dancing.Detaileddescriptionsofsomeofthesegrandoccasionswerepublished,
andatleasttwosetsofpartbooksincludethemusiccomposedespeciallyforthe
events:thosecommemoratingtheweddingin1539ofCosimoIdeMediciwith
EleonoraofToledo,andthosecommemoratingtheweddingin1589ofFerdinando
IdeMediciwithChristineofLorraine(seefig.1).Courtlyintermedididnothave
plots,butmanyofthemwerecentredonacommontheme,oftenpastoralor
mythologicalincharacter.Grandcourtlyintermediwerethemostimpressive
examplesofmusicaltheatreofthe16thcentury.
Themostfamousandprobablythemostelaborateintermedioftheentirecentury
werethoseorganizedfortheMediciweddingof1589,performedbetweentheacts
ofGirolamoBargagliscomedyLapellegrina.TheyweredevisedbyCountde
Bardiaroundthethemeofthepowerofmusicintheancientworld(thesubjectof
manydiscussionsoftheCamerata),directedbyCavalieri,andcomposedbyPeri,
Caccini,MarenzioandothercomposersoftheMedicicircle.The1589
performancewasaseminaleventforthehistoryofmusicaltheatre,eventhough
themusicitselfdidnotdifferincharacterverymuchfromregularmadrigalsor
lighterItaliansecularforms.Thesixintermediweresungthroughout,mostlyby
soloistsincludingPeriandCacciniandthethirdofthem,treatingthestoryof
Apolloandthepython,isadirectprecursorofthefirstopera,Dafne,adecade
later.Butthemusicof1589doesnotrepresentanyadvancetowardsanoperatic
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style,thatis,akindofmusicappropriateforsettingdramaticdialogue.
Whereastheintermedihavebeenwellstudiedandperformed,musicfor16th
centurytragediesismuchlesswellknown,atleastpartlybecausesolittleofit
survives,andpartlybecausethesurvivingmusic,notablyAndreaGabrielismusic
forEdipotiranno(OrsattoGiustinianisadaptationoftheOedipusofSophocles),
whichopenedtheTeatroOlimpicoinVicenzain1585,seemssounimpressive.
Virtuallyevery16thcenturytragedyincludeslongchorusestodividetheaction,
and16thcenturycommentatorsseemtomakeadistinctionbetweenthesesortsof
chorusandintermedi.TojudgefromGabrielisexample,chorusesfortragedies
weresettoamusicsimpleenoughtoallowthewordstobeheardeasilybythe
audience.However,producersandcomposersdevisedvarioussolutionstothe
problemofanappropriatemusicfortragedyanexampleisNortonand
Sackville'sGorboducproducedinLondonin1562andinmanycasesmayhave
organizedmusicindistinguishablefromthatappropriateforintermedi.
Theroleofmusicintragedy,comedyandpastoral(thethreeprincipaldramatic
genresofthelate16thcentury)wasdiscussedbyanumberofwritersondramatic
theoryandpracticeinthe16thand17thcenturies,notablyLeonedeSommi
(B1556),AngeloIngegneri(B1598),theanonymousauthorofIlcorago(Bc1630)
andG.B.Doni(B1630).SommiandIngegneriwrotemostlyaboutintermediand
tragicchoruseswithsomeconsiderationofincidentalmusic,IlcoragoandDoni
aboutoperaticworks.WhereastheauthorofIlcoragowishedtoofferadviceabout
howbesttocomposeandproduceopera,Doni,asanantiquarianconcerned
aboutthenatureofmusicinancientGreekandRomantheatre,criticizedthenew
genreonthegrounds(amongotherthings)ofmonotonyandlackofverisimilitude
andadvocatedinsteadajudiciousmixtureofspeechandsong,thesongreserved
chieflyformonologuesandchoruses.
Suchdiscussionsofdramaticpracticetookplaceagainstalongstandingliterary
debateaboutgenres,andespeciallyabouttheproprietyofthenewmixedgenres
oftragicomedyandpastoral,unknowntoAristotleandhencesuspectintheeyes
of16thcenturyintellectuals,debateschronicledinWeinbergsmagisterialstudyof
literarycriticismintheItalianRenaissance(B1961).Thenewpastoraldrama,
includingsuchfamousliterarylandmarksasAgostinoBeccarisIlsacrificio:favola
pastorale(1555),TassosAminta:favolaboscareccia(1573)andGuarinisIlpastor
fido:tragicomediapastorale(writtenc158085),madeuseofanunusuallylarge
amountofmusic.Ilsacrificio,forexample,includedasceneinwhichpriests
chantedinakindofrecitativeandwereansweredbyachorus(onlythevocalpart
ofafragmentofthemusic,byAlfonsodallaViola,survives)andIlpastorfido
includedafamousblindmansbuffscene(thesocalledGiuocodellacieca)with
singinganddancing.
Theseplaysareimportantprecursorsofopera,sincediscussionsaboutthem
overlappedandintersectedwiththediscussionsthatledtothefirstoperas.
Certainlythefirstoperascameaboutpartlyasaresultofdebateaboutthekindof
musicmostappropriateforthepastoralgenre.Thepastoralplayslikethoselisted
abovedidnot,however,serveasmodelsfortheearliestoperaticlibrettos.Thefirst
operas,instead,seemtohavebeenmodelledonthemuchshorterpastoral
eclogues,of500700verses,whichputintodramatic(andusuallyamorous)
conflictshepherdsandshepherdesses,nymphsandsatyrsandgodsand
goddesses.Mostecloguesarequitestaticdramaticallyandevidentlyderivefrom
thelongtraditionofcourtlyentertainment.Intruth,though,thestudyoftheliterary
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climateinItalyinthelate16thcentury,andofgenresanddebatesaboutgenre,
hashardlybeenexhausted,especiallyasthesequestionsrelatetomusicand
musicians.
Thestagedentertainmentsthathadenlivenedcourtlife(andalsoacademicand
civiclife)forcenturiesprovidedyetanothercontributingelementtothediverse
mixtureoftraditionsandgenresthatestablishedthecharacterofearlyopera.
Mascherateandmoreschealreadyhadavenerablehistorybythesecondhalfof
the16thcentury.Entertainmentsinwhichmaskedsingersanddancersinterrupted
abanquetoraballaredescribedbyvariouschroniclersfromatleastthe14th
century.Inthelate16thcentury,shorttableauxweresometimesofferedas
entertainmentinupperclasssociety.Theyarecalledbyavarietyofnames
(includingmoreschaandmascheratabutalsofavolapastorale,favola,balloor
simplyfiesta,amongothers)thereisnogenericdescriptivetermforsuch
entertainments.Madrigalcomedies,forexample,surelybelonginthiscategory,
especiallysinceithasbeenshown(byM.Farahat,EMH,x,1991,pp.12343)that
someofthesecyclesofpolyphonicmadrigals,canzonettasandvillanellaswere
actuallystagedinprivaterooms.(Manymadrigalcomediesincludecharactersand
dramaticsituationsderivedfromcommediadellartemostofthemwerewrittenfor
performanceinacademies.)Moresquarelyinthetraditionofcourtly
entertainments,though,werethethreescenesbyLauraGuidiccioni,includingthe
blindmansbuffscenefromIlpastorfido,settomusic,nowlost,byCavalieri,
performedinFlorenceinthe1590sortheshorterdramaticworksofMonteverdi
likeIlballodelleingrate,TirsieCloriandtheCombattimentodiTancredie
Clorinda.
Operacanthusbeseenasagenrethatgrewoutofliterarydiscussioninhigh
society.Butanothertraditionthatwentintomakingopera,thatofthecommedia
dellarte,shouldnotbeexcludedfromconsideration(asPirrotta,LidueOrfei,has
pointedout).Duringthesecondhalfofthe16thcentury,severalprofessional
actingtroupestouredItaly,performingnotonlytheirownspecialrepertoryof
improvisedorsemiimprovisedplayswithstockcharactersbutalsowritten
comediesandotherkindsofplay.Althoughscholarshavebeeninclinedto
characterizecommediadellarteplayersasonlysemiliterateartisans,thetruthis
thatmanyoftheactorswerehighlyeducated,highlyliterateandhighlymusical.
IsabellaAndreini,forexample,theleadingladyofthetroupecalledIGelosi,wasa
poet,authorofapastoraleclogue,memberofanacademyandanaccomplished
linguistandmusicianandMonteverdisfirstAriadneinhismostlylostopera
Arianna(1608)wasanactor.Moreover,commediadellarteplaysinfluencedthe
formandstyleofsomeoperalibrettostowardsthemiddleofthe17thcentury
(BianconiandWalker,C(i)1975),andtroupesofprofessionalactorssometimes
performedopera.Closerinvestigationisneededofthemusicalorientationofthe
commediadellarteplayersingeneralandtheirconnectionwithoperainparticular.
TherewasavastamountofdramaticmusicheardinItalyinthe16thcentury,and
alargeliteratureofdebateanddiscussionaboutit.Allthisactivitycontributedto
musiciansideasofwhatanappropriatemusicforthetheatreshouldbe.The
crucialchangefromcourtlyentertainmenttooperacameaboutwhenakindof
musicappropriatefordramaticdialoguewasinvented,byCaccini,Cavalieri,
VincenzoGalileiorPeri(allofthemclaimedcredit).Theoverallshapeofthe
earliestoperas,DafneandthetwoEuridicesettings(aswellasMonteverdis
Orfeo),wasdeeplyinfluencedbyearliertraditions,atleastinthatscenedivisions
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wereclosedoffbylargeintermedichorusesandtheirsubjectmatterwas
determinedafterextensiveliterarydebateaboutgenre,ancienthistoryandthe
natureofmusicspower.
Opera
III.Earlyopera,160090
Operainthe17thcenturydevelopedinthreephases.Thefirst,humanistcourt
opera(160035),closelylinkedtoItalianRenaissancetraditionsofcourt
entertainment,wasplayedoutinthearistocraticpalacesofFlorence,Mantuaand
Rome.Thesecond,drammapermusica(1637c1680),definedbythegeneric
subtitlethatbecamecurrentinlibrettosatmidcentury,wasstagedinthepublic
theatresofVenice.Inthethird,Europeanspectacle(165090),whichoverlapped
thesecondandinvolvedthedisseminationofthenewgenrethroughoutItalyand
acrosstheAlps,drammapermusicaadaptedtolocalpoliticalandsocial
conditions,intheatresbothpublicandprivate.
Contemporarycriticalcommentaryeffectivelyarticulatedtheaestheticprinciplesof
theartandhelpstodistinguishthevariousphasesofitsdevelopment.Writingat
theendofthefirstphase,G.B.Doni(Trattatodellamusicascenica,B1630)and
especiallytheanonymousauthorofIlcorago(Bc1630)exploredthebasicissueof
verisimilituderaisedbytherequirementofspeakinginsong(recitarcantando)
andofferedguidelinesforthechoiceofappropriatesubjectmatter(pastoral),
characters(gods,musicians)andpoeticstyle(varietyofmetres,versisciolti).The
JesuitpriestG.D.Ottonelli(Cristianamoderazionedelteatro,1652)distinguished
thedifferentphasesbytheirpatronageandimpliedfunction:thearistocraticphase
performedinthepalacesofgreatprincesandothersecularorecclesiasticallords
orproducedsometimesbycertaingentlemenortalentedcitizensorlearned
academiciansandthecommercialproductionsofamusicalanddramaticnature
putonbyprofessionalmusicians,whoperformedinpublictheatres.Finally,the
DalmatiancanonCristoforoIvanovich,inMemorieteatralidiVenezia(1681),a
treatisedevotedexclusivelytothedevelopmentofpublicoperainVenice,
epitomizeditsrelationtocourtoperainsocioeconomicterms:Venetiantheatres
areinnowayinferiortothosesupportedbyprinces,exceptthatinthose
enjoymentdependsontheprince'sgenerosity,whereasintheseitisamatterof
business.
1.Humanistcourtopera.
2.Drammapermusica.
3.Europeanspectacle.
Opera,IV:The18thcentury
1.Humanistcourtopera.
(i)Florence.
Humanistoperaemergedaround1600inFlorenceastheculminationofaseries
ofspectacularentertainmentsdesignedtocelebratethedynasticimageofthe
Medici,mostfamouslytheweddingintermediof1589(fig.1),inwhichalmostall
thefiguresassociatedwiththefirstoperaswereinvolved:Giovannide'Bardias
stagedirector,whoorganizedtheentertainmentandcomposedonechorus,Emilio
de'Cavalieriasmusicaldirectorandchoreographer,whowrotesomeofthemusic,
OttavioRinuccini,authorofmostofthetext,andthecomposersJacopoPeriand
GiulioCaccini,whosangintheproductionandcontributedonenumberapiece.
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Thesewereamongtheparticipantsintheacademicdiscussionsestablishingthe
aestheticpremisesofthenewart.Beginninginthe1560sintheAccademiadegli
Alteratiandcontinuingforseveraldecades,firstinBardi'ssocalledCamerataand
thenatthepalaceofJacopoCorsi,theirdiscussionsinvestigatedthenatureof
ancienttragedyandthecontributionofmusictoitslegendaryeffect.Theiraimwas
torecreateamodern,whollysungdramathatwascomparableinpowerand
intensity.
TheEuridiceofPeriandRinuccini,performedinthePittiPalacein1600aspartof
thefestivitiescelebratingthemarriageofMariade'MediciandHenriIV,standsas
thefirstmonumentofoperatichistory(thoughCaccini'ssettingofthesamelibretto,
partofwhichwasincorporatedintheperformance,wasinfactpublishedfirst).Peri
andRinuccinihadactuallycollaboratedwithCorsisomeyearsearlieronasimilar
work,Dafne,whichwasdesigned,inRinuccini'swords,toshowwhatournew
musiccoulddo.Evidentlybegunasearlyas1594,butnotperformeduntil1598,
thisDafnewasneverpublished,andasaresultonlyafewexcerptshavesurvived
butoneofthemexemplifiestherecitativestylethatwasPeri'smajorcontributionto
thedevelopinggenre.ThepublicationofCaccini'sandPeri'sscoresofEuridice
withinacoupleofmonthsin1600,alongwiththatofamusicaldramabyCavalieri,
RappresentationediAnima,etdiCorpo,theprefacesofallthreeclaimingpriority,
indicatestheintensityoftherivalryduringtheseyears.
BothDafneandEuridice,calledfavole,areOvidianpastorals,ideallysuitedto
demonstratingthepowerofthenewmusic.Beyondportrayingaworldandanage
inwhichmusicwasnaturalandspeechalmostpoetic(Doni),eachfeaturesa
mythicmusicianashero:forbothApolloandhisson,Orpheus,singingisanatural
meansofexpression.
ThemostimportantstylisticinnovationofEuridicewasrecitative:aharmony
surpassingthatofordinaryspeechbutfallingsofarbelowthemelodyofsongasto
takeanintermediateform,inPeri'sfamousdescription.Flexibleenoughtofollow
theformofthetextaswellasitsexpression,thestilerecitativoallowedthe
characterstoseemasiftheywerespeakingnaturally.Rinuccini'spoetryinspired
thestilerecitativo,withitsalmostprosaicversisciolti,interruptedonoccasionby
morehighlystructuredpassages,sometimesstrophic,inavarietyofpoeticmetres.
Suchpassages,mostlyforchorusbutalsointheallegoricalprologueforTragedy,
becamethepoeticbasisoftheoperaaria.
WithintheremarkableexpressiverangeofPeri'srecitativefromDaphne'schilling
narrativeaccountofEurydice'sdeathtoOrpheus'spoignantlamentandsolemn
formalprayerdramaticverisimilitudeisenhancedbythecloseadherenceofthe
musictotheemotionalcontoursofRinuccini'stext.Allthreeinstancesbecame
emblematicfortheoperasthatfollowed.
(ii)Mantua.
OperascontinuedtobepresentedinFlorenceoverthecourseofthenextseveral
decades,interspersedwithintermedi,balletsandtournaments.Buttherealcentre
ofoperaticactivityshifted,albeitbriefly,toMantua,longamusicalrivalofMedici
Florence.SponsoredbythereigningGonzagaduke,Vincenzo,anotheroperatic
renditionoftheOrpheusmythwasperformedinhispalacein1607beforethe
AccademiadegliInvaghiti.ThisOrfeo,bythecourtcomposerClaudioMonteverdi,
onalibrettobythecourtsecretaryAlessandroStriggio,wasclearlyinspiredbyits
Florentinepredecessor.Itemphasizesthesamedramaticmomentsincludingthe
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narrationofEurydice'sdeathandOrpheus'ssubsequentlamentandprayerbut
Monteverdi'smusicembracesafarwideraffectivevocabularythanPeri's.
Recitativeisinterspersedmuchmoreliberallywithsonganddance.Orfeoalso
placesmuchgreateremphasisonformalelements:strophes,refrainsandlarger
symmetricalstructures,extendingtoentireactsandeventheoperaasawhole,
createasenseofmusicalcoherenceandshapemissingintheearlierscore.And
thefamouslyelaborateorchestra,withitspairedviolins,harpsandother
instrumentsandrichcontinuomoreakintothatoftheFlorentineintermedithan
Peri'soperaplaysacrucialroleincreatingmusicalvariety.
TwofurtheroperaticlandmarksappearedinMantuain1608,inconjunctionwith
theweddingofFrancescoGonzagaandMargueriteofSavoy:MarcodaGagliano's
settingofarevisionofRinuccini'sDafne(published1608)andMonteverdi's
AriannaonanewRinuccinilibrettothefirstmusicaltragedia,socalledbecause
itsprincipalcharactersareofroyalbirthandtheiractionsarepoliticallymotivated
(PirrottaDO).TheonlysurvivingmusicisAriadne'slongrecitativelamentonthe
departureofTheseus,reportedtohavemovedtheaudiencetotearsMonteverdi's
ownpublicationofthismusicinvariousforms,themanycontemporarymanuscript
copiesandnumerousimitationsinsubsequentoperasattestitspowerand
significance.Initsidealmeshingoftextualandmusicalrhetoric,itrepresentsthe
acmeoftherecitativestyle.
(iii)Rome.
Althoughoperas,alongwithotherkindsofmusicalentertainment,continuedtobe
performedinMantuaduringthenextdecades,thecentreofoperaticactivityshifted
onceagain,thistimetoRome.Drawingonmorevariedsourcesofpatronage
aristocraticfamiliesandreligiousorganizationsaswellasthepapacyopera
developedverydifferentlyhere.Thesedifferencesarealreadyevidentin
Cavalieri'sRappresentationediAnima,etdiCorpo(1600),creditedwithbeingthe
firstwhollysungdramainRome.AmoralizingallegoryperformedduringLentat
theoratoryofSMariainVallicella,itismorerelevanttothehistoryoftheoratorio
thantothatofopera.
Sungdramasofvariouskinds,sharinglittlewithoneanotherasidefroma
moralizingethosandasolostyleofminimalexpressivepower,continuedto
appearsporadicallyduringthenexttwodecadesinavarietyofvenues,secular
andreligious.OfgreatesthistoricalsignificancewasthefavolaboscherecciaLa
catenad'Adone(1626),DomenicoMazzocchi'ssettingofalibrettobyOttavio
TronsarellibasedonMarino'ssensationalepicof1923,Adone.Purportingto
illustratethesufferingsofthehumansoulwhenitwandersfromGod,Mazzocchi's
onlyoperawaspublishedwithaprefaceinwhich,addressingtheproblemsraised
bythestylisticdichotomyinherentinearlyopera,thecomposeracknowledgesthe
tediousnessofrecitativeandintroducestheconceptofmezz'arieasanantidote.
Accordingly,thescoreisfilledwithbrieflyricalpassages,neitherarianorrecitative,
thatwerelatercalledarioso.
TheelectionofMaffeoBarberinitothepapacyin1623asUrbanVIIIbroughtnew
regularitytooperaticactivities,promotedbythepapalnephews,Francesco,
TaddeoandlaterAntonioBarberini,andtheircolleagueGiulioRospigliosi,the
futurePopeClementIX.TheyfosteredaseriesofoperaticproductionsforCarnival
attheirpalaces,eventuallyinthehuge(4000seats,itisclaimed)theatrewithinthe
PalazzoalleQuattroFontane.AllthelibrettoswerebyRospigliosi,drawingeither
fromlivesofthesaints,suchasSant'AlessiobyStefanoLandi(1631or1632,
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published1634),orfromRenaissanceliterarysources:ErminiasulGiordano,by
MichelangeloRossi,fromTasso,(1633,published1637)VirgilioMazzocchiand
MarcoMarazzoli'sChisoffresperi,fromBoccaccio(1637)andLuigiRossi'sIl
palazzoincantato,fromAriosto(1642).TheBarberiniRospigliosioperaswere
lavishspectacleswithpoliticalanddynasticintent,glorifyingRomeandtheir
patrons.
2.Drammapermusica.
ThedeathofUrbanVIIIin1644broughtthespectacularBarberinieratoaclose,
andwithittheeffectiveendofhumanistcourtopera.Nearlyadecadeearlier,a
newkindofoperahadbeguntoemergeinVenice.
Venetianoperareflectedthedistinctivetraditionsandoligarchicalstructureofthe
MostSereneRepublic.PerformedduringCarnivalintheatresownedbypatrician
familiescompetingforprestigetheTron,Grimani,VendraminandGiustinian
beforeaticketbuyingpublic,operainVenicewasabusiness,asIvanovichnoted:
abigbusiness.Theatreownerscontractedwithimpresariosorproduction
companiesthatsuppliedoperasorcommissionedthemtheyalsoprovidedor
hiredmusiciansandotherworkers.Initiallylibrettistsand/orcomposersthemselves
actedasimpresarios(Ferrari,Cavalli,GiovanniFaustini),buteventuallytherole
wasfilledbyentrepreneurswhodevotedtheirfulltimetotheincreasinglycomplex
negotiationsinvolvedinoperaproduction(MarcoFaustini,FrancescoSanturini).
Thecontinuityandfrequencyofperformancepromotedbyregulardemandand
dependablefinancialbackingensuredtheinstitutionalizationthatcharacterizes
operatoday.
Whatstartedasanexperimentin1637withaperformanceofAndromedaatthe
TeatroSCassianobyaRomebaseditineranttroupe,directedbyBenedetto
Ferrari,blossomedwithinafewshortyearsintoafullblownindustry.Bothforeign
andlocaltalentwereexploitedtosatisfyincreasingdemandforlibrettists,
composers,stagedesignersandperformers.Monteverdi,luredoutofoperatic
retirement,producedhisthreelastmasterpieces,Ilritornod'Ulisse(1640),Le
nozzed'EneaeLavinia(1641,lost)andL'incoronazionediPoppea(1643,withthe
collaborationofseveralothercomposers),forVenetiantheatres.HisSMarco
colleagueFrancescoCavallibecamethemostprolificcomposeroftheperiod,
producing28operasovera30yearcareer.By1641,audiencescouldseemultiple
performancesofasmanyaseightdifferentoperasduringaseasonthatlasted
approximatelysixweeksinfourdifferenttheatres.(Therewereninebytheendof
thecentury,althoughthenumberofopentheatresvariedfromtwoorthreeduring
the1650sand60stofiveorsixlater.)
Oneimportanttheatrenotunderpatricianfamilycontrol,theNovissimo,was
speciallybuiltforagroupofnobleacademicians,theIncogniti(whoincludedthe
importantearlylibrettistsG.F.BusenelloandGiulioStrozzi),whosepublicrelations
effortsinpamphletsandlibrettoprefaceswerefundamentaltotheestablishmentof
thenewgenre.Theirinauguraleffort,Lafintapazza(StrozziandFrancesco
Sacrati),designedbythearchitectturnedscenographerGiacomoTorelli,and
featuringtheRomandivaAnnaRenzi,becamethemostfamousoperaofthe
period(fig.2).AsthemostfrequentVenetianexport,itepitomizeddrammaper
musicathroughoutItaly.
Operaachievedcommercialviabilitythroughacombinationofpopularappealand
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efficiencyofproduction.SubjectmatterdrawnfromtopicsrelevanttoVenetian
audiencesrangedfromthelegendsofTroy(regardedaspartofthemythichistory
oftherepublic)totheexploitsofimperialRomanheroesthatcouldserveas
exemplarsformodernVenetiansatwarwiththeTurk.Librettosincludedpointed
referencestoVenetiansocialcustomscourtesans,gondoliers,evenpublicopera
itselfand,asidesaddresseddirectlytotheaudiencethatbridgedthegap
betweenfictionalandrealworlds.Andthecityitselfwasexplicitlypraisedin
prologuesanddepictedinscenicbackdrops.
Orchestrasweresmall(normallyjuststringsandcontinuo),rolesweredoubled,the
choruswaseschewedandabroadrangeofvariableconventionsfacilitatedthe
massproductionofoperas.Operaticstructurewasstandardizedataprologueand
threeacts.Plots,whetherdrawnfrommyth,epicorhistoryornewlyinvented,
focussedontwopairsofnoblelovers,attendedbyvariouscomicservants,who
areseparatedandthenreunited.Recitativeinversiscioltiwasinterspersedwith
closedformariasinasinglemetreand/orwitharegularrhymescheme.Musico
dramaticscenetypesincludedthesleepscenewithlullaby,themadscene,the
incantation(inversisdruccioli)andthelament(onadescendingtetrachordbass)
vocaltypesincludedcastratoheroes,bassfathersandtravestinurses.
EssentiallyestablishedthroughthecollaborationofCavalliandhisfirstregular
librettist,GiovanniFaustini,whichproducedtenoperasinasmanyyears(1642
52),theseconventionswereeasilyadaptedbyothercomposersandlibrettistsand
remainedinplacetotheendofthecentury.Certainindividualsstandoutfortheir
accomplishedtreatmentorextensionoftheconventions:thelibrettistsG.A.
Cicognini,NicolMinato,AurelioAureliandMatteoNoristhecomposersAntonio
Cesti,GiovanniBoretti,AntonioSartorioandGiovanniLegrenzi.Nevertheless,the
conventionsensuredacontinuityofstylethatminimizeddifferencesbetween
particularcomposersandlibrettists.
Changes,asthecenturyprogressed,reflecteddevelopingaudienceexpectations.
Singersassumedincreasingprominence(reflectedbytheriseintheirsalariesin
comparisonwiththoseofcomposers).Distinctionsbetweenrecitativeandaria,
blurredforexpressivereasonsinMonteverdi'sandCavalli'sworks,became
clearer.Ariasincreasedinlengthaswellasnumberfromaroundadozeninthe
1640stomorethan60inthe1670s,withthemusicalformABA(eventually
developingintothedacapoaria)graduallysupersedingABB.Increasingly,plots
becamefilledwithimprobableoccurrencesassourceswerestretchedtothepoint
wherenothingbuttheoriginaltitlesurvived.Moreandmore,seriousandcomic
elementsbecameintermingled.Thesedevelopmentswerecondemnedby
contemporarycriticsaspanderingtothelowerelementsintheaudience,atrend
hastenedin1674byaradicalreductioninticketpricesintroducedatoneofthe
theatres(theSMois),whichincreasedbusinessbutreducedthefundsavailable
forproductions.
Besidesforcingcompetingtheatrestofollowsuit,thismoveinspiredtheopeningof
twonewtheatres,oneofwhich,SGiovanniGrisostomo,surpassedalltheothers
inmagnificence.Sinceitsowners,theGrimanifamily,werefirmlyopposedtothe
newlypopularstyle,italonemaintainedhigherpricesandspectacular
scenographyanditbecameasymboloftherestorationofdecorum.Towardsthe
endofthecenturyitbecameaVenetianoutpostoftheRomanAccademiadegli
Arcadi,aforumforoperaticreform.
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3.Europeanspectacle.
(i)BeyondVenice:theItalianpeninsula.
OnceestablishedinVenice,operabegantobeexportedbeyondthelagoonfirst
byFerrari'sitineranttroupe,thenbyothers(Febiarmonici,AccademiciDiscordati).
Drammapermusicabecamethedominantformoftheatricalentertainment
throughoutItalyandevennorthoftheAlps,thoughdelayedormodified,insome
cities,byparticularlocaltraditions.Lafintapazzawasheardinnearlyadozen
cities,includingParis,duringtheperiod164452(seefig.2).Afterthemiddleofthe
centuryGiasone(Cicognini,Cavalli)saw20ormoredifferentproductions,the
latestin1690.
Theconventionalizedbutopenstructureofthemodelofferedamplescopefor
modificationtosuitdifferentaudiencesandperformingconditions.InMedici
Florence,theinfluentiallibrettistG.A.MonigliaadaptedtheVenetianmodelto
traditionalcourtlyfunctions:Cavalli'sHipermestracelebratedaroyalbirthin1658
(fig.3),JacopoMelani'sErcoleinTebeaweddingin1661.Bothwereperformedat
theTeatrodellaPergolaundertheauspicesoftheMedicisponsoredAccademia
degliImmobili,whichconcurrentlypresentedaseriesofindigenouscomicoperas
(alsosettingMoniglialibrettos)thatexploitedlocalcustomsanddialect.Meanwhile
another,morebourgeoisacademy,theSorgenti,hostedaseriesofVenetian
importsatitsowncommercialtheatre,theCocomero.
InNaples,beginningin1651,Venetianimportswereadaptedtocelebratethe
Spanishviceroy,bothatthepalacetheatre,SCarlo,andatSBartolomeo,apublic
theatreopenedin1654.InRome,drammapermusicaneverreallytookhold.
Exceptforthebriefperiod16714,whenaseriesofmodifiedVenetianimports
werestagedattheTordinona,apublicoperahouselicensedunderPopeClement
IX(Rospigliosi)andpatronizedbyQueenChristina,operascontinuedtobe
producedprivately,andintermittently,underthesponsorshipofvariousnoble
families.Theyfallintotwodistinctcategories.Thefirst,derivedfromcontemporary
Spanishcloakandswordcomedy,includedtwointhe1650sbyA.M.Abbatiniand
MarcoMarazzolionRospigliosilibrettos,andseveralinthe1670sand80sby
BernardoPasquiniandtheyoungAlessandroScarlatti.Thesecond,inasimplified
style,wasbasedonpastoralsubjects,representingthenascentArcadian
movement(includingvariousworksbyScarlatti,onlibrettosbyAntonioCapece,
G.D.deTotis,SilvioStampigliaandCardinalOttoboni):thisgenresoonmadeitself
feltinVeniceaswell.
TheimpactofdrammapermusicanorthoftheAlps,whetherimported,imitated,
adaptedorrejectedandreplaced,dependedonthesocialstructuresofthe
receivingcountry.DevelopmentsinFrancecanberegardedasareactionagainst
it:abriefperiodofimportswasfollowedbystrenuouseffortstoreplaceitwitha
nationalstylewhich,however,borrowedelementsfromit.Germanspeaking
countrieshosteditlongest,developinganindigenoustraditionquitelate.In
contrast,EnglandandSpainremainedvirtuallyuntouchedbydrammapermusica,
insulatedfromitsinfluencebytheirowndistinctivetraditionsoftheatricalmusic.
(ii)France.
AspartoftheitalianizationoftheFrenchcourtpromotedbyCardinalMazarin,the
firstoperasinPariswereItalianimports(sixintheyears164562),eitherdesigned
ormodifiedtosuitFrenchtaste.ThusPariswasdepictedinthescenicbackdropof
Lafintapazza,andinCavalli'sXerse(1660)theunnaturalcastratoherowas
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recastasabaritoneandthethreeactswereturnedintofive,interspersedwiththe
elaborateballetsbytheyoungLullytraditionallybelovedbytheFrench.Two
ItalianoperaswrittenexpresslyfortheFrenchcourt,LuigiRossi'sOrfeo(1647)
andCavalli'sErcoleamante(1662),featured,inadditiontotheobligatoryballets,
elaboratepoliticalprologuesandepiloguesinpraiseofthemonarch.Inthelatter,
commissionedfortheweddingofLouisXIVandtheInfantaofSpain,theking
himselfappearedinseveraloftheballets,asPluto,Marsand,ofcourse,theSun:
avividinstanceofpatronagemadevisible.
FollowingthedeathofMazarin,drammapermusicawasrejectedinfavourofa
nationalstylethatrepresentedasynthesisofFrenchtraditionsandtastes.
Nonetheless,theItaliangenreleftsomesignificanttraces,notonlytheconceptof
whollysungdramaitselfbutinconventionssuchasthesommeil(basedonthe
ubiquitoussleepsceneseefig.5)andthemagnificentlargescalechaconne
movementsthatunitedsingers,playersanddancers(basedonthemusicalidea
thatunderpinnedtheItalianlament).
ThedevelopmentandpersistenceofanationalstyleofFrenchoperaareowedto
thespecificprogrammeestablishedbyroyalpatronageandthevisionandtalents
ofthefigureeventuallychargedwithcarryingitout.Throughtheestablishmentof
theAcadmieRoyaledeMusique(orOpra),in1672thekinggrantedamonopoly
fortheproductionofoperainFrenchtohisFlorentinebornsurintendantdela
musique,JeanBaptisteLully.Lullysucceededincreatingadistinctivenational
opera,followingasimilarbutabortiveattemptbyPierrePerrinandRobert
Cambert,anddrawingonhisexperienceasacomposerinothertheatricalgenres,
especiallycomdiesandtragdiesballets.
TogetherwithhislibrettistPhilippeQuinault,Lullymanagedtoincorporatethe
mostcharacteristicelementsofearliergenreselaborateballets,marvellous
scenictransformations(lemerveilleux),luxuriantdivertissementsofsongsand
danceswithinacontextresponsivetothestrongtraditionsofspokentheatreand
theFrenchrequirementforverisimilitude:thetragdielyriqueor,asitwasinitially
called,tragdieenmusique.Basedeitheronmythology(Cadmus,Atysfig.5,and
seefig.34below)oronchivalriclegend(Roland,Armideseefig.35below),all13
ofLully'stragdiesfeatureanamorousaristocraticcoupledisturbedbyoneor
morerivals(whichoftenincludeadeity),withaparallelplotinvolvingcharactersof
lowerrank.Theyreflectcontemporaryspokentragedyintheirfiveactstructure,
adherencetotheAristotelianunities(paceBoileauandothercritics),the
preservationofliaisonsdescnes,thedelegationoftragiceventstomessengers'
reportsandtheuseofthechorusforcommentaryandasparticipantintheaction
aswellasfordecoration.Verisimilitudeismaintainedthroughrelianceonrcitatif
ordinaireandbrief,syllabiccontinuoairsfordialogue,permittinganatural,speech
likedeclamationoftext.Moresubstantialairswithorchestralaccompaniment
expressiveoffeelingsarereservedforsoliloquies.Musicalcontrastandopulence
areprovidedbyinstrumentalmovements,variousconventionalscenetypes,
balletsand,ofcourse,thedivertissementsallofthisenhancedbyLullys
renownedorchestraandthevisualmarvelsprovidedbythescenographerCarlo
Vigaran.
Thelengthyseason(49weeks),thefrequentperformances(atleastthreeaweek),
thesteadysupplyofnewworksandrepeatedrevivalsofoldonesoveraperiodof
15yearsassuredthecontinuityofthetragdielyriquewellbeyondLully'sdeathin
1687.ThepublicationofLully'soeuvre,beginningin1679,essentiallyestablished
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anationalrepertoryandapermanenttradition.Hissuccessors,amongthem
PascalCollasse,HenryDesmarets,AndrCampra,AndrCardinalDestouches
andMarinMarais,relieduponrevivalsofhisworkstoattractaudiencestothe
opera.
ComparisonsbetweenFrenchandItalianoperaagitatedcriticsinbothcountries
fromthelate17thcenturyonwards.AftertakingitsleadfromItalyinthe1640s,
FrancereciprocatedbyinfluencingtheArcadianreformofItalianoperainthe
1690s.
(iii)TheGermanspeakinglands:ViennaandHamburg.
ThedrammapermusicaenjoyedgreaterlongevityandinfluenceinGerman
speakinglandsthananywhereelseinessence,thetasteforitinhibitedthe
developmentofanativetradition.ViennaandInnsbruckwereratherlikeVenetian
outposts,wherenewlycreatedworkswereliterallyinterchangeablewiththose
producedinVeniceitself.InVienna,undertheguidanceofLeopoldI(16571705),
thegenrewasadaptedtocourtlyservice,becomingmoredecorative,elaborate
andvisiblyexpensive,withplotsdesignedtoalludetotheheroicexploitsofthe
rulingdynasty.Underlongtermcontracts,astableofItaliancomposers(including
AntonioCesti,M.A.Ziani,G.F.SancesandAntonioBertali)andpoets(Francesco
Sbarra,NicolMinato)andthescenographerLudovicoBurnacinisupplied
betweensixandtentheatricalentertainmentsannually,includingoperas,to
celebrateimperialbirthdaysandnamedaysandspecialoccasionssuchascourt
visits.OneofthemostelaborateofthemwasCesti'sfestateatrale,Ilpomod'oro,
onaSbarralibrettoplannedtocapthetwoyearlongcelebrationoftheemperor's
marriagetoMargherita,InfantaofSpain,itwasfinallyperformedin1668,overtwo
days(fig.6seealsoVienna,fig.1).AntonioDraghi,librettist(from1658),composer
(from1662)andsuperintendent(after1674),wasresponsibleformorethan170of
theseworksbetween1662and1699.
Thegenreflourishedforabrieferperiod(165465)atInnsbruck,underthe
auspicesofthearchduke,whereanItaliancompanydirectedbyhismaestrodi
cappella,Cesti,producedoperasinthespeciallyconstructedVenetianstyle
theatre.ThiswasthefirstindependentoperahouseinGermanspeakinglands.
SeveraloperasoriginatinginInnsbruckandViennaweresubsequentlyrevivedin
VeniceandbecamewidelyknownthroughoutItaly.
Vernacularoperasbynativecomposerswerefew,andmostofthescoresarelost,
famousamongthemHeinrichSchtz'sDafne,settingatranslationoftheRinuccini
librettobyMartinOpitz(1627).S.T.Staden'sSeelewig(1644seeStaden,
SigmundTheophil,fig.2),thefirstGermanoperaofwhichthemusicisextant,is
actuallymoreofamoralallegory.J.C.Kerll'sOronte(1657)inauguratedthe
Munichoperahouse,which,likemostGermanoperahouses,wasbuilttoperform
Italianopera(MunichandHanoverunderAgostinoSteffani,DresdenunderG.A.
BontempiandCarloPallavicino).
ThesignificantexceptionwastheTheateramGnsemarktinHamburg,
establishedin1678byagroupofcitizenswhoinvestedtheircapitalforthe
purposeofproducingoperainGerman.Asprofitsdependedonincomefrombox
rentalandticketsales,operaswerestagednotseasonallybutthroughouttheyear.
ThehouseopenedwithJohannTheile'sAdamundEva,based,likemany
subsequentworks,onabiblicalstory.Whilemostofthelibrettoswerebylocal
poets,someweretranslationsofVenetiantexts,settonewmusic.LikeVenice,
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Hamburgwasaprosperous,cosmopolitanandindependentcommercialcentre.It
wastobecomeespeciallyimportantforthedevelopmentofGermanopera,with
theworksofMattheson,KeiserandHandel.
(iv)England.
BothdrammapermusicaandtragdielyriquewereknowninEngland.Cavalli's
Erismena,whichsurvivesinacontemporaryEnglishtranslation,mayhavebeen
performedinLondonin1674,andLully'sCadmuswasperformedin1686.But
whollysungdramaneverestablishedafoothold.Factorsmilitatingagainstit
includeastrongdramatictraditioninwhichmusicplayednomorethanan
incidentalrole,andacompetingtraditionofcelebratingroyaleventswithelaborate
masquesthatcombinedmusic,danceandscenicspectacle.Bothgenresprovided
satisfyingmusicalanddramaticentertainmentwithoutraisingquestionsofthe
proprietyofsungdialogue.
Nevertheless,therecitativestylemadeanearlyappearanceinBenJonson's
masqueLoversMadeMen,settomusic(lost)byNicholasLanier(1617),andin
WilliamDavenant'sTheSiegeofRhodes(1656seeLondon,fig.12),saidtobethe
firstEnglishopera,whichwassetcompletelytomusicbyateamcomprisingHenry
Lawes,HenryCookeandMatthewLocke(vocalmusic),andCharlesColemanand
GeorgeHudson(instrumentalmusic).Frenchinfluence,encouragedbyCharlesII,
eagertorecreatethecourtoperahehadexperiencedduringhisrecentexilein
Paris,isevidentinthesocalledsemioperasofLocke(Macbeth,1664,The
Tempest,1674,andPsyche,1675).AsinLully'scomdiesballets,musicis
reservedformagic,ceremonialandspectacle.Thereiseveninonefullscale
Englishtragdielyrique,AlbionandAlbanius,aDrydenlibrettosetbytheFrench
trainedcomposerLouisGrabuin1685.
TheFrenchstylepermeatesthetwomostexceptionalallsungworksoftheperiod,
JohnBlow'sVenusandAdonis(c1683)andHenryPurcell'sDidoandAeneas
(1689),hisonlyopera.ThoughtheknowledgeofFrenchandItalianoperadidnot
increasetheincidenceofcontinuouslysungdrama,bothstylesinfluencedPurcell.
DrydencalledPurcell'slatesemioperasourEnglishoperashisownKingArthur
(1691)wasamongthem.Theycontainnumerousrecitatives,lamentariasand
ostinatos.Purcellachievedfullcharacterizationthroughmusic,however,onlyin
DidoandAeneas.
(v)Spain.
DespitestrongculturaltieswithItalyandthepresenceofalargecontingentof
ItaliantheatremenincludingRospigliosiaspapalnunciofor11years,aswellas
severalFlorentinetheatricalarchitectsItalianoperamadelittleheadwayin
Spain.LikeEngland,Spainalreadyhadstrongindigenoustraditionsoftheatrical
musicandavitalheritageofspokentheatrewhichwithCaldernandLopede
Vegareacheditsgoldenageinthisperiod.Spectacleplays,zarzuelas,semi
operasandcomdiasfeaturingsongs,dancesandevensomerecitativedialogue
inadistinctivelynativestyleservedthesamepoliticalandsocialfunctionsas
operainotherEuropeancourts:theglorificationofthemonarchy.
Threefullsungoperasareknowntheyweremotivatedbyparticularpolitical
considerationsandperformedintheroyalpalaceatMadridunderthepatronageof
PhilipIV.Thefirst,LopedeVega'sLaselvasinamor(1627),composedbythe
ItaliansFilippoPiccininiandBernardoMonanni,waspromotedbyagroupof
Florentineresidentsatcourt,aspartofaplottoexertItalianinfluenceonPhilipIV.
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Theothertwo,Caldern'sLaprpuradelarosaandCelosaundelairematan
(bothprobablycomposedin1660),reflectedadesiretocompetewithMazarinin
celebratingthepeacetreatywithFranceandthecomingmarriageoftheinfanta
andLouisXIV.Butthesewereanomalies,andofthethreeworksonlythemusicof
CelosaundelairematanbyJuanHidalgohassurvived.Hidalgoprobablyalso
composedLaprpuradelarosa.
Opera
IV.The18thcentury
1.Viewsof18thcenturyopera.
2.Socialpractice.
3.Stylisticevolution.
Opera,V:The19thCentury
1.Viewsof18thcenturyopera.
Anyattemptatachronologicalsurveyofanartformimpliesthatthereisa
continuityinthatartwhichoutlastsperiods.Suchacontinuitymaywellbe
questionedinthecaseofopera:atthebeginningofthe18thcentury,itwasstilla
formofItalianorFrenchliterarytheatrerecitedmusicallyattheendofthecentury,
ithadbeentransformedintoamusicalspeciesofart,commontoallEurope.Itisof
coursepossibletotraceanevolutionaryconnectionbetweenthebeginningand
theendof18thcenturyopera,particularlyiftheaccountfocussesonthehistoryof
operaascomposition.Thathistoriographicalconvention,however,imposesan
artificialunityonthesubject.If18thcenturyoperaisconceivableasawhole,then
itisonlyasamultivalentconceptwheretheinteractionsofmusic,drama,social
functionandotherfactorsaresubjecttochangingcontexts,defyingtheboundaries
ofacademicdisciplines.
Thefieldofreferenceforastudyof18thcenturyoperawillvaryaccordingtohow
operaisdefined.Toseeitprimarilyasamusicalartinvolvesmarginalizingmuch
18thcenturytheatrewherethemusicalingredientconsistedonlyofborrowed
songs(Frenchvaudevillecomedies,Englishballadoperas,playswithsongsand
incidentalmusic)ifitisatheatricalart,muchunstageddramaticmusicmustbe
excluded(cantatas,serenatas,concertarias).Theunderstandingofoperaasan
exclusivelyseculargenrewouldruleoutthesacredoperasoftheperiod(dramma
sacro)andoperahistoriesthatincludeindependentmelodramas(Wieland,
Schweitzer)orstagedballets(Starzer/Hilverding,Gluck/Angiolini)donoteven
requireoperatobesung.Thereisalsothequestionofwhetheroperaistobe
regardedasawork(opus)orapractice.
The18thcenturydevelopmenthastendedtowardstheconceptofoperaasbotha
workandapracticethatpresentssungactiononstage.Thisdefinitionisfragile:
whenmodifiedtosingingandactingonstage,itwouldcoverpracticallyany
theatricalperformanceofthetime.Thetermoperaitself,widelyadoptedbythe
endofthecentury,originallyhadalternativemeanings(forexampleacommedia
dell'arteperformance).Thenamesforsubgenreswereeitherliterary(tragdieen
musique,drammapermusica,commediapermusicaandothers)orcolloquial
(operabuffa,operaseria,opracomiqueandothers).Thusthecolloquialterm
operaseemstohaveimpliedthemusicalingredientanyway,whereasithadtobe
speciallyaddedtotheliteraryterms(permusica).ItwasthiscolloquialItalian
termthatwasadoptedinmostcountries,occasionallycompetingwithnativeterms
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(Singspiel,zarzuela).
Theperiodunderconsideration,c16901790,privilegesoperaseriaasa
paradigmaticsubgenre,sinceitformedarelativeunityinthese100yearsandhad
aninternationaldisseminationtypicalforthistime.Fromapurelynational
perspective,orincomicopera,theyears16901790wouldhardlyappearso
unified.InFrenchopera,forexample,twoeventsdescribedbycontemporariesas
revolutionsweretheestablishmentoffullblownopracomiqueinthe1750sand
thestructuralchangesbroughtaboutbyGluck,Piccinniandothersfrom1774
onwardsworksrepresentativeofbothtypesremainedintherepertoryuntil1830
andafter.
Astudyof18thcenturyoperamusttakeaccountofotherformsoftheatreofthe
time,tohelpanunderstandingofoperaticmusicitself(forexampleinitsgestural
functions)andtoplaceoperainitsliteraryandtheatricalcontext.Thehistoryof
literatureoverlapsmostextensivelywiththatofoperathetextsanddramatic
contentsofoperaareimportant,notleastbecausethegenreaddressesnon
musiciansaswellasmusicians.Ontheotherhand,musicaldramaturgywas
widelyseenasexemptfromtherulesandaestheticpreceptsoftheliterarytheatre,
justasmusicalpoetryisoftenmoreappreciatedwhensungthanwhenrecited.
Inthenarrativesofculturalhistory,the18thcenturyseemstocrossamajor
divisionorwatershed,fromwhateverstandpointitisviewed:itbridgedancien
rgimeandRevolution,BaroqueandClassicism,absolutismandEnlightenment,
andsoforth.Suchperceiveddivisionsstronglyinfluencethemodernreceptionof
18thcenturyopera,forexampleintheperceiveddifferencebetweenoperabefore
Mozartandafter:theformerisearlymusic,thelatterClassicalrepertory.Someof
Gluck'soperasbelongtotheformercategoryintheAngloAmericanworldbutto
thelatterincontinentalEurope.RelatedconstructionsopposeBaroqueopera(the
artisticmirrorofanimaginedcourtlyenvironment)toClassicalRomanticopera(a
dramaticmusicalworkaspiringtothestandardsoforiginalauthorship).Theformer
typeneedsrestoring,revivingorrecreating,thelatterediting,performingand
interpreting.Thesefixedviewsofculturalhistoryarealsoimpliedwhenopera
historianswelcomethearrivaloffleshandbloodin18thcenturyopera(for
examplethankstoHandel,themiddleclasses,GoldoniorMozart)ordeplorea
lossofperformativespontaneityinfavourofcanonicalrepertories.
TheClassicalRomanticaestheticofmusicasaselfexpressiveart,whichappears
towards1780inthecriticalliteratureoftheEuropeanEnlightenmentandhas
dominated19thand20thcenturyviews,wasimposedonearlieroperawithlittle
regardtothegenre'stheatricalloyalties.Fromthisperspective,most18thcentury
operaappearsasapreenlightenedpractice,enslavedbyitssocialfunctionsbut
alsocuriouslyirrationalordreamlike:anauthoritarianpuppettheatre.Evenits
traditionaltaskofimitatingnaturebyportrayingtheaffectionsisthoughttohave
beenessentiallybeyonditsreach,nottospeakofthechallengeofexpressingtrue
humanityonstage.Thisperception,whichputstheburdenofdramaticexpression
tooexclusivelyonmusicalcomposition,shouldbecontrastedwithideasbywhich
thecenturyunderstooditself(particularlywhenitbegan),withideascultivatedin
areasmoreinneedthaninpossessionofenlightenmentandwithideasbelonging
tothecontextoftheatreratherthanthatofArt.Ifthisweredone,threethings
mightbecomeclear:
(a)18thcenturyoperawaslessasnapshotofcontemporarysocietythana
controversialexpressionofparticulardesiresandfantasies.Itrequiredactive
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promotiontofinditsplaceinasocietywhichneitherneedednorcouldaffordit.
Around1700,itstillseemedexotictomostEuropeans,whileinItalyitsurvived
thankstoitsabilitytoentertaintourists.FrenchandEnglishobserversofthistime
(SaintEvremond,North,Addison)discussItalianoperalikeaculinaryobjectthat
wasnotarealalternativetoproperfood.
(b)OperainItaly,hemmedinbetweenacademiccomplaints,ecclesiastical
censorship,illiteracy,socialrestrictionsonperformersandthecompetitionof
improvisedtheatre,defendeditsculturalstatusbymaintainingliterarystandards
andhumanistidealswhileattractingthecrowdwithfinesingingandspectacular
staging.Theconcessionstopopulartaste,conventionalityorstarperformers,
whichtodayarenostalgicallyseenastheessenceofItalianoperaaltogether,
conflictedwithatleastsomeofItaly'sliterarydramatictraditionsalthoughthey
laterhelpedtoprojectacertainitalianitwhichinspiredaswellaslimitedits
furtherdevelopment.
(c)Given,however,thestrengthofoperaItalianandotherinitsappealto
fantasy,popularityorspontaneity,itisnowonderthatsomanyartistic,intellectual
andpoliticaltrendsin18thcenturyEuropeseizeduponthegenretopromote
themselves.Oneofthesetrendswassurelytheemancipationofdramaticmusic,
anothertheemancipationofthethinkingindividual(theEnlightenment).Fromthe
earlyclaimsofthecourtlysocietyonoperaasavehicleofabsolutistpropaganda,
viabourgeoisrealism,sentimentalismandclassicismtotheimpactofrevolution
andromanticism,thefateofoperainthe18thcenturywasthatitbecameingrained
inEuropeanculture.
2.Socialpractice.
(i)Institutionsandcirculation.
(ii)Genres.
(iii)Performanceandperformers.
(iv)Audiences.
Opera,V,2:The19thCentury:Institutions
(i)Institutionsandcirculation.
Before1690,operawaspractisedinItaly,atthecourtofLouisXIVand(with
variablefrequency)atabout20courtsofcentralEurope.Inthefollowing100
years,Italianoperawastakenupatanother40courtsandcitiesofcentralEurope
andinthekingdomsofSpain,Portugal,England,Denmark,SwedenandRussia.
Thisexpansionwaslargelymotivatedbythesocialstatusofoperaasaclassicist
andmonarchicart.Thecourts,especiallyifinfluencedbyEnlightenmentideas
(Berlin,Dresden,Mannheim,Stuttgart,Milan,Florence,Parma),alsoappreciated
theartisticandeducationalvaluesofthegenre.Metropolitancentres(Paris,
Vienna,Madrid,StPetersburg,London)andevensomesecondarycitiesoutside
Italywitnessedanincreasingcompetition,resistedbysomecourts,between
Italian,Frenchandlocaloperatictraditionsandtheirlanguages.Organizationally,
therewereofcoursevastdifferencesbetweenthestatusofamajorcourtopera
suchastheParisianAcadmieRoyaledeMusique(whosecontrolhad
ramificationsthroughoutthecountry)and,say,thebusinessoftheVenetian
impresarioAngeloMingotti,whostagedoperaseriaandcomicintermezzosin
MoravianandAustriandistricttowns(1732c1745).Therewasacontrastof
climatebetweenthesmallbutambitiouscourtoperasincentralandnorthern
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Germany(Bayreuth,Brunswick,Wolfenbttel,Kassel,Dsseldorf)andthehuge
internationaloperafairgroundofVenicewhichcontinuouslycirculatedplots,
performersandmusicalsettings.Civicoperawasusuallycontrolledbysocietiesof
gentlemenwiththefinancialsupportofacourtandofwealthyvisitors,asin
Venice,PragueandHamburg.Impresariosmanagedproductionseitherinthe
employofcourtsandcities,oronaprofitbasisforthemselves.Theymightrelyon
acentraloperahouse,engagingnewperformersandauthorseachseason,or
movepersonnelandproductionsfromplacetoplaceinthepursuitofnew
audiences.Theeconomicprincipleswereneverthelesscomparableeverywhere:
patronagehadtomakeupforthelossesincurredthroughhighproductioncosts
anduncertainornonexistentboxofficetakings.Financialpatronagetookmany
differentforms,fromthatofshareholdingcompanies(RoyalAcademyofMusic,
London)viaticketandboxsubscriptionstoentirelycourtfinancedbusinesses.In
contrasttotheevenmorespendthriftpracticesofthepreviousage,many
institutionstriedtocontaincostsbycirculatingproductions:forexample,by
offeringtheminbothpalaceandpublicperformances(asinNaples,Florence,
Paris/VersaillesandFontainebleau,ModenaandReggionellEmilia,Vienna,Berlin
andPotsdam,BrunswickandWolfenbttel)byexchangingcourtlyandimpresarial
productions(northernItaly,Prague/Dresden,Hamburg/Brunswick)orbyrepeating
productionsinsummerresidencesorsecondarycities(Vienna,Rome,Tuscany,
theVeneto).Repertorieswerehardlyestablishedyet,exceptforthecultivationofa
LulliancorpusattheAcadmieRoyaledeMusiqueandinBrussels.Travelling
companiesweremostlikelytodevelopstandardworksandrepertories.Still,the
annualamountofnewoperaproductionswasalwaysgreaterthanthatofrevivals
intheperiodc170040itcouldreachtenoreleveninVeniceandfivetosevenin
Vienna,LondonorHamburg.
(ii)Genres.
Inthe18thcentury(unlikethe17th)genredistinctions,oroccasionallytheir
blurring,wereamajorissue.Thepreceptsoftheclassicist,Aristotelianpoetics
influencedoperaticpracticeandtheoryfromabout1690,leadingtoaseparationof
tragicandcomicgenres.Muchofthisdistinctionhadtodowiththetheatrical
projectionofsocialstructures.
Comicintermezzipermusica(fig.7)weredevelopedinNaplesandVenice(c1700
06)andsoondistributedtothenorthfullmusicalcomedybeganinNaplesabout
1707,andinthe1740smergedwithVenetianparodyoperastoformoperabuffa.
Comicopera'ssocialcriticism,atasksanctionedbyclassicalprecedent,wasnever
moreradicalthanintheseearlyyears.Althoughmanyearlyoperebuffeand
intermezzosconformtotheAristoteliandescriptionofcomedy(byportraying
ordinary,contemporaryandshrewdpeople),intermezzoswereacceptedinthe
courttheatresasadivertissement,whereasoperebuffewereatfirstconsidered
lowclassbyaristocraticpatrons.Theydepended,inanycase,ontheempathyof
theirspectatorswiththesocialconnotationsoftheplots.
Seriousoperaconveyeditsinstitutionalandmoralmessageswithinamore
autonomousaestheticframeworkofvocalvirtuosity,poetryandstagecraft.The
artificialityofthetheatreandthebeautyofmusicfunctionedaspinkspectaclesby
whichtoobservetrulyhumanexperiences,mediatedbyperformers.Thegenre
offeredwomenonstage,beautifulcostumes,changeablesets(mutazionidi
scena),machineeffects,dancingandfencingeffectsthatwerecriticizedby
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someassensualbutwerenevergivenup.Thesocialconnotationsofthegenre
areneverthelessspecific.Theassociationofthemusicwiththemoralimplications
oftheplots(ethosandpathos)wasperhapsgreaterthaninotherphasesofopera
history.AnassiduouspatronsuchasEmperorCharlesVIinVienna(171140)
requestedcontrapuntalstylesfromhiscomposerstomatchtheloftythoughtsof
hispoets.InPietroMetastasio'slibrettoLaclemenzadiTito(1734fig.8),itis
takenforgrantedthatCharlesVIresemblesTitusandthisprincefindshisinner
ethosbydefyingtheclaimsofpower,justice,convenienceandthepassionsof
loveandfear.Suchhumanizationofthegreatones,showingthemassubjectto
thesameemotionsthatanyspectatormightfeel,isanenlightenedapproachthat
wasobscuredinthe19thcentury(butexploitedagaininHollywoodcinema).
ThenarrativeofItalianopera,whetherconcentratingonindividualfeelingsinopera
seriaoronsocialpracticeinoperabuffa,wasguidedbyreason.Withexceptions
dependingonculturalcontext,itlargelyavoidedthesupposedirrationalityofthe
tragdieenmusique,whichcultivatedlemerveilleux.18thcenturyFrenchgrand
opra(asitwasalreadycalled)andopracomiquestilladheredtowonderand
spectacle,fuellingendlesspolemicsrightintothe1780s.
Earlyinthecentury,theparodyplaysoftheParisianfairgroundstages(fig.9)often
satirizedthelatesttragdies.Thepathfromthesespokencomedieswith
intermittentsongs(oprascomiquesenvaudevilles)tocomicoperaswithspoken
dialogue(oprascomiques,oprasbouffons,comdiesmlesd'ariettes)
crossed,asitwere,thedemarcationbetweennonoperaandopera.Ananalogous
developmentisseeninoperaparodiesandparodyintermezzos(lateroneact
farse)appearinginVenice,Florence,Hamburg,Viennaandelsewhere,often
bourgeoisindramaticcontentandphilosophytheseweretheforerunnersofcomic
operasorSingspiel.ThefashionoftheEnglishballadoperabeganinLondonwith
theparodisticBeggar'sOperaof1728.Spanishoperasweretraditionally
mythologicalorpastoralzarzuelasandmusicalcomdiasheroic,satiricaland
popularplotstookoverastimewenton.
Somestructuralcharacteristics,particularlyofItalianopera,werelatercriticizedas
rationalisticorrigid,forexamplethealternationbetweenrecitatives(dialogue)
andsungnumbers.Inreality,thisalternationofferedgreaterformalvarietythan
mostliteraryspokendramaofthetime,whichmightberecitedsolelyin
Alexandrines,versiscioltiorblankverse.Theinheritedpoeticformsforariasand
ensembleslyricalverseoftheAnacreonticvarietyreflectedthesisterhoodof
musicandpoetryasinotherItalianvocalgenres,buttheirdramaticfunctionwas
nowcodeterminedbythesurroundingsungdialogue,therecitative.
IncomicgenresinnonItalianlanguages,sungclosednumbersusuallyalternated
withspokendialogueadditionally,recitativeswereoccasionallyheard.Thecourts
inViennaandlaterinParisforbadetheuseofrecitativetothecivictheatres,as
thismonopolyimpliedsocialstatus.TherewasthusatwolayeredEuropean
tradition:theclassicalandcourtlyformwasItalianandFrenchseriousoperawith
recitative,whereasthecomicandbourgeoisgenreswithspokendialogue
representedthevernacular.TheexceptionwasItaliancomicopera,whichalways
usedrecitative.Thisfactandthegenre'sthroughcomposedmusicalforms
(concertatofinales,alreadyfoundaround1720,weretypicalofoperabuffa)
contributedtoitsinternationalstatus.
Theuseofspokendialogueinsteadofrecitativefavouredvariouscrosscurrents
andtransfers,likeoperabuffaintoopracomique(from1752)oropracomique
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intoSingspiel(fromthe1760sinparticular).Fromaboutmidcentury,serious
operaswerecreatedinEnglish,SpanishandGerman,someoriginatingas
translationsfromFrenchorItalianandcomicaswellasheroicoperasappearedin
RussianandinScandinavianlanguages.Thedistinctionofgenresrelaxedastime
wenton:therewerenotonlygenremixturesbetweencomicandseriousopera
(drammaeroicomico,operasemiseria,dramelyrique)butalsoinflectionsofthe
aestheticandsocialvaluesformerlytypicaltotheestablishedgenres,forexample
whenexoticandserioussubjectsinvadedopracomiqueandoperabuffainthe
1760s.
(iii)Performanceandperformers.
Aperformativeprincipleof18thcenturyoperawasthecontrolofnaturethroughits
lifelikeimitation,whichinvolvedartisticusesofthevoice(coloratura),thebody
(dance,costume,gesturefig.10),language(rhetoric)andofcoursethe
imagination.Therealisticideaofmimickingpeopleonstagewasvariouslyfiltered
throughtheartificialliteraryandmusicaltextsandgesturalconventions,the
fantasticorcomplexplots,expensivedecorationswhichalsoenteredtherealistic
andcomicsubgenresandaboveallthroughcodesofpublicbehaviour.Musical
performerswerehighlytrainedspecialistsbutalsoambitiousmembersofasociety
tiedtodecorumandetiquette.Performingstandards,styles,mannersandskills
variedmorewidelythantodaytheperformanceitselfwasperhapsmoreoften
responsibleforthesuccessorfailureofawork.Althoughaudienceappeal
providedartisticclouttoperformers,theirinfluencewassociallyandinstitutionally
mediatedtheydependedonprotectorsandmanagersandonthegoodwillofthe
authorities.InRomein1715,thesatiricalintermezzosLaDirindinabyGirolamo
GigliandDomenicoScarlattihadtobewithdrawn,bypapalcommand,whenthe
leadingcastratorefusedtoappearintheroleofapregnantprimadonna.In
Bolognain1733,thesopranoAnnaMariaPeruzziappealedagainsttheallegedly
badmusicthatJ.A.Hassehadcomposedforher,butshehadtosingit.Rowson
orbehindthestagefoundamplereflectioninparodyoperasshowingthe
predicamentoftheimpresariobetweenwarringartists.
Operacontinuouslyaddressedissuesofgenderandclass(forexampleby
enactingbehaviouralnormsonstage)andtargetedsocialcustomsofdressing,
fencing,dancing,feasting,litigatingandsoon.Womenwerenotallowedonthe
publicstageintheChurchState,butotherwiseappearedinfarmoreoperahouses
thaninthe17thcentury.Despitediscriminationandsexualexploitation,women
oftencompetedwithcastratosforthemostlucrativeroles.Theinterestincastrato
voices,whichincreaseduntilabout177080,hasartistic,economicandprobably
socialdimensions.TheyhardlyeverappearedinFranceorinbourgeoisopera
genres.
Familyandmaritalbondswerefrequentamongperformers,composersand
impresarios.Insmallercompanies,authors,managersandperformerswere
sometimesoneandthesame,justasinthespokentheatreexamplesofthe
personalunionimpresariolibrettistsingerarefoundfromFrancescoBorosini
(Vienna,1724c1731)andAntonioDenzio(Prague,172435)toEmanuel
Schikaneder(Vienna,17831812).
Thesocialandtechnicalconventionsofperformance,suchasrolehierarchiesor
conductingandrehearsingroutines,arefamiliarfromcontemporarycriticism,
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whichinvariablydeploresclichandirrationality.Performersbecamemoreclosely
tiedtothedemandsofindividualworksthepasticciopractice,whichhadallowed
themtoinserttheirownfavouritearias,scenesorballetentresintocontextsfor
whichtheywerenotintended,declinedafterabout1760.Singerscouldbecome
directlyinvolvedinstylisticanddramaticconceptions(forexamplethecastrato
GaetanoGuadagniinGluck'soperareform)butonthewhole,theylostinfluence
ontheliteraryormusicaltextwhileretainingtheirprominentstatusinthebusiness.
(iv)Audiences.
Operagoingwasanactivityreflectingpersonalinterestsortaste,asisevident
fromthepolemicsaboutit,butwithinaframeworkofsocialstatusand
convenience.Courtoperawasattendedbycourtmemberswithoutpaymentandin
deferencetotheruler.Nextcamethelargegroupofaristocraticorpatrician
patronswiththeirfriendsandguests(rarelytheirwives),whomayhavehad
sponsoringinterestsorwhovaluedoperaforsocialcontactthisgrouphasalsoleft
mostofthewrittendocumentationofthepractice.Thesepeoplewenttotheopera
asmanytimesaspossibleand,iftheytravelled,inasmanyplacesaspossible.
Middleclassspectatorswererareincourtopera,astheycouldnotaffordthe
tickets,althoughtherewastheoccasionalfreeperformanceforallcitizensatsuch
courtsasViennaorBrunswick.Servantscouldusuallyattend,free,inthegallery.
Thesocialspectrumofaudiences,however,graduallyexpandeddownwards,
especiallyinthecomicgenresthearistocracy,ontheotherhand,attendedboth
typesofentertainmentthroughoutthecentury.
Theshiftsinattendanceanddisseminationcorrespondedtoanunpredictablebut,
onthewhole,massivepublicityforopera,whichexceededthecriticaldiscourses
aboutoperainothercenturies.Theoperaticdebatewasdisseminatedacross
Europebytheliteraryliteintreatises,memoirs,letters,novelsandnewopera
librettos,andithelpedtransformthegenreitselfinitsrelationshiptopubliclife.The
early18thcenturyRomanandVenetianfightsoveroperaboxes(guerredeipalchi)
werepartoffeudsbetweenaristocraticclanstheLondonpamphletwarsaround
Handel,theRoyalAcademyofMusicandtheOperaoftheNobility(172037)had
political,literaryandmoralimplications(theforeigngenreitselfwasunder
scrutiny).Themostfamousdebate,thepamphletwaroftheQuerelledesBouffons
(Paris,theearly1750s),exemplifiesthewayinwhichartistic,politicalandother
convictionsmightcrystallizearoundindividualoperaproductions.TheGluckists
andPiccinnistsweremovedbothbyliteraryambitionandbycontrastingattitudes
toMarieAntoinette'sinvolvementinoperaticreformatthehandsofforeign
composers.
Probablythemosttangibleandlastingeffectsofopera'spublicacclaimwere
found,inthecourseoftheyears,inoperaitself,asitssingingheroes,princesses,
chambermaids,villagephilosophersandhighpriestslearnttopronouncethe
spectators'ownbeliefsandsuperstitions.
3.Stylisticevolution.
(i)Uptoc1760.
ForPierJacopoMartello(Dellatragediaanticaemoderna,D1715),operaasa
genrewastobeavoidedbytheselfconsciouspoet.Itwasimpuredrama,perhaps
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toberedeemedinthedistantfuturebythedramaticpowerofmusic.Butinthe
sameyear,AntonioSalvipromisedintheprefacetohislibrettoAmoreemaest
that,afterthetragiccatastrophewiththehero'sdeath,thespectatorswouldleave
thetheatreintears,surroundedbysweetmusicalharmonies.Bydirectlyengaging
musicinaudiencebondingthroughsympathy,terrorandcompassionthis
theatricalpracticewasheadingforoperaasweknowit.
The17thcenturyhadnotposedthequestionofdramainoperawithanyrigour,
andhadratherindulgedintheplaygroundsofpastoralArcadiaandclassicalmyth.
Sinceabout1690,theRomanAccademiadell'Arcadiaandotherliterarycircles
requestedareturntouttersimplicityortospokentragedyaltogether.Hostilityto
operaonmoral,nationalorsocialgroundsalsopersisted,particularlyoutsideItaly.
Moderatesupporters,somepersonallyinvolvedinthebusinessaslibrettists
(ApostoloZeno,PietroPariati,AntonioSalvi,BartholdFeind)orcomposers
(Mattheson,Telemann),attemptedreform,adoptingethicalanddramaturgical
principlesofFrenchspokendrama(Corneille,Racine,Pradon,Molire).They
insisted,however,onthelegitimacyofaformofdramathatissungthroughout,as
itwasatthattimeinseriousandcomicItalianandGermanoperaandinthe
tragdieenmusique.Totransformcanzonettasorcoupletsintoscenicdramatic
monologues,orrecitationintospontaneousutterancesofacharacter,implied,first,
anewaestheticofwordsetting.Symmetricalanddancetypeariasyieldedtolong,
pulsatingallegromovementsmelodicpanacheandrhythmicvarietyfocussed
listeners'attentiononthelifelikemusicalprocessandthesingerratherthanthe
poeticform,withoutsacrificingdeclamatoryimpact.
Theimportantquestionsofdramaturgyandverisimilitude(couldJuliusCaesarsing
arias?howcouldahappyendingbemadeplausible?)concernedtheimitationof
humannaturethroughmusicandthusthecontributionofmusictodrama.
Examplesofsuchcontributionswhichweredeemedsuccessfulatthetimeare
foundinoperasbyAlessandroScarlatti,Handel,Vinci,HasseandPergolesi(for
exampleinhisintermezzosLaservapadrona,1733).Whathadstartedasan
ultimaterefinementoftheaestheticofwordgeneratedsongherebecamea
tendencyofmusictoexpressaffections,ethosandstatusofcharacters,even
ideasandplots:thefabricoftheatreitself.Thismovebeyondwordswasmadeas
thetechnicaldevicesofcoloratura,improvisedcadenza,orchestralfigurationand
colourenhancedtheimitativepowersofmusic.Thesizeandvarietyoftimbreof
operaorchestrasweremorerapidlyincreasedthaninanyotherperiodthevocal
coloraturasreflectedtheambitionsofacompetitiveprofession.Thisfirstflourishing
ofTonmalereiinoperaisconnectedwithcomposerssuchasVivaldi,Telemann,
RameauorJommelliintheirverydifferentways.
TheartisticrepresentativeofthisphaseofEuropeanoperawasthepoetPietro
Metastasio(16981782).Inhisearliestworks,Metastasiobenefitedfromthe
inspirationofaprimadonna,MariannaBentiBulgarelli,andhecultivatedalifelong
friendshipwiththecastratoFarinelli.Theethicalandenlightenedplots,therefined
poeticlanguageandMetastasio'ssuperbdramaturgicalskillmusthavehelped
singerstosuspendtheirowndisbeliefinfaceofmusicalchallenges.
BenedettoMarcello'sIlteatroallamoda(D1720)satirizedtheprovincialorold
fashionedhabitofoperasingerstostandoccasionallybesidetheirroleandbreak
thesuspensionofdisbelief(theywavedattheirprotectors,forexample).This
unwittinglyepicsortoftheatre(intheBrechtiansense),whichallowedfor
pregnantpausesorinterruptionsbyaudiencereactions,oftenoccurredinthe
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unwrittensectionsoftheperformancesuchascadenzas,orbetweenariaand
recitative.Astimewenton,theperformativeeventbecameincreasinglycontrolled
byauthorialagendas.Plot,stageaction,evenstagesets,wereincreasingly
composedout,forexampleinaccompaniedrecitativesdepictingnatureand
emotions.Theirperformancesoundedmorespontaneousthanthatofarias(as
FrancescoAlgarottiemphasized,D1755)buthadtobecarefullyrehearsed
becauseofthetempochangesoftheorchestralaccompaniment.Inoperabuffa,
parodisticeffectsandlazzi(seteffects)wereoriginallyoutsidethejurisdictionof
librettistorcomposer.Thepoetgainedhiscontroloverthemwhencensorship
requestedevenintermezzotextstobeprintedinadvance.Thecomposerslearnt
toexpresscomiceffects,asshowninoperasbyPergolesi,LatillaandGaluppi,or
inHasse'sintermezzos:operabuffabecamesynonymousalsowithamusical
style.
Thegrowingsuccessofoperabuffawithbourgeoisaswellasaristocratic
audiencesisreflectedintheaestheticsandcareerofoneofitsmainauthors,Carlo
Goldoni(170793).Asaliteraryreformer,heintendedhisspokenplaysas
replacementsoftraditional,irregularcomedyhisalmost80buffalibrettos
(drammigiocosipermusica)wereofsecondaryimportancetohimself,buttheir
verytheatricalityandenlightenedmoralismhelpedestablishoperabuffaasa
musicalgenrethroughoutEurope.Toaminordegree,thegenrealsoindulgedin
musicalparody,whichreliedonthereferencetooperaseriastylesasinFlorian
Gassmann'smusicforCalzabigi'sL'operaseria(Lacriticateatrale)(1769,Vienna).
Inopracomiqueandothervernacularforms,spokendialoguewasthehomeof
verbalentertainment,atleastwiththebetterplaywrights,buttheriseof
sentimental,fantasticandmixedplotsinmidcenturyhadtheeffectofchannelling
theadvanceddramaticpowerofmusictowardsnonheroicfieldsofexpression.
(ii)c176090.
Anupsurgeinoperaticcreativityinthe1760sand70swasfuelledbyavastly
expandingrangeofsourcesforplots,whichnowincludednovels,nationalhistories
andcontemporarynewsitems.Audiencescouldthusbeexposedtostories
reflectingtheprevailinghumanitarianvaluesofthetime,suchasthecultofthe
family,theheroismofthehumble,thedignityofnonChristiancivilizationsorthe
horrorsofarbitrarypowerandunjustdetention.Comicopera,whilemaintaining
socialsatireasastapledramaticdevice,engagedinthecultivationofthepathetic,
wherefemininecharactersgainedinstatureandwomensingersrosetoatypeof
stardomstronglyimbuedwithsentimentalism.Readilyunderstandablesubjects
andfamiliarsituationswereonlyoneaspectofamovetowardsrealismwhich
involvedthewholerangeofoperaticcreation,productionandcriticism.The
programmaticwritingsofFrancescoAlgarottiandDenisDiderotwerelinkedtoan
increasedattentiontostagedirectionsandtheauthenticityofcostumesandsets.
Playhousesbecamestarkerintheirinnerdecorationandwhattheatrehistorians
callthefourthwallmadeitselffeltbetweenthestageandtheaudience.While
authorsstrovetopresenteventhemostfantasticaleventsasbelievable(see
Mozart'sletteraboutthesupernaturalvoiceinIdomeneo,29November1780),the
spectators'identificationwiththecharacterscouldreachextremesofemotional
involvement,facilitatedbypackedhousesandstrongcollectivefeelings.
Seriousoperaresortedtosubjectsandepisodeswhichwouldhavebeenregarded
asshockinginthepreviousgenerationandwerestillwidelyfrownedupon.Thus
thedecorumofEnlightenmentoperalostgroundtoadisplayofspectaculareffects
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whichcommentatorsrelated(positivelyornegatively)totheaestheticallyimpure
dramaturgyofthe17thcentury.Althoughthecomicgenrewasmorepliableand
opentostylisticinnovation,asshownbythedevelopmentofthedramelyriqueand
itsItalianoffshoots,thedrammaseriopermusicaorthefarsasentimentale,
seriousoperaalsoprovedtobereadyformajorevolutions,suchasthestagingof
comdieslyriquesattheAcadmieRoyaledeMusiqueortheburgeoningofthe
genericallyambiguousdrammaeroicomico.
Murders,suicides,battles,gothicsettingsandsupernaturaleventsnaturallycalled
foraspiciermusicallanguage,especiallywithregardtoharmonyand
orchestration.Buteventhemoretraditionalsubjectsweretreatedwithstrongly
diversifiedpoeticandmusicalmeans,concerningthestageaction,ariatypes,the
numberofcharactersinvolvedandtheuseofchoruseslargescaletonalplanning
andtheuseofrecurringmotifspromotedanoverallmusicalizationofoperato
whichcontemporarieswerekeenlyresponsive.Formalflexibilityanddramaturgical
innovationweremadepossiblebycollaborativeventures,suchasthoseofGoldoni
andGaluppi,CalzabigiandGluck(andperhapsDaPonteandMozart)orofthe
librettistsSedaineandMarmontelwithvariouscomposersinParis.Practiceslike
thepasticcioorsingerinducedalterationstoexistingworkswerenotentirely
abolished,butthecreativestatusandpublicimageofoperacomposersrose
significantly,totheextentthatPhilidor(in1764)andGluck(in1767)couldbe
explicitlyrecognizedastheauthorsofLesorcierandAlcesterespectively.When
Gluckclaimedthathispresenceattheperformanceofhisworkswasasessential
asthesuntotheearth,hewassettinganidealforhissuccessorsofthe19th
century.
Opera
V.The19thcentury
1.Introduction.
2.Institutions.
3.Repertory.
4.Genres.
5.Plots.
6.Stylisticandformalchanges.
7.Nationaltraditions.
8.Singersandotherperformers.
9.Staging.
10.Sources,dissemination.
11.Criticism,aesthetics.
Opera,VI:The20thcentury
1.Introduction.
Howevermuchsomemaylamentthefact,andeventhoughtherearenowsignsof
significantchange,alargemajorityoftheoperasthatformthepresentday
internationalrepertorystillhailfromaslightlyelongatedlong19thcentury,from
around1780untilaround1920.Themostfrequentlyperformedoperasallbelong
tothisperiod.Thiscuriouscentrality,nottomentionthedisturbingpresentnessof
themostfamousworks,theirconstantrecreationinpublicandprivatespaces
aroundtheglobe,makesanybroadhistoricaloverviewadauntingprospect.What
ismore,internalchronologicaldivisionswithintheperiodareneitherobviousnor
commonlyagreedon,nordoesseparationofthegenreintovariousnational
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schools,thoughtheseretainedmuchcurrency,seemasunproblematicasitmight
beindealingwiththe18thcentury.Accordingly,theensuingdiscussiondoesnot
followchronologicalornationalboundaries,relyinginsteadonmoreneutral
divisionsthatcouldapplytooperainanycentury.
AsIVindicates,theverytermoperaunderwentanimportanttransformation
duringthe18thcentury,changingfromasubspeciesofspokentheatreintowhat
wasessentiallyamusicalgenre.Eventhoughelementsoftheearlierdefinition
remainedinforceinsomeareasduringtheearlydecadesofthe19thcentury,
perhapsparticularlyinthecaseofItalianseriousopera,theperiodsawagradual
consolidationofthischange,withmusicasmoreandmorethedominantelement
andwiththestatusofthelibrettistasaliteraryfigureexperiencingasharpdecline.
Ontheotherhand,initsnewguiseasamusicalgenre,operalostaesthetic
prestige,inparticularincomparisontopureinstrumentalmusic.Late19thcentury
attemptstogivethegenrenewstatusthusoftensoughttoappropriateaspectsof
thesymphonictraditionwhilesimultaneouslystrivingtodignifyafreshthenon
musicalaspects:bynotionsoftheGesamtkunstwerk,bypublishinglibrettosas
independentliteraryworksorbydevelopingtheideaofLiteraturoper,atypeof
operathatstrivestopreserveapreexistingliterarysourcemoreorlessintact.
Possiblyconnectedtothedeclineinthegenre'sliterarystatus,therelationshipof
operatolargercurrentsinculturalandpoliticalhistoryremainsasourceoflively
debateandnotinfrequentpuzzlement.KeyculturaltermssuchasRomanticism
andrealismoftenseemtomanifestthemselvesinoperaatperiodsremovedfrom
theirappearanceintheotherarts,orinstrangelyunemphaticcontexts.Asjustone
example,theliterarypolemicsoverRomanticisminItalyaround181618,orin
Franceinthe1820sand30s,althoughtheyfocussedondrama,seemedlargelyto
ignoreopera,quitepossiblybecausethegenrehadalready(andwithoutgreat
resistance)escapedthoserestrictionsoftimeandplacethatclassicistssawas
crucialtospokendrama,andbecauseitslanguage,itsmodeofdiscourse,wastoo
extraordinarytobecooptedintothedebateoneitherside.Ofcourse,opera
partookfreelyofthenew,Romanticdramasasliterarysourcesbut,significantly,it
wasabledosowithoutradicalreadjustmentstoitsouternature,Romanticand
classicalsubjectsfrequentlyremainingsidebysideinanotherwiselargely
unchangedformalandstylisticlanguage.Thisisnottosaythatsuchbroadcultural
shiftsdidnotaffectoperaprofoundly:thenewsubjectivitiesthatemergedwith
Romanticismcertainlyplayedpowerfullyacrossopera'sexpressiveworldbutthe
conjunctionsaretypicallynotasimmediateasthesharingofcertainliterarytexts
mightatfirstsuggest.
Thesamecautionmightbeappliedtoopera'srelationshiptohistoryinthebroader
sense.Thepoliticalrevolutionsoftheperiodinterruptedthesteadyproductionand
consumptionofoperaticpleasureinwhatarearguablynomorethansuperficial
ways,andthepersistentassociationofcertaincomposers(notablyAuber,Verdi
andanumberofeasternEuropeans)withinsurrectionandsocialunresthasfar
moretodowithlater19thcenturyimaginingsnostalgiaforalosttimeofaction
thanwithanycontemporaryevidence.Althoughitwasinevitablethattheopera
house,asanimportantmeetingplacefortheurbanbourgeois,occasionally
becamecaughtupinthecentury'sgreatbourgeoisrevolutions,thetheatrewasfar
moreoftenaplacewheretherulingclasscouldrelyonstability.Thiswasmoreso
asthecenturyprogressedandrevolutionarymovementsembracedaneverwider
socioeconomicspectrum,manyelementsofwhichwereexcludedfromallbutthe
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humblestofoperaticrepresentations.Thisisnot,ofcourse,todenythatoperain
the19thcenturywasinmanyareasinescapablyboundupwiththeideaofnation
andnationalrepresentationmerelythatpoliticaleventsandoperaticeventsare
verydifferent,theirrelationshipoftencomplexandsubterranean.
2.Institutions.
Towardstheendofthe18thcentury,regularoperaticperformancescouldbeseen
throughmuchofEurope,evenasfarafieldasRussia.50yearslater,however,the
genrehadbecomeawellnighglobalphenomenon.Apartfromcertainpocketsof
partialresistance,thisexpansionwasprimarilyofItalianopera,firstinahugewave
ofRossinifever(therewasaRossinivogueinChileinthe1830s),andthenofhis
followers,inparticularVerdi.By1870themostpopularofVerdi'soperaswere
beingperformedinmanyafarflungoutpostinNorth,CentralandSouthAmerica,
andtheyhadalsotravelledtoAustralia,China,IndiaandSouthAfrica.
Inthemoreremoteregions,operawasoftenbroughtinbymeansofintrepid
touringcompanies,bravelymakinguseofanexpandingsystemofrailtransport.
WithinEurope,however,thenumberoftheatresdedicatedtofixedseasonsof
operaticperformanceincreasedconsiderably,especiallyduringthefirsthalfofthe
19thcentury.Aftertherevolutionsof1848therecameaboutagradualchange,
andagradualdeclineinopera'seconomicfortunesinthemaincentresofwestern
Europe.Partlythiswasamatterofchangedpublichabitsamongtheprivileged
classes:therewerenowotherpossiblemeetingplaces,andnew,competingforms
ofculturalactivity.Butitwasalsotodowiththechangingnatureofoperatic
institutions.
Althoughtracesofwhatmightlooselybedescribedascourtoperainthe17th
and18thcenturysenseoccasionallysurvivedintotheearly19thcentury,notably
inGermanyandAustria,byfarthemostcommonfinancialbasisforanopera
housewaswithinamixedeconomy.Thekeyfigurewastheimpresario,already
muchinevidenceinthe18thcentury,whoarrangedseasonsandengagedsingers
andcomposers,usuallyreceivingsomekindofsubsidyfromthetheatre'sowners
(whomightormightnotbethelocalgovernment)butalsospeculatingathisown
financialrisk.Thehighpointoftheimpresarios'powercameinthefirsthalfofthe
19thcentury,aperiodthatsawpowerfulfiguressuchasLouisVronandhis
successorsattheParisOpraAlessandroLanari,whocontrolledlargeregionsof
centralItalyandthustoanextentcoordinatedtherepertoryandperforming
resourcesandBartolomeoMerelli,whoarrangedsimilarexchangesbetweensuch
importantcentresasLaScala,Milan,andtheKrntnertortheaterinVienna.Looser
connectionstookplacebetweenHerMajesty'sTheatreinLondonandtheThtre
ItalieninParis,thoughheretheprimarylinkwasthesharedservicesofagroupof
litesingersandtheirownpreferredrepertory.
Thedeclineoftheimpresariosinthelatterpartofthe19thcenturymarkedseveral
importantchangesinoperaticlife.Theincreasingestablishmentofacore
repertory,andtheconsequentdeclineinproductionofnewworks(seebelow,3),
reducedtheimpresariosrole,asdidthegradualstrengtheningofcopyright
controls(overbothnewandrepertoryworks),whichvastlyincreasedthepowerof
certainpublishers,whonowbegantotakeamoreactiveroleinoperatic
production.Competitionintensified,andprofitmarginsdecreased,withthe
gatheringpopularityoflarge,arenatypetheatreslaterinthecentury(fig.13).For
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themajortheatres,statefunding,withimpresarioslikelytobelittlemorethanpaid
managers,becamethenormandthismodelcontinueditsprecariousexistence
throughthe20thcentury.
3.Repertory.
Oneofthekeychangesduringthisperiodwasthedecisiveformationofan
operaticrepertory,thegradualemergenceofabodyofworksthatwererevived
countlesstimesincountlessdifferentvenues,andtheconsequentdeclineinthe
productionofnewoperas.Repertoryworkswereofcoursenotunknowninthe
18thcenturyandearlier:theoperasofLullyandRameauhadachievedsomething
likethatpositioninFrance,ashadtheoratoriosofHandelinEngland.Itshould
alsoberecalledthatanoperaticrepertoryofakinddidindeedexistinthe18th
century,butthattheworkwastypicallyalibretto,notitsmusicalsetting:severalof
Metastasio'slibrettoswereendlesslyrestagedinthe18thcentury,innumerous
musicalsettings.SomeofMozart'soperas(inparticularDonGiovanni)mayhave
tentativelyestablishedrepertorystatusinEnglandandGermanyinthefirstdecade
ofthe19thcentury,butthecrucialchangeindirectionoccurredinItaly(thecentre
previouslymostresistanttorepertoryformation)andbeganwiththemostpopular
comicoperasofRossini,whichestablishedforthemselvesapermanentposition
aroundtheglobe,tobefollowedbyvariousworksbyBellini,DonizettiandVerdi.
Bythe1840sthetermrepertoryoperawasincommonuseinItalyandrapidly
spreadelsewherethedisruptionsof18489andtheinternationalsuccessesof
Verdi'smiddleperiodoperassolidifiedtheprocess.
Inthesecondhalfofthecentury,theideaofarepertorywasthusfirmly
entrenchedbutinitsearliestphasesthecorpuschangedquiteradically.Fromthe
1850sonwards,thefirstpanEuropeanchallengetoItalianhegemonycame,from
Frenchgrandopra,inparticulartheworksofMeyerbeer,whichbecameatruly
internationalphenomenon,evenestablishinga(highlycontested)positioninItaly
itself(fig.14).Then,towardstheendofthecentury,Wagner'soperasgained
ground,inseveralcountriesdisplacingallbutthemosthardyofItalianoperas(it
wasnotuntilthe1920sand30s,withthesocalledVerdiRenaissance,thatItalian
andGermanoperaestablishedacomfortablecoexistenceasthebackboneofthe
repertory).Towardstheendofthe19thcentury,withnewoperasbecomingever
morescarce,weseeglimmersofwhat,100yearslater,hadbecomeamajorforce:
theideaoftheoperaticrevivalasanagentofrepertoryrenewal.WhenHandel's
Almirawasperformedin1878inHamburg,itinitiatedaprocessthatwouldgrow
steadilythroughthe20thcentury,thoughstillnotrapidlyenoughtochallengethe
centralpositionstilloccupiedbyworksfromthelong19thcentury.
Theeffectsofthisrepertoryformationonoperaticinstitutionsarereferredtoin2
above.Buttherewereother,equallyimportantrepercussions.Duringthefirstfew
decadesofthe19thcentury,starsingerstendedtolimitthemselvestoworksin
onenationaltradition,andcouldrelyonmakingalivingoutofroleseitherwritten
speciallyforthemorinsomewayadaptedtotheirstrengthsandweaknesses:
choiceofacompanyofsingerswouldtypicallyprecedechoiceofrepertoryfora
givenseason.Bytheendofthecenturythissituationwasoftenreversed,singers
tendingmoreandmoretoadapttheirvoicestoavarietyofrolesandmusical
stylesandcomposersbeinglesswillingtotailorrolesforaparticularvoice.An
internationalsingingstyleemerged.
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Butperhapsthemostfundamentalchangebroughtaboutbyrepertoryopera
occurredinthenatureofoperaticcommunication.Inanoperaticworldbased
primarilyonnewworks,composershadtoproducequicklyandtocommunicate
immediatelywithaudiences:ifaworkfailedatitsfirstperformances,thatfailure
wasoftenabsolute.Hencetheimportanceofgenericconventions,whose
presencecouldstimulateandeasecreativeendeavourwhileatthesametime
offeringaudiencesreadypointsofcontactandareassuringfamiliarity.Small
wonder,then,thattheseconventionslostgroundastherepertorysetin.New
worksnowhadtopassasternertest,definingthemselvesasevermoreradically
differentfromtheircompetitors.Asoriginalitybecameincreasinglythewatchword,
originalcompositionbecameeverharder.Thesenseofanoperatictraditionwas
lost,orratherwassearchedforintheevermoredistantpast.
4.Genres.
Theseparationofcomicandtragicgenresthathadbeenestablishedinthe18th
centurywasfirmlyinplace,whateverthenationalschool,atthestartofthe19th
century,andremainedfairlyconstantforthefirstfewdecades.True,therewas
alsoatraditionofsocalledmixedworks(theFrenchcomdielarmoyanteorthe
Italianoperasemiseria),but,ratherthanescapethetraditionaldivisions,these
types,thelatterespecially,tendedtoemphasizethemfurtherbyusinggenre
juxtapositionasaprimarymeansofdramaticarticulation.Anadditionalcontinuity
withthe18thcenturywasinthetendencyofcomicworkstooccupyaless
elevatedpositionintheoperaticpantheon,frequentlyappearinginminortheatres
andaddressingalesselevatedaudience.Thistendencyhardenedinthedecades
aroundthemiddleofthecentury:Rossinistylecomicoperas,thoughretaininga
robustcurrency,particularlyindialecttraditions,becameunpopularwiththemost
successfulcomposers.
However,thisfallingawayordilutingofcomicoperawasaccompaniedbytwo
highlysignificantdevelopments.Thefirstwasanincreasedinfiltrationofcomic
scenesintoseriousopera.InItalyVerdiwasactiveinthisfusionofgenres,
integratingfranklycomicscenesintoseveralofhispost1850operas.Perhaps
evenmorestriking,inFrancethelater19thcenturydramelyriqueowedatleastas
muchtoanearliertraditionofopracomiqueasitdidtograndopra.Other
nationaloperatraditionsofthelater19thcentury,theRussianandtheCzech,
seemedeasilytoembracethismixtureofthecomicandtheserious.
Theseconddevelopmentwastheemergenceofanewgenre,nowknownunder
thebroadtitleofoperetta.ThoughtherewereimportantprecedentsbothinFrance
andGermany,thedecisivepointisusuallyseentobemarkedbytheworksof
Offenbachinthe1850s,firstknownasoprasbouffesafterthetheatreinwhich
theywereinitiallypresented(fig.15).Theinternationalpopularityofthisnewstyle
ledtooffshootsinothercountries,eachwithadistinctivenationalcharacter,and
eachdrawingfromindigenoustraditions:theOperettenofJohannStraussand
othersincentralEurope(whichowedsomethingtotheearlierSingspiel)theworks
ofGilbertandSullivaninEngland(whichdrewenergyfromvaudevilleandballad
operatraditions)therevivalofthezarzuelainSpainandfromthereits
disseminationtoCentralandSouthAmerica.
5.Plots.
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Amongthehugediversityofoperaticplotsinthe19thcentury,itwouldseemvery
difficulttotracepurposefullinesofdevelopment.Onthemostbasiclevel,however,
onemighthazardthatthedominationofFrenchdramaturgicalmodelsseenatthe
endofthe18thcenturywasinlargepartmaintainedthroughthenext100years.
WhenseachangesoccurredinthemannersofFrenchspokentheatrefor
exampletheadventofmlodrameintheearlyyearsofthe19thcentury,orthe
subsequentturntowardsrealismaroundmidcenturythenoperafollowed,and
didsoregardlessofthevariousinflectionsbroughtonbynationaldifferences.
Butcertainlargeshiftsinculturalattitudeneverthelesslefttheirmark.Forexample,
operaplotsaresurelyimplicatedinthenowfamiliarideathatthe19thcenturysaw
animportantturnawayfromwhatthesociologistRichardSennetthascalledthe
ideaofpublicman:anincreasingtendencyforevermorestressedandcrowded
urbandwellerstoseekcoherencenotwithinthepublicworldofpoliticsandpublic
display,whichhadsooftenbetrayedthemandwasevermoreobviouslybeyond
theircontrol,butratherwithintheprivateworldofthefamilyandofpersonal
relationshipsgenerally.Ithasbeenplausiblysuggestedthatthischangeisplayed
outinoperaticsubjects:thatthosegrandhistoricalcanvassesoftheearlycentury
graduallygavewaytoclaustrophobicdramas,inwhichtheindividual'splight
becamethechieffocusofattention(relatedtothiscouldbethedeclineinthe
prestigeofcomicworks,whichinevitablyliemoreinthepublicworld).For
example,thedeclineofFrenchgrandopraoftheMeyerbeeriantypehasbeen
tracedinpreciselytheseterms(Gerhard,E1992),andtheprogressofacomposer
suchasVerdi,whoseoperasspanalargepartofthecentury,isafurthercasein
point:althoughgrandchoraleffectsnearlyalwaysplayedapartinhisworks,the
increasingmannerinwhichindividualscometodominatethedramaisobvious.
Wagner'sretreatintomythinthesecondhalfofhiscareermightbetakenintothis
storywithonlyalittlesenseofstrainandaseeminglylogicalendpointoccursin
theearly20thcentury,withpurelypsychologicalworkssuchasDebussy'sPellas
etMlisandeandSchoenberg'sErwartung,orwiththeoperasofPuccini,inwhich
anypoliticalaspectsaretypicallyoverwhelmedbythefocusonindividual
passions.
However,objectionstothisneatsenseofprogresscomereadilytomind.Inthe
caseofVerdi,whiletheprogressfrom(say)thegrandpublicspacesandthemes
ofNabuccoto(say)theclaustrophobiaofOtellomightseemcompelling,important
matureworkssuchasDonCarloswillgivepause,notleastbecausethatoperais
arguablyoneinwhichtheforceofhistory,andthusofthepublicworld,playswith
unprecedentedinfluenceonthelivesofthecharacters.AndwithWagnerthereis
thecaseofDieMeistersinger,inwhichthecomposer'sdramaturgicaltechniques
adaptwithseemingeasetograndpublicspacesandoverthistoricalgestures.
Moreanomalousstillaretheoperasfromemergingnationaltraditionssuchas
thoseinRussiaandelsewhereineasternEurope,inwhichtheepicstyleandlarge
historicalcanvascontinuetooccupythecentre,albeitsometimeschaotically
juxtaposedwithanintensefocusonindividuals.
Undoubtedlyrelatedtothesematters,andequallyproblematic,isanotherlarge
shift,towardswhatislooselycalledrealism(orverismo).Certainkeyworksare
routinelymentionedinthislight:Verdi'sLatraviata,whichwasoriginallysetin
almostcontemporaryParis,andwhichissuffusedbythethenmodernrhythmof
thewaltz,orBizet'sCarmen,withitsfactorygirls,commonsoldiersandcriminals.
However,inbothcases,asinmanyothers,therealisticeffectsthusobtainedare
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constantlycompromisedbytheirsimultaneousstatusaselementsoflocalcolour,
whichcausesthemtobeinsomesensesdistancedfromaudienceidentification
andthusmadelessrealistic(thereisalsotheobviouspointthattherealityofa
ViolettaoraCarmenwascertainlynotonetowhichthecontemporaryoperatic
audiencewouldhaveaspired).Perhapstheliteralgeographicalexpansionof
operaplotsinthelater19thcentury,theirtendencytoexploreevermoreremote
andmysteriousareas,isinthissenseamoresignificantdevelopment,notleast
becauseofthemusicalexplorationsthatitinspiredinsomanycomposers.Bythe
closingdecadesofthecentury,operaticexoticismparticularlyintheFrenchand
Italiantraditionshadbecomesocommonasalmosttofunctionasanalternative
routine,withitsownstockcollectionofmuchcirculatedmusicalandvisual
representations.
6.Stylisticandformalchanges.
The19thcenturyisconventionallyseenasthegreatageofprogress,andsoitis
perhapsnotsurprisingthatthehistoryofitsmostimportantculturalproductsis
alsodepictedprimarilyasanachievementofgoals.Intermsofopera,thissenseof
agradualmovetowardssomedistantoasis(agoaloftenassociatedwithsome
vaguelyvalueladenconceptofdrama)istypicallyinscribedontothelivesof
individualcomposersornationalschools.ThisismoststrikinginthecaseofItalian
opera,whose19thcenturyhistoryisstillsometimesthoughtofasapainful
achievementofgenuinedramaticvalues,effectedbyheroicindividualeffortinthe
faceofformidableresistance.
Insuchahistoriographicalcontext,itissalutarytotrytoconstructamore
internationalpicture,onethatinvolvestrendslargerthanthosefoundinany
individualcomposerorevennationalschool.Therigidalternationofrecitative
(involvingdialogueandstageaction)andaria(involvingmonologueandreflection)
hadalreadybeenchallengedbythelaterdecadesofthe18thcenturybutthefirst
decadesofthe19thcenturysawthedecisiveemergenceofthemultimovement
numberasthebasicunitofoperaticform.Thisunitwas(perhapsasalways)
morepredictableinItalythanelsewhere,butitneverthelessformedthebackbone
ofmuchoperaelsewhere(thepartialexceptionwasGermanopera,which
favouredthestrophicromanceandtendedtousemultimovementformsonlyto
demonstrateacharacter'ssupposeditalianatequalities).Thenumbercontained
withinitbothstaticandkineticmovements,thusallowingforavarietyofemotional
representations(andavarietyofvocalmanners),aswellastheinjectionofstage
actiontypicallytheentranceofacharacterwithnewsfromoutsideto
precipitatecontrastingmoods.Duringtheearlydecades(longerincomicopera),
recitativeorspokendialogueremainedincurrencybutthisgraduallybecame
absorbedstylisticallyintothenumber.Atthesametime,thenumberstendedto
becomelessformallypredictableand,aboveall,longerandmorecomplex.Opera
acrossallnationalstylesbecameincreasinglyconnectedmusically.Bytheendof
thecenturyitwascommon,atleastinthemostelevatedstyles,foractendingsto
becometheonlyplacesofcompletemusicalpause.
Theseformalchangesbroughtwiththemother,equallyimportantandequallypan
European,developments.Oneofthemoststrikingwaswhathasbeencalleda
dialoguizingprocess,thesenseinwhichoperainthisperiodbeginstopresent
dialoguewhichinclassic18thcenturyoperaseriahadtakenplacealmost
exclusivelyinrecitativeasanincreasinglycentralaspectofitscommunicative
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project.Thisinonesensebroughtoperaclosertospokendrama,bytheendofthe
centuryallowingsuchtypesasLiteraturopern(worksthatuseastheirlibrettoan
existingspokendramawithminimalalteration,althoughinevitablysomecutting).It
alsomeantthattheduetinsomewaysreplacedtheariaasopera'snormative
modeofdiscourse.Thisshouldnotbeexaggerated.Partlybecauseitwasso
centraltoopera'sdisseminationoutsidethetheatre,inconcertsandprivate
venuesbothhumbleandelevated,thesoloaria(oratworstthechunkof
monologue)continuedinfirmcurrencyinalmostalltypesofoperathroughtothe
endofthe19thcentury,typicallyremaininganunproblematicaspectofthe
dramaturgy,notforexamplerequiringspecialplotpreparationtojustifyits
presence.Ifanything,thehegemonyoftheariainthepublic'soperaticimagination
wasfurtherstrengthenedbytheappearanceofrecording,whichwasgathering
paceasthecenturycametoaclose.
However,thecombinedeffectsofdialoguizingandincreasedcontinuity,together
withafallingawayofpredictableformalpatterns,leftroomfor,andperhaps
necessitated,otherlevelsofmusicalcommunicationwithinopera.Probablythe
mostimportantofthesewasbymotivicmeans.Reminiscencemotifsbegantobe
extensivelyusedduringthelastdecadeofthe18thcentury,mostlyinFrance
duringthefirsthalfofthe19ththeyappearedinmostnationalstyles,perhapsmost
commonlyinGermanopera,leastofteninItalian,apointsurelyreflectingtheso
calledsymphonicaspirationsofGermancomposers.Inthesecondhalfofthe
century,thistendencytosupplyanoperawithsomedegreeofmotiviccoherence
becameevenstronger,mostfamouslyinWagner'ssystematicuseoftheleitmotif
inhislateroperas,atechniquetakenupbyagreatmanyatthefindesicle.Itis
oftensaidthatleitmotifsshouldberigorouslydistinguishedfromreminiscence
motifs,inthatthelattermerelypunctuatethemusicaldiscourse(infacttendingto
articulatetheirmessagebytheirdifferencefromtheirsurroundings)whilethe
formerconstitutetheverybasisofthemusicalfabric.Butthematterisfarfrom
clearcut,notleastbecausetherearemanystretchesofmatureWagnerthatare
(arguably)withoutleitmotifs:tocharacterizethemusicalmaterialofhislateroperas
asderivingexclusivelyfromleitmotivicactivityrequiresadegreeofspecial
pleading.
Justassignificant:operagotnoisier.Although(contrarytogeneralbelief)the
stringsectionsofoperaticorchestrasdidnotgetmuchlargerduringthe19th
century,whatmightbecalledthecentreofgravityoftheorchestragradually
slipped,withlowertessiturasusedforcertainwoodwindinstruments(flutesand
bassoons),astrengtheningofthelowerbrassandthegradualadditionofwind
instrumentsofvariouskinds.Thesechangeswereofcourserelatedto
developmentselsewhere:inthedemandsmadeofoperaticorchestrasinthe
increasinglycontinuousoperaticfabricintheatrearchitectureandinthesheersize
ofvenues(dictatedbyeconomicconsiderations)inchangesinsingingstyleand
inmoregeneralorganologicaldevelopments.
7.Nationaltraditions.
In1itwassuggestedthatthenationaldifferencessoimportantto18thcentury
operagraduallybegantoerodeduringthe19thcentury,togivewaytoan
internationalstylebutsignificantdifferencesremainbetweenthemainstream
traditionseveninthelastdecades,onesnotonlytiedtotheuseoflanguage.
However,thisprocessofinternationalizationmaynotalwaysmoveinadirectline
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towardsthecentury'send.Itcanbeargued,forexample,thatthepullofFrench
dramaturgicalpractice,togetherwiththeunprecedentedprestigeandmagnificence
ofFrenchgrandopraandthecosmopolitanleaningsofParis,madethe1830s
andthebeginningofthe40sanearliermomentofrapprochementbetweenthe
majorEuropeantraditions,atleastwithinthemostelevatedgenres(similar
argumentsmightalsobemadeforParisinthefirstdecadeofthe19thcentury).
WithItaliancomposerssuchasDonizettilookingtowardsParisandParisianstyle,
andwiththeyoungWagnerdeeplyinfluencedbygrandopra,onecouldsuggest
thatParishadfashionedarounditselfaEuropeanstyle.Butitwasnottolast.The
threemostinfluentialcomposersofthe1850sand60sMeyerbeer,Verdiand
Wagneralltosomeextentredefinedasenseofnationaldifference,evenwhile
thedisseminationoftheirworkswasresponsibleforaninternationalizationofthe
repertory.
However,the19thcenturyalsosawthedecisiveestablishmentofanumberof
othernationaltraditions,inparticularthoseinRussia,Polandandvariouspartsof
theHabsburgempire,notablytheCzechlandsandHungary.Alltheseareassaw
vernacularoperaduringthe18thcentury,butasinthecaseofGermanyalittle
earliertheformationofanationaloperawasboundupwithagatheringsenseof
nationalculturalidentity.Inallcasesonecanidentifykeyworksthatmanaged,
morebydintofmultipleperformanceand/orassociationwithpoliticaleventsthan
byusingfolkmaterials,tocollectaroundthemapotentmiscellanyofmusicaland
dramaticorliterarymotifsthatcouldcometosymbolizethenation.Theprocess
hereisimportant:ratherthanappropriatinganalreadyexistingfundofnational
musicalmaterial,theseoperastypicallyconstructedthatmaterial,becoming
nationalthroughtheircumulativereception.InbothRussiaandtheCzechlands,
thefoundingfathers(GlinkawithALifefortheTsar,1836:fig.18,andSmetana
withTheBarteredBride,1866,respectively)weremerelythestartofaflourishing
tradition(albeitonethatinRussiacontinuedtofindfiercecompetitionfromItalian
opera),whiletheworkofErkelinHungaryandMoniuszkoinPolandremainedto
someextentisolated.Whatismore,Russianoperainparticularmanagedto
penetratethewesternEuropeanrepertory,functioningwithinitasthestandard
representationofotheropera,notboundbyanysupposeddramaturgicalor
musicalrulesassociatedwiththemainstreamtraditions.
Forvariouspoliticalandculturalreasons,othercountriesfounditmoredifficultto
establishnationaltraditions,althoughmanytried.Spainisatypicalexample,first
inthegripofRossini,thenVerdi,then(andalwaysbelatedly)dealingwiththe
equallystiflinginfluenceofWagnerandWagnerism.Othernascenttraditions,in
countriesasfarflunganddiverseasArgentina,Greece,SwedenandtheUSA
(manymorecouldbementioned),hadtowaituntilthe20thcenturyforany
decisivenationaloperatobeformed.
8.Singersandotherperformers.
Ashasalreadybeenmentioned,singersthosecentralpurveyorsofopera's
messagemaintainedasubstantialinfluenceovertheoperaticeventduringmuch
ofthe19thcentury.Duringthefirsthalfofthecentury,andfarbeyondthatin
certainareas,thechoiceofarosterofsingerswasthefirstdecisiontobemadein
theconstructionofanoperaticseason:onlywhentheperformershadbeenfixed
wouldcomposersandlibrettistsbecontracted,andthesecreatorswouldthen
maketheirdecisionsaboutsubjectsandtreatmentswithaparticularcastinmind.
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Thisappliedeventocomposersofthegreatestimaginableeminence.Verdior
Meyerbeer,forexample,werebothwellawarethattheirnewoperas,ifsuccessful,
weredestinedforrepertorystatus,andthustobeperformedundermanydifferent
conditionsandwithmanydifferentcastsbuttheyneverthelesstailoredindividual
partstothepremirecast,arestrictionthatseemedifanythingtostimulatetheir
creativity.However,asmentionedearlier,theincreasingholdoftherepertory
systeminthesecondhalfofthecenturyinevitablymeantthatsingerswereless
andlessofteninvolvedincreatingnewroles,andsolostmuchoftheirinfluence,
evenatatimewhenincreasedmobilityassuredthemostfamousofthem
unprecedentedlylargeearnings.
Oneofthemoststrikingaspectsofvocalchangeduringtheperiodistheextentto
whichsingersalteredintype.Bythe1830sthecastratos,alreadyinsteepdecline
duringthelater18thcentury,hadallbutdisappearedfromtheoperaticstage,their
heroicrolesfirsttakenbythecontraltomusico,thenbytheRomantictenor.This
dropinthetessituraofheroescontinuedthroughthe19thcentury.Intheearly
decades,forexample,tenorsfreelyusedamixedvoicetoproducegracefulhigh
notes,butbythe1840sthishadforthemostpartdisappeared,givingwaytoa
concentrationonthemorebaritonal,heaviertenorrange.Theriseofthesocalled
heroictenorroughlycoincidedwiththeemergenceofthedramaticbaritoneashis
centralantagonist,oreven,particularlyafter1850,astheprincipalcharacter.All
voicetypesgraduallysacrificedflexibilityforsheerpower:theornamentalvocal
writingthathadbeentheprovinceofalluptoabout1820hadbecomebymid
centurytheexclusivedomainoffemalesingers,andthenonlyasubgroupof
them.
Thesechanges,asalreadymentioned,arerelatedtootherdevelopmentsin
operaticpractice:theneedforgreaterpower,forexample,clearlywenthandin
handwiththeexpansionoftheorchestraandoftheatresgenerally.Theshiftaway
fromsopranovoices(whichhaddominated18thcenturyopera)inheroicroles,
andalsoperhapstheriseofthebaritone,couldberelatedtoanincreasingdesire
foradegreeofoperaticrealism:operacameclosertothecommunicativecodesof
spokendramaifthesingingvoicesofcharactersweredifferentiatedinamanner
similartotheirvocaldifferentiationinastageplay.Buttherearealsointeresting
waysinwhichthesedevelopmentsmightcautiouslybelinkedtowidercultural
change.
Thesituationofwomenonstage,forexample,seemstoinvitesuchspeculation.
Althoughwomenwereanacceptedpartof18thcenturytheatricallife,theirsocial
positionwasfrequentlyprecarious.Inpartforthisreason,womensingerstended
tocomefromtheatricalfamilies(wheretheywouldenjoyadegreeofprotection)
andtocomeapoorsecondtothecastratosintermsofearningpower.However,
the19thcenturysawagreatriseinthehegemonyoftheprimadonna,and
throughmostofthecentury(despitecompetitionfromstartenors)theycouldoften
outstriptheirmalecolleaguesinfameandfortune.Womenofmanystationsnow
chosethelifeofanoperasinger,seeinginitachanceforindividualprofessional
advancementotherwiseratherrarefortheirsex.Butitisatleastarguablethatthis
riseinstatusandprofessionalpowerwasaccompaniedbyatendencyinopera
plotstotreatfemalerolesasincreasinglyother:evermorepowerlesstoeffectthe
violenteventsthatsurroundandalltoooftenoverwhelmthem.
Duringthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,thepowerofsingersofeithersexto
influencetheoperaticeventwasbeingchallengedbyanotherinterpreter:the
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conductor.Atthestartofthecentury,thetypicalmethodofcoordinatingthe
musicalaspectsofanoperaticperformancewasbymeansoftwodirectors:the
maestroalcembalo,whoatpremireswasoftenthecomposerandwhooftenhad
aspecialresponsibilityforthevocalaspectsandtheprincipalviolin,whowould
usehisbowtobeattimeandgenerallymarshaltheorchestra.Thissystemfellinto
disusearoundmidcentury(earlierinGermanyandEngland,laterinItaly),tobe
replacedbysomethingmorelikethemodernconductor.Bytheendofthecentury
thestarconductorwasgainingininfluence,themostprominentofthemhaving
considerableswayovermanyaspectsoftheoperaticevent.
9.Staging.
Theideathatstagingmightbecloselycoordinatedwithotheraspectsofoperatic
performanceofcourseexistedwellbeforethe19thcentury,butthisperiod
neverthelessbroughtaboutextensiverevisionsinboththepracticeandthe
philosophyofopera'svisualsystemofcommunication.Muchofthestimulusfor
thiscamefirstfromGermanspeakingtheatres,wherealreadyinthelate18th
centuryconsiderableattentionwasbeingpaidtothetotaleffectoftheatrical
performance.Bythe1820sWeber,inDresden,wasputtingintooperationa
systeminwhichallstagingelementsofanoperawereselfconsciouslytobe
united,takingparticulartroublewithsoloists'(andeventhechorus's)histrionic
abilities.
Manyofthedevelopmentswerefuelledandencouragedbytechnologicalchange:
gaslightingappearedintheatresaround1820,electricityinthesecondhalfofthe
century(fig.20).Bothofthesewereofcoursesaferthanprevious,nakedflame
alternativesbuttheyalsoallowedforgreatersophisticationofstageillusion,asdid
enlargedbackstagespacesandmorecomplexmachinery.Bythe1830sthe
acknowledgedleaderinthesefieldswastheParisOpra,inwhichvastexpense
anduntoldenergieswentintocreatingelaboratevisualdisplay.Thisactivitywas
markedbytheemergenceofthesocalledlivretsdemiseenscne,production
booksinwhichmanyaspectsofthevisualwouldbepainstakinglynotated,and
whichwereintendedtoensurethatworksfirstgiveninPariswouldbecorrectly
mountedintheprovincesandelsewhere.Thelivrets'appearancethuscoincided
with,andwasinseparablylinkedto,theestablishmentofrepertoryopera,and
calledintoquestionacrucialaestheticissue:whenrevivalsofaclassicworkwere
mounted,howfarshouldtheoriginalstagingofthatworkbeconsideredpartofits
basictext?Theappearanceofthelivretsreflectedaradicallyrestrictiveanswerto
thesequestions,eachlivretaimingtomakecertainaspectsoftheproductiona
fixedtext,and(oftenexplicitly)togovernthevisualmannerinwhichtheoperas
wouldberevived.
InhousesdevotedtoItalianopera,whetherinItalyorelsewhere,suchissueswere
lesspressing.Duringthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury,thelibrettist(orhousepoet)
generallytookchargeofstaging,andthesheerspeedatwhichproductionswent
onstagesuggeststhattherewasfarmorerelianceonconventionandroutine
solutions.However,theinfluenceofFrenchtheatricalpracticespreadandbythe
1860selaboratedisposizionisceniche,directlymodelledonthelivrets,beganto
accompanythemostprestigiouspremires(fig.21).Bythe1870sand80s,the
grandestofgrandoperas,whetherinFrance,ItalyorGermany,werevastand
fearsomelycomplexundertakings,greatmonumentstoarchaeologyandRomantic
illusion.Theprototypeofthemoderndirectoremerged,mostobviouslyinthe
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formidablepresenceofRichardWagner,whoseBayreuthstagingsofhisoperasin
thelate1870sandearly80spioneeredadarkenedauditorium,anorchestra
hiddenfromviewandanew,morenaturalisticactingstyle,allofwhichfurther
intensifiedthesenseofaudienceinvolvementinthevisualspectacle(fig.22).
Wagnerianattentiontothespectaclewasasmucharevolutioninaudience
behaviourasitwasindirectorialpractice.Throughmuchofthe19thcentury,the
audiencewasbymodernstandardsundisciplinedandnoisy:itwasonlywhenthe
adventofelectricstagelightingallowedtheauditoriumtobeinalmosttotal
darknessthatanythinglikepresentdaysilencebecamethenorm.
10.Sources,dissemination.
Thepracticeofprintingalibrettoforeachrevivalofanopera,forsaleinornearthe
operahouseandwithinformationaboutthecast,otherexecutantsandoftenwitha
prefacebythelibrettist,continuedtoroughly1850andwasthengradually
replacedbygenericlibrettosproducedbypublishers.Thesedocumentsservedas
animportantpointofcommunicationwiththepublic,wereconsultedbymanyin
their(dimly)litauditoriumsanddoubtlessinfluencedthemannerinwhichanopera
wasreceivedinwaysnowdifficulttoimaginesurely,forexample,highlightingthe
mannerinwhichoperaticmusicisasettingofapoetictext.
The19thcenturyalsosawaconsolidationandthenvastexpansionofthevocal
scoreastheprimephysicalmeansofdisseminatingthemusicaltextofanopera.
Earlyinthecentury,particularlyinItaly,individualnumbers(pezzistaccati)would
oftenbereleasedfirstthecompletescorecouldlaterbeassembledbybinding
thesepiecestogether.PrintedfullorchestralscoreswererareinItalyuntilnearthe
endofthecentury(andthenwereusuallyforhireonly)andappearedinGermany
onlyincertainexceptionalcases(Mozart,WeberandespeciallyWagner).In
France,however,theearliertraditionofpublishingfullscoresofthemost
successfulworkscontinuedthroughmuchofthecentury.Evenwhereprinted
scoresexisted,however,manuscriptcopieswerestilltheprimarymeansbywhich
thecompletetextofanoperawasdistributedtotheatres.
Whilevocalscoresclearlyaidedthedisseminationofoperasintobothprivateand
publicspaces,afarmorewidespreadandvoluminousmeans,practicallythe
inventionofthe19thcentury,wasthepublishedoperatictranscription.InItalyand
Franceparticularly,asuccessfuloperaofmidcenturywouldbereleasedinan
enormousnumberofarrangements:forpianosolo,pianoduet,forvarious
instrumentsandpiano,forother(sometimesunlikely)combinationsandalsoin
numerousmorecreativeversions,entitledfantasiasorreminiscences,sometimes
asgrandandambitiousasthoseofLiszt,sometimesmuchmoremodest.This
corpusofmaterialsuggeststhatoperaticmusicwasamajorpartoftherepertory
ofprivatesalons,orindeedofanywherethatthepianoandotherinstrumentswere
playedbyamateurs.19thcenturyconcerts,too,weremuchmorelikelytoinvolve
eitheroperaticexcerpts,arrangementsorreminiscencesthantheircounterparts
today.Operatictextsandsubjectswerediffusedinlessgrandvenues:inthe
marionettetheatresofItaly,theburlesquesofEngland,themagiclanternshowsof
Germanyandofcoursethebarrelorgansofalltheseplaces.Thereiseven
evidencethatoperaticmelodiessometimesdriftedintothechannelsoforal
transmission,toreemergeassupposedfolkmaterialcollectedbyethnographers
inthe20thcentury.Itisprobablytruethatopera,aspubliclyperformedinurban
theatres,canrarelybetermedpopularentertainmentinanythinglikeamodern
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sense(apartialexceptionmightbemadeoftheperiodbetweenabout1860and
theadventofthecinema,butthenonlyinplaceswithalargeItalianpopulation).It
ishoweveralsotruethatoperaduringthisperiodbecameaphenomenonmuch
broaderthanmerelyitstheatricaldiffusion,howeverextensive,mightsuggest.
11.Criticism,aesthetics.
Theconsiderableexpansioninsomanydomainsofoperaticactivityduringthis
periodisnowheremoreevidentthanindiscourseaboutthetopic.The19thcentury
sawahugeriseinperiodicalpublication,andalargenumberofperiodicalseither
includedextensivereferenceto,orwereentirelydedicatedto,operaticactivity.
DistinguishedtitlessuchastheAllgemeinemusikalischeZeitung(Leipzig),the
GazzettamusicalediMilanoandtheRevueetgazettemusicaledePariswere
accompaniedbyanenormousnumberoflessambitiouspublications.Thecentre
ofthisactivity,atleastintermsofbulk,wasParis,inwhichanimportantpremire
atthemiddleofthecenturywouldstimulateasmanyas20or30separatereviews,
manyofthemlengthy.Thisoutpouringonlyincreasedasthecenturywenton,with
periodicalstendingtobecomeyetmorespecialized,sometimesevenbeing
devotedtoasinglecomposer(usuallyWagner).
Muchofthecriticismthusproducedwasofcoursedirectedtowardsperformances
andperformers,andwaswrittentoroutineformulaewhatismore,manyofthe
opinionsexpressedwereevidentlyinspiredbytheownersofthepublication,who
frequentlyhadbiassesderivingfromfinancialand/orpoliticalinterests.Manyofthe
century'smostacutecritics,however,pliedtheirtradeinperiodicals:E.T.A.
Hoffmann,Schumann,Hanslick,Berlioz,CastilBlaze,Basevi,Boito,Serov,Stasov
andnumerousothers.Thefactthatseveralofthesewriterswerealsocomposers
marksanimportantchangeinthestatusofwritingaboutmusic,onethatwas
perhapsnottoreachitsclimaxuntilthe20thcentury.Themostinfluentialwriter
aboutoperainthelaterpartofthecenturywasofcoursealsoitsmostinfluential
composer.Inonesense,Wagner'sprogrammesofoperaticreformhadechoesin
countlessothersuchproposalsfromthepast,someofthem(Mercadante's,for
example)quiterecent:acallforrenewalintherelationshipbetweenmusicand
wordsareturntoanancient,idealconceptofdrama.Butoneimportantdifference
wasthatWagnerwrotefromanaestheticstandpointinwhichabsolutemusicwas
inapositionofascendancyinrelationtoopera,atleastamonganliteof
philosophers.Itwasastandpointheattempted,bycomplexreasoning,to
challengeasfarashisownoperaswereconcerned,andhisviewswere
enormouslyinfluential,notleastamongthescholarswhonowbegantoanalysehis
operaswithinthenewlyformeddisciplineofmusicology.
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VI.The20thcentury
1.Foundations.
2.Continuityandchange.
3.20thcenturytopics.
4.Towardsmidcentury.
5.Midcenturyperspectives.
6.Moderndrama.
7.Chamberoperaandmusictheatre.
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8.Operasaboutopera.
9.Operaandliterature.
10.Conclusions.
Opera,VII:Production
1.Foundations.
AttheverybeginningofthecenturytheparticulardominanceofWagnerandVerdi
(whodiedin1901,andwhosefinaloperaFalstaffhadbeenfirstperformedin
1893)hadalreadybeencounteredbythequieterRomanticismofHumperdinck
andthedowntoearthlyricismoftheearlyPucciniwhileinFrancethealternative
traditionassociatedwithGounodandBizetlivedoninCharpentier'sLouise(1900).
ComposersfromfurthereasttheRussiansTchaikovsky,MusorgskyandRimsky
Korsakov,theBohemianDvokrepresentedexamplesofvitalandincreasingly
influentialnationaltraditions.FromthisperspectivetheemergenceofRichard
Strauss'smatureoperaticvoiceinSalome(1905)canbeviewedasare
engagementwiththemoreforcefulandintenseaspectsoftheWagnerianheritage
thatmightotherwisehavebeenlost(fig.23).Afterall,whilemostearly20thcentury
composers,whatevertheirregionalaccent,usedamusicallanguageinwhich
chromaticanddiatonictendenciesengagedinaflexiblyorganizeddialogue,andto
agreaterorlesserextentfollowedtheWagnerian(andlateVerdian)practiceof
largescale,throughcomposedformsratherthanthestronglycontrasted,separate
numbersandformaltypesofearlieropera,thetemperofthetimesimmediately
beforeSalomehadnotledcomposerstoseekoutsuchcontroversialsubject
matter,nortoprovidesuchdisturbing,extravagantlyinsistentmusic.
AfterSalomeanditsimmediatesuccessor,theepictragedyElektra(1909),which
broughtthepostWagneriantraditionofalargescale,singleactdramatoits
zenith,Strausshimselfchangeddirectionand,withDerRosenkavalier(1911),
AriadneaufNaxos(1912)andDieFrauohneSchatten(1919),soughtouta
differentworld,inwhichtheviolentandtheshockingwerelessallpervadingand
comedyandromancemighteachfindaprominentplace.Thesuccessthatgave
Strausstheopportunitytomoveinthisdirectionwasinitselfaresultofcultural
attitudeswhichregardedthepresenceofanoperahouseasanecessarypartofa
civilizedsocialstructure,thuscreating,duringthe19thcentury,theneedfor
repertoryatatimewhenthenewwasmorehighlyregardedthantheold.
Thepersistenceofsuchattitudesintothe20thcenturywasparticularlyapparentin
theGermanspeakingcountries.Intheyearsbefore1940,thesecountries
sustainedanoperaticcultureinwhichseveralsecondrankcomposerswereable
toachieveregularperformancewithworkswhosestyleandsubjectmatter
reflectedtheachievementsofWagner,StraussandHumperdinckwithoutbeingso
paleashadowthattheirartisticvaluewasutterlynegligible.Suchoperasas
Pfitzner'sPalestrina(1917),Schreker'sDerferneKlang(1912),Korngold'sDietote
Stadt(1920)andZemlinsky'sEineflorentinischeTragdie(1917)displayan
adaptability,andtheabilitytofeedoffsuchpotentsourcesasWagner'smyth
making,Strauss'sdecadentExpressionismandPuccini'slyricrealism,while
addingsomethingdistinctive.Ofsuchcomposersinthecentury'sfirstthree
decades,noexampleismoreremarkablethanthatofSiegfriedWagner,who
composed17stageworksbetween1899and1930,severalofwhichwere
successful.Fewhavebeenregularlyrevivedsincehisdeath.
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2.Continuityandchange.
Whilesomeofthegreatestoperasofthecentury'searlyyears,suchasElektra
andPuccini'sLafanciulladelWest(1910),acknowledged,andevenhelpedto
legitimize,themoreradicalharmonicpracticesofthetime,suchtrulyinnovatory
stageworksasSchoenberg's30minutemonodramaErwartung(writtenin1909)
andhisnolessconcisedramawithmusicDieglcklicheHand(writtenin1913)
bothhadtowaituntil1924fortheirpremires.Forallitstechnicalradicalism,
ErwartungcanstillbeseenasaproductoftheWagnerianobsessionwithfemale
psychopathology(Isolde,Kundry),andthedifficultyofavoidingsomedegreeof
intersectionwithWagnerisequallyevidentinthenolessindividualcaseof
Debussy'sPellasetMlisande(begunin1893,completedandfirstperformedin
1902seefig.24).ThatDebussy'soperabecameoneofthecentury'smostwidely
admiredandregularlyperformedisthemoreimpressiveforthefactthatit
exercisedrelativelylittleobviousinfluenceonlateroperaticcomposition,andeven
workswhichareevidentlybeholdentoitinsomerespectsBartk'sBluebeard's
Castle(1918),forexamplearenolessstrikinglydifferentfromitincertain
fundamentalways.
InPellas,DebussyshowedhowamusicalgenredeeplyindebtedtoWagner's
stylisticandstructuralprocedurescouldachieveanotablyindividualaccentby
adoptingaverydifferentrhetoricandadramaticsubjectwhich,ifhardlynon
Wagnerianinthesenseofcontemporaryornaturalistic,alongthelinesofLouise
orPuccini'sMadamaButterfly(1904),wasquitedifferentinitsemphasisona
purelyhumanvulnerability.AsErwartungandBluebeard'sCastlebothillustrate,
progressivenessinearly20thcenturyoperawasnotsimplyamatterofreplacing
emphaticassertionwithunderstatementbuttheprogressiveaspectsofthemusic
andtheunambiguousfocusonthedarksideofhumanpsychology,inextremely
concentratedstructures,givebothworksadistinctivelymodernqualitythat
distancesthemdecisivelyfromWagnerandStrauss.Evenmoreradically,though
veryperipheralatthetime,Holst'sSvitri(completedin1908,firstperformed
1916)adumbratedakindofchamberopera,avowedlyantiWagnerianinstyle
which,ifnotnaturalisticinsubjectmatter,wasveryunlikeany19thcenturyvariety
ofmusicdrama.WhileevenSvitricannotescapealllinkswiththestillpotent
Wagnerianpast,itrepresentsadecisiveshiftofemphasis,anditservedasa
pioneeringexampletoBenjaminBritteninhisexplorationoftheworldofchamber
operaafter1945.
3.20thcenturytopics.
Thekindofsympathyforhumanweaknessandhelplessnessinthefaceoffate
foundinoperassuchasPellasandMadamaButterflywas,inthebroadestterms,
toprovideamorefundamentalthemefor20thcenturyoperathantheWagnerian
epicworldofgodsandheroes.Tothisextent,thetypical20thcenturyoperatic
topic,inwhichvulnerabilityitselfcanattaineitheraheroicoranantiheroic
dimension,mightbederivedmoredirectlyfromthereallifeprotagonistsofVerdi
orMusorgsky.Itisnotthatgodsandheroesdisappearedfrom20thcenturyopera
(orthatthegodsandheroesofearlieroperas,evenWagner's,areactually
invulnerable),ratherthat20thcenturyopera,incommonwithotherartisticgenres,
tendedtopreferadirectrelationtotherealworld,evenwhenthattendency
reinforcedthegenre'sownartificialityandunreality.Acrucialfactoristhat20th
centurytreatmentsofnonnaturalisticsubjectmattermyth,allegoryandfantasy
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oftenacquiredanambiguousqualitythroughthenatureofamusicallanguagethat
foundaffirmationandpositiveresolutionfarmoreproblematicthandidthe
languageoftheessentiallytonal,consonantpast.
20thcenturycomposersalsofavouredthosetimelessyetfamiliartopics,suchas
theOrpheusmyth,thathadbeenexploredinthegenrefromthebeginning.Such
infinitelyadaptabletopicsareopentoexploratorytreatmentwhileremainingwithin
theperceivedbordersoftheoperaticgenre.Theadaptabilityofcertainarchetypal
topicstotreatmentinanexplicitly20thcenturystyleisonereasonwhynewoperas
wereheardwithreasonablefrequencydespitethesustainedpreferenceforworks
fromearlierperiods.Farfromrelegatingearlierworkstothestatusofoccasional
revival,theproductionofoperascomposedinthe20thcenturywascommercially
andartisticallypossiblemainlybecausetheinstitutionsseekingtopromotethem
wereprimarilysupportedbyastandardrepertorythatcontainedveryfew20th
centuryworks.
4.Towardsmidcentury.
After1914anessentiallylateRomantic,heroickindofoperamaintaineda
powerfulrearguardaction,notonlyinStrauss,butinSzymanowski'sKingRoger
(1926),Enescu'sOedipe(1936)andBusoni'sDoktorFaust(unfinished,1925),to
citeonlythreeofthemostmemorable.Theevolutionofatonal,expressionistic
operacontinuedfromSchoenberg'sErwartungtoDieglcklicheHand,andonto
thegreatestexampleofthegenre,Berg'sWozzeck(1925).Theexplorationof
alternativestolargescaletheatricalpresentationfoundinStravinsky'sburlesque
insonganddance,Renard(1922)andHistoiredusoldat(1918toberead,
playedanddanced),ledtoformsofmusictheatrethatachievedtheirgreatest
impactafter1950,whileanolesspotentnaturalismreacheditsapexinJanek's
KaKabanov(1921),aworkthatamplyfulfilledthepromiseandpersonalstyle
revealedinhismuchearlierstageworkJenfa(1904,withlaterrevisions).The
possibilityofcopingwithcomedy,fantasy,oramixtureofthetwowhileavoiding
expansiveStraussianorPuccinianlyricismwasshowninStravinsky'sThe
Nightingale(1914),Busoni'sArlecchino(1917),Prokofiev'sTheLoveforThree
Oranges(1921)andJanek'sTheExcursionsofMrBrouek(1920)andThe
CunningLittleVixen(1924),aswellasinRavel'sL'heureespagnole(1911)and
L'enfantetlessortilges(1925):andnoaccountoftheperiodshouldomitthe
crowninggloryofPuccini'soutput,thenotquitecompletedbuthighlycharacteristic
Turandot(1926).
Bythe1920sthemusicalbattlelineshadbeendrawnbetweenanapparent
radicalism(Schoenbergianserialism)thatsoughttosubmergeratherthan
celebrateitsdebtstothepast,andanapproachneoclassicismthatcelebrated
thevitalityoftheconfrontationbetweenpastandpresent,tonalstylesandpost
tonaltechniques.Inoperathisledtosuchobviousandprofoundcontrastsas
thosebetweenStravinsky'soperaoratorioOedipusrex(1928)andSchoenberg's
MosesundAron(composed193032),twotreatmentsofepicmythictopicsthat
couldhardlybemoredifferentinmusicalcharacteranddramaticconception,even
iftheyarecloselyrelatedintheirexplorationofhow,respectively,Oedipusand
Mosesmovefrompositionsofsupremepowertotragicisolation.Differencesand
similaritiesmayalsobecomparedintwoothernearcontemporaryworks,Berg's
Lulu(1937)andShostakovich'sLadyMacbethoftheMtsenskDistrict(1934).Each
portraystheprogressivedegradationoftheprincipalcharacterwithsupreme
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conviction,eventhoughthemusicalprocessescouldscarcelybemoredifferent
Berg'sprogressive,Shostakovich'srelativelyconservative.Notoriously,thehistory
ofLadyMacbethisboundupwiththerepressiveculturalprinciplesoperativeinthe
Sovietera,whenthemostchallengingworksbyRussianborncomposers,suchas
Prokofiev'sTheFieryAngel(begun1919,revisedversioncompleted1927),could
beheardonlyoutsideRussia,andthemostprofoundoperatictreatmentofa
RussianstorywasachievedbyacomposerfromadifferentEuropeancountry,
Janek,withFromtheHouseoftheDead(1930).
Morefundamental,duringthe1920sand30s,wasthecontrastbetweenthe
assumption,commontoalltheworksjustmentioned,thatoperaanditsderivatives
areformsofhighartatitshighest,andtheviewthatthegenreneededtocome
downfromitsOlympianheightsandengagewithrealitymuchmoredirectly,even
didactically.ItwasnotsuchagreatstepfromExpressionistopera'suseoflowlife
contexts,asinthepubbandinWozzeck,tothemorecentralfocusonpopular,
jazzidiomsinKrenek'sJonnyspieltauf(1927).Farmoreradicalwasthe
wholesaleshiftofattitudeembodiedinthetwoBrechtWeillcollaborations,Die
Dreigroschenoper(1928)andAufstiegundFallderStadtMahagonny(1930
fig.26).InaccordancewithBrecht'stheoryofepictheatre,therelationship
betweenmusicanddramaisintentionallyambiguous,andmusicisfreedfromits
timehonouredoperaticresponsibilityofsupportingandrepresentingwhatthe
wordsstateandimply,justastheformoftheworkasawholeseekstorejectthe
highlyunified,organicstructurespromotedduringandafterthe19thcentury.Yet
Mahagonny,inparticular,isscarcelyantioperatic:indeed,itsimportanceisnotin
whatitrejects,butinthewayitrevivesthemorestylizedprinciplesofthenumber
operaandshowstheirsuitabilityfortherangeofemotionsandsituationsproperto
amoderndramaticsubject.WithMahagonny,aswithGershwin'sPorgyandBess
(1935)afewyearslater,thefoundationswerelaidfortheparalleldevelopment,
laterinthecentury,ofrelativelynaturalisticsubjects,stemmingfromJanek,
WeillandGershwin,alongsidethepersistenceofepicandfantasy.
5.Midcenturyperspectives.
Bytheearly1950s,withwhatcannowberegardedasthemasterworkofneo
classicalopera,Stravinsky'sTheRake'sProgress(1951),thepowerfulpolitical
allegoryofDallapiccola's12noteIlprigioniero(1950)andthelivelytraditionalism
ofBritten'searlyoperas(PeterGrimes,1945,fig.27TheRapeofLucretia,1946
AlbertHerring,1947BillyBudd,1951),aswellasthefirststageworksofHans
WernerHenze(BoulevardSolitude,1951KnigHirsch,1956),thegenre'shealth
andsurvivabilitycouldnotbedeniedordeniedonlybyyoungfirebrandslike
PierreBoulezwho,onprinciple,associatedoperawithallthatwasmostdecadent
andretrogressiveinart.Boulez'srecantation,whichtooktheformofmany
remarkableperformancesinthetheatre,includingsomeof20thcenturyoperas
(Debussy,Berg),aswellaslongconsideredplansforastageworkofhisown
basedonaplaybyJeanGenet,wasatworstanacceptanceoftheinevitable,at
bestanacknowledgmentthathisearlierobjectionsweremistaken.
WithbothHenzeandBritten,earlysuccessfuelledthekindofregulardemandfor
theirworkthatrequiredimmensereservesofenergyandcreativity.Asmusic
dramatists,theyarenotobviouslyinnovative,eventhough,inBritten'scase,his
preferenceafterPeterGrimesforchamberopera,includingthethreeparablesfor
churchperformancecomposedinthe1960s,representsasignificantshiftof
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commitmentfromthelargescaletheatricalenterprise.Evenifnotstrictlyspeaking
chamberoperas,giventheresourcesrequiredtostagethem,Britten'slasttwo
operas,OwenWingrave(1971)originallyintendedfortelevisionandDeathin
Venice(1973),haveanintimatequalityverydifferentfromthegranderprojections
ofPeterGrimes,BillyBuddorGloriana(1953).
BrittenandHenzebothdevelopeddistinctivelypersonalstylesintheirearlyyears,
andboth,attheirbest,broughtastrongsenseofexpressivedepthaswellas
theatricalconvictiontotheirwork.Britten,inmusicneverquitelosingtouchwith
tonality,providedablendofintensityandausterity,andpenetratedremarkable
psychologicaldepthsinhisobsessivestudyofvulnerableoutsiders.Henzemoved
betweensocialcomment,orsatire,andpsychologicalexplorationwithan
assurancematchedbythesuppleadaptabilityofhismusicallanguage,more
radicalthanBritten'sandechoingbothBergandStravinsky,whileslavishly
imitatingneither.IfoneessentialmusicalsourceforbothBrittenandHenzeis
Mahler,itisallthemorestrikingthattheirworksare,intheend,sodifferent.
Duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturymanycountriesmaintainedaspecial
commitmenttooperasbylocalcomposers:Australia,Finlandand,notleast,the
USAhadparticularlygoodrecordsinthisrespect,aswellasGermanyandBritain.
Relativelyfewoftheseworkscrossednationalborders,saveoccasionallyin
recordedform,and,apartfromBrittenandHenze,onlyahandfulofcomposers
achievedasustainedinternationalreputationthroughtheirstageworksTippett,
Berio,LigetiandAdamsamongthem.Thesenamesindicatethatsuccessinopera
since1945hasnotsimplybeentheconsequenceofpursuingarelativelyfamiliar,
traditionalmusicalstyle.PhilipGlasssEinsteinontheBeach(1976)pioneeredthe
useofminimalisttechniquestakenupbyAdamsandLouisAndriessen,among
others,andtheadaptabilityofthegenrehasextendedtothebreachingifnotthe
decisivedestructionofitsdominationbymalecomposers.InBritain,forexample,
JudithWeirproducedaparticularlyaccomplishedgroupofstageworks,including
ANightattheChineseOpera(1987)andBlondEckbert(1994).
6.Moderndrama.
Whileitmightbearguedthattheeasiestwayforacomposertoensure
performanceforanoperaisalreadytohaveachievedprominenceinothergenres,
itisclearthatmanymajor20thcenturycomposersMessiaen,withhissingle,
relativelylateworkSaintFranoisd'Assise(1983),isthegreatexception
attemptedoperasataquiteearlystageoftheircareers.MichaelTippettisa
strikingcaseofacomposerwhobelievedsodeeplyinthespecialimportanceof
thegenrethathedevotedsixyears(194652)tohisfirstmatureeffort,The
MidsummerMarriage(1955),evenwithlittleprospectofearlyperformance.That
workisparticularlyspecialinthat,withitsexplicitlyJungianaura,itisdifficultto
imaginesuchatreatmentbeforetheageofmodernpsychology.
Afterhissecondopera,KingPriam(1962),Tippett,nolessstrikinglythanBerio
(Unreinascolto,1984)andLigeti(LeGrandMacabre,1978fig.28),preferredto
createdramaswhicharepenetratingifoftenobliquereflectionsoncontemporary
life,contemporarywaysofthought,contemporaryproblems,evenwhenpresented
instylizedratherthannaturalisticfashion.Indeed,itseemsdifficulttodenythatthe
mostmemorableoperasoftheyearssince1970havebeeneithermeditationson
theperennialtopicoftheartistintheworld(PeterMaxwellDavies'sTaverner,
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1972Birtwistle'sTheMaskofOrpheus,1986orStockhausen'ssevenopera
cycleLicht,launchedin1981withDonnerstag),ormoralityplaysaboutthose
aspectsoflifethatpsychologyandmodernhistoryhavebroughtmostdirectlyinto
question:and,inparticular,thesubjectofsocialandpoliticalauthority.
Inalongandfruitfullinewhosespecifically20thcenturystraincanbetracedfrom
Wozzeck,thepotentialofrepresentativesofthestateforcrueltydespite
occasionalglimpsesofmorehumansympathieshasbeenathemeideallysuited
tothetensionsanduneasysynthesesofmodernmusicallanguage,andoperasas
differentinstyleasDallapiccola'sIlprigioniero,Nono'sIntolleranza1960(1961),
BerndAloisZimmermann'sDieSoldaten(1965),JohnAdams'sTheDeathof
Klinghoffer(1991)andMaxwellDavies'sTheDoctorofMyddfai(1996)bear
witnesstothat.Thisisnottosuggestthatallfantasyorcomedyhasbeendrained
outofcontemporarymusicaltheatre,orthatthereislessgenericflexibilityin
evidencethanformerly.Ifanything,thisflexibilityisgreaterthaneversincethe
examplesetbyWeillintheBroadwaymusicalsofhislateryears,andgiventhat
LeonardBernsteinwashappytowriteopera(AQuietPlace,1983),musical(West
SideStory,1957)andcomicoperetta(Candide,1956).Theremaybelittledanger
ofconfusingmusicalswithopera,whethertheypreservespokendialoguebetween
numbers,likeStephenSondheim's,orarethroughcomposed,likeLloydWebber's
Evita(1978).Yettheapplicationofthetermrockoperatothecompositionsof
LloydWebber,ortoaworklikeStephenSchwartz'sGodspell(1971),canbeseen
eitherasdemonstratingstrengththroughadaptabilityorasdecadencethrougha
changefromsophisticationtocrudity.Whileanevenbetteroptionmightbeto
suggestthatrockoperahasnothingtodowithoperaproper,itisdangerousto
denythatoperacaneverhaveaviablypopularquality,especiallyinthelightofthe
20thcenturyoperasinwhichyoungpeopleandamateurscanbeinvolved,from
Menotti'sAmahlandtheNightVisitors(1951)andBritten'sLet'sMakeanOpera
(1949)andNoye'sFludde(1958)toMaxwellDavies'sTheTwoFiddlers(1978)
andCinderella(1980).
7.Chamberoperaandmusictheatre.
Formany20thcenturycomposers,rejectionofthelargescaleandelaborate
resourcesoftraditionaloperawasperceivedasthebestroutetoamoreintense
andfocussedkindofdramaticexpression.IfHolst'sSvitriwasanearlyattemptat
chamberopera,Schoenberg'sPierrotlunaire(1912)firstperformedwithits
reciterinPierrotcostumeandtheinstrumentalquintetbehindacurtainwasan
earlyexampleofcombiningachambercompositionwithanelementofstaging.
Thismoreexplicitlyhybridenterprise,followedupasitwasbyStravinsky's
wartimetheatrepiecesandWalton'sFaade(begunin1921),explored
possibilitiesofstylizedandallusivedramaticpresentationwhichweretakenup
withgreaterconsistencyandinventivenessafter1950.
Britten'scommitmenttochamberoperawasmanifestinthethreechurchparables,
CurlewRiver(1964),TheBurningFieryFurnace(1966)andTheProdigalSon
(1968),eachofwhichlastsaboutanhourandrequiresaperforminggroupofat
leastadozen(male)singersandeightinstrumentalists.Anotherpairofworksfrom
the1960s,Ligeti'sAventuresandNouvellesaventures(1966),ismoretypicalof
thetimeinitscombinationofexpressionisticallyfragmentedmusicanda
surrealisticstyleofpresentation.Musictheatreworksbyseveralofthemost
prominentyoungercomposersarecomparabletotheLigetiworksintheir
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challengingyetsharplycontrolledandeconomicallystructureddesigns:these
includeBirtwistle'sDownbytheGreenwoodSide(1969),MaxwellDavies'sEight
SongsforaMadKing(1969),Henze'sDerlangwierigeWegindieWohnungder
NataschaUngeheuer(1971)andBerio'sRecitalI(forCathy)(1972).Althoughall
thesecomposershadalsowrittenfullsizeoperas,andwouldwritemore,itwas
possibletoimagineintheearly1970sthatmusictheatremightsupplantopera
itselfasthefavouredmediumofdramaticexpression,atleastforcomposersofa
progressiveturnofmind.Thatthissoonprovednottobethecasemayhave
somethingtodowiththeextenttowhichmusictheatrecouldeasilyseemcloserto
thehappeningsandmultimediaeventspromotedbyexperimentalcomposers,
especiallyJohnCage,thantomoremainstreammusicdrama:thecoexistenceof
contrastsprovidedamorepracticalwayforwardthanthekindofprogressinwhich
thenewcompletelyobliteratestheold.
8.Operasaboutopera.
Thecapacityofoperastocontainelementsofselfreferencebyusingactorsor
operasingersascharacters,orthewritingorperformanceofoperaasasubject
hasbeenevidentsinceMozart'sDerSchauspieldirektor(1786).RichardStrauss
madesignificant20thcenturycontributionsinAriadneaufNaxosandCapriccio
(1942),whileBritten,inLet'sMakeanOpera,contrivedasimpleyetlivelywayof
involvingaudienceswithamixtureofadultandchildsingersinrehearsingand
performinganentertainmentforyoungpeople,TheLittleSweep.
Attheotherextreme,operasaboutoperamovedintothesurrealregionsofJohn
Cage'sseriesoffiveworkseachcalledEuropera(198591),ahomagetothe
genrewhich,atthesametime,isadeconstructionofit.IntheseworksCage
appliedhischaracteristicchanceoperationstoexistingoperaticmaterials,sothat
thesingersperform18thand19thcenturyariasforspecifiedperiodswhilethe
instrumentalistsplayoperaticmusicthatislikelytobequitedifferent,and
costumes,setsandallotheraspectsofproductioneventheprogramme
synopsesarerandomlyselected.
Cage'senterpriseintheEuroperas,likeothercomparableexperiments,suchas
Kagel'sStaatstheater(1971),canberegardedasanextensionofthekindof
surrealisticattitudetothegenre'straditionalsubjectmatterandformalprinciples
foundinVirgilThomson'sFourSaintsinThreeActs(1934)andPoulenc'sLes
mamellesdeTirsias(1947).Nolessmodernistinitsaestheticconceptthan
Cage'swork,thoughverydifferentinmusicalcharacter,isBerio'sOpera(1970,
rev.1977).Herethetitle'sliteralmeaning,works,isusedtopromotealternationof
andinteractionbetweenthreequitedifferentstories,representedinturnby
Striggio'slibrettoforMonteverdi'sOrfeo,aBrechtliketreatmentofthesinkingof
theTitanic,andmaterialsfromtheOpenTheatreofNewYork'sTerminal,astrong
attackonthewayinwhichterminallyillhospitalpatientsaretreated.Ifthetopicof
deathensuresacommontheme,theverydifferentnatureofthethreetypesof
materialensuresthatthestructureasawholeisfluidandmultivalent.
9.Operaandliterature.
OperaisneitherBerio'smostsuccessfulnorhismostconventionalworkforthe
theatre:Unreinascoltohasaparticularlyrichandconsistentmusicalcharacter,
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servingtoprojectastorywhich,likeTippett'sTheKnotGarden(1970),refersto
Shakespeare'sTempestasoneparticularlyeffectivewayofdeclaringsolidarity
withthelongstandingtraditionoftheatreasamagical,transcendententerprise.
Operasembodyingsuchallusionsseemtohaveachievedgreaterartisticsuccess
inthelater20thcenturythanthosemoredirectlybasedongreatworksof
literature,thoughevenherethelevelofachievementvaries:SamuelBarber's
AntonyandCleopatra(1966,rev.1974)wasmorewidelyadmiredonrevisionthan
initsoriginalversion,whileAribertReimann'sLear(1978)hasapowerfulimpact,
evenifofnecessity(itissetinGerman)itisfarremovedfromthefull,elaborate
rhetoricoftheShakespeareanoriginal.Bycontrast,Dallapiccola'sUlisse(1968)
seemstoodeeplyinaweofitsHomericsource,whileIainHamilton'sAnna
Karenina(1981)appearsmerelyparasiticinthesensethat,likemanytelevision
adaptationsofmajorliterarytexts,onlythebarebonesofplotandcharacterare
preservedperhapsbecausethemusichaslittleofthestrongsenseof
contemporaneityfoundintheoriginalnovel,theresultismoreatrivializationthan
anenhancementoftheoriginal.Suchfailuresatleastinviteamorepositive
appreciationofmoresuccessfuladaptations,fromProkofiev'sWarandPeace
(begun1941,completed1953)toHenze'sDerPrinzvonHomburgandThe
Bassarids(fig.29)andBritten'sDeathinVenice,wheretheintensityandpersonal
identityofthemusicenableagooddealofthestature,ifnottheactualstyle,ofthe
literarysourcestobepreserved.Amongyoungercomposerscontributingtothe
operaticcanon,nonehasshownastrongerormoreinventivecommitmentto
adaptationsofmajordramaticsourcesthanWolfgangRihm:hisworksincludeDie
Hamletmaschine(1987),afantasyusingShakespeareasitsstartingpoint,and
Oedipus(also1987),whichsimilarlyplacesitsSophocleantopicwithinacontextof
moremoderncommentary.AlfredSchnittkecontributedtothelonglistofoperas
basedontheFauststory,inhisHistoriavonD.JohannFausten(composed1983
94).
10.Conclusions.
Musicallifeinthe20thcenturyinvolvedanintricateinteractionbetweenoldand
new,progressiveandconservative.Operahousesthatwerebuilt,andrebuilt,
reflect20thcenturyprinciplesofdesignandusespecifically20thcentury
materials,butatthesametimerepresentconceptsoftheroleofmusical
compositionandperformancewithinsocietythatarenotfundamentallydifferent
fromwhattheywerebefore1900.TherebuildingoftheViennaStaatsoperafter
1945wasoneparticularprominentexamplesignifyingadeeprootedbeliefinthe
continuingvitalityofoperaasaninstitutionnotrequiringradicalrethinkinginthe
lightofchangingsocialandculturalconditions.Newornewlyrestoredopera
houseswerenotprimarilyintendedfortheperformanceof20thcenturyoperas.
Formostoperaticadministrations,experimentwasfocussedlessonchallenging
newworksthanonencouragingradicalproductionsofoperasfromthestandard
repertoryandtouringorganizations,whichdonotdependonalarge,fixed
establishment,performinginsteadinavarietyofnonstandardvenues,preferred
slimmeddownversionsofLenozzediFigaro,Carmen,Latraviata,evenThe
Ring,toneworneglected20thcenturyworks.Theengagementofoperawiththe
20thcenturymassmediaofradioandtelevisionwasnolesstangential,andeven
operasdealingverydirectlywithcontemporarysubjectmatter,suchasJohn
Adams'sNixoninChina(1987),tendedtobeconceivedwiththetraditional
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resourcesoftheoldstyleoperahouseinmind.(SeeTelevision,IV.)
BecauseseveralofthemostpopularoperasMadamaButterflyandDer
Rosenkavalier,inparticularhavebeenwrittensince1900,itisnotstrictly
possibletocategorize20thcenturyoperaasanentirelyperipheralphenomenon.
Yetwithafewexceptions,ofwhichWozzeckisprobablythemoststriking,operas
usingthe20thcentury'smoreprogressivecompositionaltechniqueshavenot
attractedregularperformanceinthetheatre.Manyhaveneverthelessachieveda
certainpermanencethroughissueonCDandvideo,andthereciprocal
relationshipbetweenliveandrecordedperformance,ifitcontinues,islikelytoplay
animportantroleinassistingthedisseminationofthemoreexperimentalkindsof
opera.Inthisrespectsuchanenterpriseastheissuein1995ofa1993Salzburg
FestivalperformanceofLuigiNono'stragedyforlistening,Prometeo(1985),is
especiallysignificant.
Manyofthefinestoperacomposersofthe20thcenturysuccessfullyexploreda
notablevarietyofdramaticsubjects.SinceStraussfollowedElektrawithDer
Rosenkavalier,andStravinskymoved(overamuchlongerperiod)fromOedipus
rextoTheRake'sProgress,HenzeexploredtheverydifferentworldsofThe
EnglishCat(1983)andDasverrateneMeer,whileBirtwistlerelishedthecontrasts
betweenGawain(1991fig.30)andTheSecondMrsKong(1994).Suchcontrasts
showtheadaptabilityofaconsistentmusicalstyle,ratherthananabilityto
transformstyleitselffromonekindofoperatoanother,andthatabilitymaybeno
lessapparentinmajorcomposers(forexamplePucciniandBritten)inwhomsuch
widecontrastsofdramatictopicarelessevident.Thisadaptabilityisonereason
whyopera,alongwithassociatedformsofmusictheatre,mayhaveahealthy
future.If,asseemsconceivable,musicinthe21stcenturypursuesakindof
classicismthatattemptstointegrateelementsthat20thcenturymodernismsought
tokeepseparate,thenoperaisnolesslikelytobenefitfromthedevelopmentthan
othertraditionalgenreswhich,despitealltheodds,havesurvivedthegreat20th
centuryexperiment.
Opera
VII.Production
1.17thcenturyItaly.
2.FrancefromLullytoRameau.
3.Operaseria.
4.Enlightenmenttendencies.
5.FromWebertoVerdi.
6.Wagnerandafter.
7.SinceWorldWarII.
1.17thcenturyItaly.
AlthoughItalianoperawasabrandnewforminthedecade15981608,itwas
able,wheremattersofproductionandstagingwereconcerned,todrawonmany
established16thcenturyprocedures.Indeed,onlyoneexpertisehadtobenewly
createdforit:theabilityofaleadingsingeractortosustainasinglerolethrough
severaloperaticacts.Withthatexceptionasignificantone,asthefutureofopera
wastoprovetheskillsrequiredforthestagingofoperawereavailablefor
borrowingandadaptationfromearliermusicaland/ortheatricalforms.Dramatic
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presentationofsolosonginvolvingfaceplay,gestureandbodilymovement
deploymentonstageofsingingchorusesandcomparse(silentsupernumeraries)
themountingofelaboratesunganddancedproductionnumberstheuseofoil
andcandlelitchangeablescenery(pastoralandurban)therevelationofhellsand
heavensandtheflyingsaboutthestageofsupernaturalbeings(theirsongs
accompaniedbyinstrumentalistscunninglyhiddenbehindthescenes):allthese
weretobefoundinCinquecentocourtlymusicmaking,inhumanistessaysinthe
stagingofclassicalorneoclassicaltragedy,comedyandsatyrplaycumpastoral,
orinthespectacularmusicalintermedisometimessetbetweentheactsofspoken
dramas(seeIntermedio).
Theexclusivecourtconnectednessofoperainitsfirst40yearsprovidedafurther
reasonforoperaticstaging'sbeingabletoslipfairlyunobtrusivelyintoexistence.It
inheritedthegeneralconventioninRenaissancecourttheatricalsthattherewasa
moreorlessamiablecoexistencebetweentheexpertsresponsiblefordifferent
aspectsofashow,undertheexigentorindulgenteyeofthelocalautocrator
academy,orofanexecutivenominee:suchafigureasLeonede'Sommior
AngeloIngegneri(bothofwhomwroteilluminatingaccountsofstaginginthelate
16thcenturythatarerelevanttothemountingofearlyopera),orlikeEmiliode'
Cavalieri,who,havingbeeninvolvedpracticallywithintermedioandpastoral
comedyinthe1580sand90s,ghostedaprefaceonthesingingandstagingofhis
ownoperaticRappresentationediAnima,etdiCorpoin1600.Itisinthetradition
ofsuchhandsonactivityandtreatisewritingthatthecomposerMarcodaGagliano
printedanintroductiontohisDafne(1608)whichmakesdetailedbutundogmatic
suggestionsaboutthatopera'sstaging,andananonymousFlorentinearound
1630wroteIlcoragoanextendedjobdescriptionandhandbookforthecorago,
whoisacourtlymasteroftheatricalrevels(includingopera)andunitestheroles,
latertobeseparated,ofimpresario,intendant,dramateacher,directorandstage
manager.
Itisclearfromsuchtreatisesasthesethattrueacting(astheRenaissance
understoodit)wasrequiredfromoperasingers,notmerestandingandwarbling:
thataperformer'sfacialplayandseeminglynaturalmovementaboutthestage
shouldembodythemeaningofthelibretto,andthatspecificallyoperatic
techniquesslowingdownofgesturessothattheylastthefulllengthofthesung
phrase,movementduringritornellosratherthanwhilesingingwerethoughttobe
additionsto,notsubstitutesfor,seriousattentiontotheeloquent,expressiveand
lucidpresentationofcharacterouttowardstheaudiencethatwasrequiredof
spokenacting.Thecomparseandthechorus(whentherewasone)neededtobe
equallyattentive:thecomparselearningtheelaboratebattlesdevisedforthemby
amasteroffencingandgracefullyfillingstagespacegrantedthembythe
principalsinceremonialscenesthechorusrespectfulandresponsivetothe
principals,itsmovementscarefullysynchronizedbutavoidinganysenseofa
regimentedcorpsdeballet.Behindthese,thesymmetricalscenery,mademore
easilychangeableintheearly17thcenturybytheintroductionofslidingwingflats
(butbestkeptatadistancebyperformers,whereverpossible,forfearofshowing
uptheflatpainter'sradicalforeshorteningofperspective)andabovethem,the
supernaturalmachineswhich,itwasstressed,hadtobemovedatatempothat
harmonizedwiththemusicanddidnotdiscommodeanyperformerwhohadto
singwhileridingonthem.
Theexpansionofoperaticactivityfromthelater1630sonwardstoincludethe
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publicandcommercialhaditsshopwindowinVenice,wherepayingcitizenscould
seefeaturesofproductionthathadbeenhiddenbehindprincelydoorsinFlorence,
MantuaorRome.AccountsoftheVenetianAndromeda(1637)andBellerofonte
(1642),forinstance,celebratetheirstylishactingandglitteringcostumes,their
crowdsofwelldressed,welldrilledcomparse,theirfrighteninglyrealisticmonsters
andsophisticateddanceinterludes,theirspectacularmachineapotheosesand
theirsmoothchangesofscenebeforetheaudience'seyes:thedcorof
BellerofontewasbytheinventiveandinfluentialscenographerGiacomoTorelli.
Forthenext40years,fromNaplestoViennaandbeyond,commercial,courtlyand
academicItalianoperawastodevelopawidespectrumofscaleandfinessein
performance,fromtheproductionsofsmallcompaniestouringtheItaliancities
muchinthemannerofthepopularitinerantcommediadell'artetroupesto
grandioseandprestigiouseventslikeCesti'sIlpomod'oroatViennain1668(see
fig.6above),wherethe24souvenirengravingsofLudovicoBurnacini'ssetsduring
performancevividlyillustratetheculminationofthe17thcentury'stendencyto
imposeastrongaxialsymmetryonperformersaswellasonscenery.Yetan
integratedapproachtoactinginoperaandonetheauthorofIlcoragowould
haveapprovedprobablycontinuedinfavourwellbeyondthemiddleofthe
century.Eventheprogressiveincreaseinthelength,complexityandpotentialfor
vocaldisplayoftheoperaticariadidnotremovetheconceptofsheeractingskill
asadesideratuminthenewspeciesofoperastar.Forinstance,inhisDell'arte
rappresentativa(1699),AndreaPerrucciisasinsistentashisforebearsonthe
expressiveuseinsungaswellasinspokendramaofhead,eyes,armsandbody
(derivingmuchofwhathesaysfromtheteachingsofclassicalrhetoric)andona
clearfrontalpresentationofcharacter.Indiscussingaparticularphobiaofhis
collisionsbetweenactorsmakingentrancesandthoseleavingthestagehe
suggeststhatagoodwayofavoidingthese,withentrancesfrombehindan
upstageflatandexitsascloseaspossibletotheprosceniumarch,wouldbeof
specialvaluetotheoperasinger,whocanthusleavefromthefrontofthestage
(wherethelightisstrongestandcontactwiththepitbandeasiest)justafteran
aria.Withoperaseriaanditsproliferationofexitariasjustcomingonstream,this
isadvicethatwouldhavedecadesofrelevance.
2.FrancefromLullytoRameau.
ThoughthelibrettistofanewItalianpiecemayhavehadaconsiderablesayasto
itsstaging,inpersonorthroughthestagedirectionshewasabletobroadcastover
histext,midandlate17thcenturyItalianoperaseemsnotinthemaintohave
beenweddedtoproductionpracticesthatrequiredfirm,centralizeddirectorial
controlbutinthe1670sand80stheyorderedthingsdifferentlyinFrance.There,
Lully'sreignovertheFrenchoperahehadvirtuallycreatedshowsdirectorial
presenceatitsmostabsolutist,working(probablynotcoincidentally)intheservice
ofthearchabsolutistLouisXIV.Inestablishingtragdieenmusique,Lullywas
clearlyconcernedthatitsstagingshouldnotsufferincomparisonwiththatofthe
spokencomedyandtragedythatwasthenhavingsuchagoldenageinFranceso
thishandsoncomposerdancerviolinistcoragothoughtitbesttohaveadirectsay
ineverything(thoughinmattersofdesignthereweremajordelegationsto
significantfigures,forexampleCarloVigaraniandJeanBerain).Lullyinstructed
hiscastsinpersonastoentrancesandexits,movesanddeportment,sometimes
showingaperformereverygestureofhisorherroleordemonstratingthe
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pantomimicpartsoftheinsetballets.Hismasteryofthelocaldetailsaswellasthe
complexwholesofhisoperasinconceptionandinstaging,hishavingtheirscores
printedand(ineffect)copyrighted,hisarrangingforuncutrevivalsandhispersonal
trainingofagenerationofactorsingerstoperformthem:allthisledtoLullian
operabecominganinfluentialnationalinstitution,andtoLullyhimself
posthumouslybecomingapotentdirectorialphantomattheOpra.
Inthe18thcentury,Frenchoperawasmoregalantinmoodandalsomore
demandingvocallyprovokingtheremarkascribedtoRameauthat,whileLully's
operasneededactors,hisownneededsingersbutLullianconstructionsand
stageprocedureswerestillpervasive.Operatictraditionwentonsettinggreatstore
bylemerveilleux,whichmeantagreateremphasisontheverticalaspectofthe
stagecelestialdescents,infernaltrapdoorsandthelikethanwascalledfor
mostofthetimeinthemorehistorical(andhencehorizontal)Italianoperasofthe
age.Then,truetothatpartofitsoriginsthatlayinballetdecour,thetraditionalso
insistedonthefrequentincorporationintotheactionofdancesequences:hence
thepresenceofacorpsdeballet,whichnotonlydancedthesymmetricalftesfor
theopera'sprincipalcharactersbutwasalsotheresourceforanytroopsof
warriors,priests,geniiorthelikethatmightberequired,inmarkedcontrasttothe
nondancingcomparsewhofilledequivalentrolesinItalianopera.
AnothervitaldistinguishingfeatureofoperainPariswasitscontinuing
commitmenttoamajorroleforasizablechorus.Theentryofthechorusatthe
Oprainatragdieenmusiqueoranopraballetwasaspectacularmoment:its
richlydressedmembersadvancingintworanks,onefromeachsideofthestage,
totakeuptheirplacesinanelegantUformation.Byframingtheactivitiesof
principals,dancetroupeandanyactivetheatricalmachinesinthisway,thechorus
helpedmaintainastrongaxialsymmetry,whichmaypartlyexplaintherarityonthe
Frenchoperaticstage(outsidetheworkofServandoni)oftheskewedscenaper
angolothatwasbecomingapopularpartofoperaticdcorelsewhereinEurope.
Itisnotclearwhetherintheearly18thcenturytherewasmuchactive
collaboration,beyondthenecessarypolitecoexistence,betweentheseoperatic
elementsanddepartments.Anatbestbenignconvergenceoftheartsratherthan
anorganiccompoundingofthemseemstohavebeentherule.Intheperformance
itself,principalssatgraciouslyoutofharm'swayduringtheinsetftesthedancers
tendedtowearmasks,whichsetthemapartfromotherperformersand,once
settledintoitsUformation,thechorusseemsrarelytohavebestirreditselfvery
much.Still,royaledictswhichrationalizedthecompanystructureattheOprain
171314providedfortheappointmentoftwoactiveadministrativesyndics(later
knownasdirecteurs)andmakingsurethattherewasatleastabaresufficiency
ofliaisonmusthavebeentheresponsibilityoflesyndicchargdelargiedu
thtre.Thisofficerdealtwithartisticplanningandcasting(inconsultationwiththe
composer,ifstillliving)andnominallyoversawallrehearsalsandperformances.It
isamootpointhowfarhisroleinthestagingofanoperawasacreativeandhow
farapurelydiplomaticadministrativeonebutitisclearthathisdrawingtogether
ofstrandsmadeformemorableperformancesatthePalaisRoyal.Reviewers
wouldoccasionallycongratulateMM.lesDirecteursonbrilliantandsatisfying
showsthatexcelledinwords,music,casting,dcor,costumes,choreographyand
execution.Andindividualperformancescouldimpressthemostdemandingcritics.
EvenRousseau,noloveroftheoperaasaninstitution,wasimpressedenoughby
theperformancesthereofC.L.D.Chasshecreatedseveralimportantbass
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baritonerolesforRameautocitehimintheEncyclopdieaseverythingagood
operaticperformeroughttobe:neverdroppinghischaractertobecomemerelya
singerforeverinteresting,eveninsilenceandconspiringbysteps,looksand
gesturestomakehisaudiencefeelthatthemusicrisingfromtheorchestrapitwas
risingfromhissoul.
3.Operaseria.
IntheItaliantraditionasintheFrench,increasingemphasiswasplacedonsheer
vocalexpertiseasoperaseriaestablisheditselfandfromthissprangthenewtribe
ofItalianvocalvirtuososwhohadconsiderablesuccessintheoperahouseforall
thattheiractingabilitieswerefairlyrudimentary.Yetthetrulydesirableopera
singerwasstillgenerallydeemedtobeonewhohad(asanintendantoftheroyal
operainLisboninthe1760sputit)buonavoceagrandeestensionedicorde,
buonafigureebuonaazione.
Oncesuchperformerswereundercontract,andprovidedtheywerenottoo
fractious,thestagingofoperaseriawasarelativelysimplematter.Thestrong
segmentationoftheformallowedfordiscretecellsofactivity.Iftherewereballets,
battlesorceremonialstoattendto,therewaslikelytobeamatrededanseon
hand(andperhapsanassociatedfencingmaster)toarrangethemamachinist
couldadviseperformersaboutanytheatricalcoupstheymightbeinvolvedin
(descentsofairychariots,magicaltransformations,collapsingofcitywallsandthe
like)andacreativescenographer,orsimplyaresourcefulscenestorekeeper,
wouldberingingthechangesonelaborateperspectives(straightorperangolo)
whichrenderedafairlylimitedrangeofmotifs:palace,temple,street,harbour,
cave,camp,garden,wildernessandsoon.Asfortheprincipalsworkingupthe
recitativeandariascenesofpsychologicalinterplaythatarethestapleoftheseria
form,theirrehearsalsofanewpiecemayquitepossiblyhavebeenbriefandnot
stronglydirected,butneednotbethoughtofascarelessorprimitive.Forone
thing,therewerethestagedirectionsofthelibrettotobeobserved,notonlyfor
entrancesandexitsbutoftenalsoforcharacters'moodsandstagebusiness.For
another,performerscouldeasilyandindependentlyapplytotheirrecitativesthe
age'sbasiccourtlystagedeportment(asingercouldfindseveralprimersinprint
fortragicactinginthespokentheatre,manyofthetechniquesofwhichwould
applyequallywelltoopera).Again,sinceatthecentreofoperaseriawasa
spectrumofgeneralemotionsexpressedoneafteranotherinaseriesofarias,an
experiencedperformercomingtoanewoperawouldalmostcertainlyhavegiven
formalhistrionicexpressiontoallhisorhercharacter'sfeelingsbefore
sometimesinexactlythesamewords(asmultiplesettingsofsuccessfullibrettos
werecommon),sometimeseveninthesamemusicifthenewpiecewasa
pasticcio.Stageperformanceofaseriaariaseemstohavebeennotunlikethe
18thcenturyspeakingactor'sdeliveryofatragictiradeorsoliloquy.
Henceagroupofcompetentprincipalsmightachieveafluent,decorous,pointed
andtellingstagingofanoperaseria(inallbutanyspectacularorballeticparts)
withnomoreexternalhelpthanwasneedfulforrecordingwhichwingswereused
forwhichentrances,theassigningofcourtlyretinuesofcomparseandthe
resolutionofanypointsofprincelyetiquetteorclashesofartistictemperament.
Sometimestheimpresarioormanagermightprovidesuchhelp,ortheprompteror
themaestrodicappella(whomightanywaybetheopera'scomposer).Butmost
oftenitwasthetheatre'sresidentpoet,inwhichcasehemightperhapstakeona
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moreconsequential,directorialroleatrehearsals.
ThecomicironiesofBenedettoMarcello'sIlteatroallamoda(D1720)carrythe
strongimplicationthatatheatrepoetworthhissaltwouldexplainthedramatic
conceptionandintentionsofhistexttotheperformersinrehearsal,advisethemon
costume,gesturesandthepropersidesofthestagefortheirentrancesandexits,
andinsistonaclearenunciationofhiswords.Later,Goldoni,whohimselfhadhad
responsibilityfordirectingandcoachingtheperformersduringastintaspoettoa
Venetianoperahouseinthe1730s,putsuchafigureintohiscomedyL'impresario
delleSmirne(1761).TherehisMaccario,armedwiththeworksofZenoand
Metastasio,someoldplaysandarhymingdictionary,practiseshisspecialitiesof
writingnewlibrettos,adaptingoldones,fittingnewwordstooldmusic,instructing
thesingersinacting,directingthescenes,attendingtheladiestotheirboxes,
lookingafterthecomparseandblowingthetraditionalwhistleforscenechanges.
Metastasiohimselfwouldhaverecognizedatleastsomeofthisactivity.Thoughit
wouldnothavebeenpossibleforhimtorehearseallthesettingsofhislibrettosin
person,hislettersfromViennatovarioussortsoftheatrepeoplefromthe1730sto
50sshowhimtohavebeenacarefuldirectorconcernedwiththeeffective
blockingofscenes,makingdiagramsofthedispositionofcharactersonstage,
supplyingdetailedanalysesofprincipalcharactersforcomposerandsinger,
offeringsuggestionsforoptionalstagebusinessoverandabovethatintheprinted
texttobusyintendantsthreeorfourcountriesaway.Metastasio'slettersalso
revealthat,howeverformalizedthestageactionmayhavebeeninoperaseria,the
genre'sleadinglibrettistwasconvincedthattellingtheatricalityinthe
communicationoffeelingwastheessenceofitsstaging,nottheblindfollowingof
formulaorprotocol.
4.Enlightenmenttendencies.
ThoughlibrettosofMetastasiowentonbeingsetandstagedintothe1820sand
occasionallybeyond,bythe1760smoreprogressivespiritsinwritingandstaging
wereenteringanewageofsensibility,enlightenment,sublimesimplicityand
growingconcernfortheatricalrealism,thelastpartlyexpressedinacanonization
ofShakespeareandafreshrespectfortheartsofcomedy.Oneaspectofthiswas
theappealthatbuffoactingcametohaveforseriousoperalovers.Thetiny,often
twopersontroupesperformingfarcicalintermezzosbetweentheactsofopera
seriaandtheratherlargercompaniesgivingmoreextendedoperebuffehad
developedastyleofactingthatwasbrisker,saltierandmoreimmediatelyalluring,
ifnotagreatdeallessgovernedbyconvention,thanthatseeninloftieropera.The
unpretentiousnessofthisstyleandtheleewayitgaveforsharpobservationof
contemporarylifeendearedittosuchobserversasArteagaanddeBrosses,who
sawitsvivacityandairoftruthasrebukestothetraditionalhighoperaticstage's
tendencytowhathadcometoseemstiffnessandfrigidity.AtatimewhenDavid
Garrick(thelivingdemonstrationthatShakespeareandNaturewerethesame)
wasshiftingthenormofseriousactinginspokentheatreawayfromweighty,slow
movingdeclamationtowardsamoreenergetic,pantomimicmode,itislikelythat
someofthemoreseemlyaspectsofbuffostyle,alongwithsomeGarrickiantraits,
weresharpeningtheimmediacyofseriousoperaticactingandincreasingitsairof
truth.
GarrickwasthemodelforseveralofthenewmenofoperaticEuropeinthemid
18thcentury,notleastNoverre,forwhomhewastheProteusofourtimeandan
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inspirationbehindNoverre'scampaigntounmaskthedancersinoperaandso
increasetheirhistrionicpotential.ButifGarrickwasaProteus,itwastheGluckof
thereformoperaswhowasseenbyhisadmirersasthemodernPrometheus
where,interalia,stagingwasconcerned.Oneoftheminthe1770sdescribeshim
ashavingtodealatfirstwithprincipalsingerswhoseactingwaseitherlifelessor
grotesquelymanneredandwithacollectionofmannequinscalledachorusbut
Prometheusshookhistorchandthestatuescametolife,theprincipalsrealizing
thattheidiomofGluck'smusicneededonlytobefelttobringstrongandtrue
stageimpersonationwithit,whilethechorusmembersinhisoperaswereamazed
todiscoverthattheywereactors.
GarrickandGluck,ofcourse,werenotaloneresponsibleforalltheatricalchange
atthetimebutpraiseofthiskindprovidesaframeforsuchthingsasthepoet
Verazi'sstagingsofhisownlibrettosinthe1760sand70s,notedfortheirtreating
thechorusasactors,notstatueshisprintinghislibrettoswithstagedirectionsfor
elaboratebusinessduringthenormallydirectionfreedacapoariastheincreasing
troubletakenbysuchcomposersasJommellitoconstructbuffoensembleswhich
wouldpermitnaturalactingthroughoutthegrowingtendencyoftheoperatic
stagespacetobecharacterizedbychiaroscuroinlighting,localcolourindcor
andasymmetryinthedeploymentofsupernumeraries,dancersandscenerythe
praisesheapedonasingerlikeSophieArnouldforhertenderness,energy,soul,
sentimentandsensibilityandthedeterminationofGaetanoGuadagni,whohad
learntdirectlyfromGarrickandcreatedtheleadingroleinOrfeoedEuridice
(1762),toidentifywithhisrolessofullythatherefusedtoacknowledgeapplause
afteranariaorgiveencores.
FewsingersmayhavegoneasfarasGuadagniinthisbuthisidealchimeswitha
conceptofoperainvolvingacarefullymonitoredsynthesisoftheatricalarts,all
blendingtogethertopresentaheightenedvirtualactualitywhichwillenthral,
elevateandedify.Theconceptattractedsupportinthelater18thcentury,although
thereweredifferingviewsastowhoshouldfinallyberesponsibleforthecareful
monitoring.NoverreandAlgarotti,influentiallyurgingthisconsciousintegrationof
theartsasopposedtothetraditionallaissezfaire,bothinsistedthatitwasthe
poetlibrettistwho,asthebegetteroftheopera,shouldbetheguardianofits
wholeness,andthatitwasfortheothertheatreartiststoembodythepoet's
unifyingconception.Noverrefurtheremphasizedtheneedfortheexecutivequintet
ofcomposer,designer,machinist,balletmasterandcostumiertoworkclosely
togetherandforthepoettobeoncallthroughout,whichiswhathappenedinthe
caseoftheteamworkingonOrfeo.Itwascertainlyanauthoritystructureassured
ofsomesuccessincourttheatreswherethelocalprincehimselfwasthelibrettist
(oratleasttheinfluentialdrafterofscenarios).Elsewhereitmightbethecourt
composer,aswithJommelliatStuttgartinthe1750sand60sunderthewatchful
eyeofDukeCarlEugen.AccordingtoChristianSchubart,Jommelliusedhis
knowledgeofsingers,instrumentalists,audiencesandtheatreacoustics,plusthe
closecooperationofdesigners,machinistsandchoreographers,tomoveand
upliftthecoldestlistener'sheartandsoulwithonegreattotality.Oritmightbethe
courtintendantformusicanddrama,asseemstohavebeenthecasewithCount
vonSeeauatMunichin178081whenMozartandVaresco'sIdomeneowas
beingpreparedandrehearsed.Mozart'slettershomesuggestacareful
collaborationunderSeeau'scontrolbetweencomposer,conductor,scenographer
andchoreographer.Thelackofthelibrettistonthespottoadvisesingersabout
stageactionsuggeststhattheprincipalswereexpectedtobelargelyselfreliant
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andtouseappropriatemodificationsofwelltriedseriaandGluckiantechniques,
takingadvicewheretheyfoundit.Theywouldalmostcertainlyhavefounditfrom
Mozartinhisroleascomposerrptiteur,withhisearnestconcernthatrecitative
shouldbefastmoving,spiritedandfieryinperformance,thatsingersshouldact,
andthatthebestcriterionforlibrettists,composersandperformersalikewas
theatricaleffectiveness.
5.FromWebertoVerdi.
Theideaofagreattotalityofstaging,integratedbyoneman,hadafuture.
Germanspeakingtheatrewasallowingroominthe1790sforthenotionofa
RegisseurdesSchauspielswhoseresponsibilitiesincludedbalancingallthe
individualdetailstocreatetheoveralleffectandsuchideasinfluencedinfluential
operaticmusicdirectors,includingWeber.Asoverseerofallaspectsofvocaland
visibleactivityonstageatthePragueOpera(181316),Weberconceivedanideal
ofascoreandstagingwhereeverycontributionoftherelatedartsismoulded
togetherinacertainway,dissolvingtoformanewworldandatDresden(1817
26)hewasanadvocateoftheLeseprobe(theearlyreadingaloudbyacompany
ofthelibrettotoensurethateveryoneinvolvedhadanideaofhisorherplacein
thewhole),wasconcernedtodevelopversatilityinhissoloistsandactingabilityin
hischorus,andwasmindedtoemployaliteratortodiscussproblematicalaspects
oflibrettoswithperformersandadancingmasterwhowoulddoubleasa
movementcoachandalsodeviseeffectivestagegroupings.
Individualized,picturesqueromanticstagingscametoappealtoothernational
operasaroundEuropetoo.Forinstance,WilliamCharlesMacready,theEnglish
actormanagerinspokentheatre,wasconcernedtotakegreatanddetailedcarein
embodyingthedramatist'spictureonthestage,completeinitspartsand
harmoniouslyarrangedastofigure,sceneandaction,andsawnoreasonwhyhe
shouldnotapplythesametechniquestostagingoperainEnglish.Butthedetailed
itemizationofstageactionthatappearsinhispromptbooksishugelyoutdone
acrosstheEnglishChannelbythequantityofmovement,stagebusinessand
characterrevelation(tosaynothingofmattersofscenery,costumesandprops)
recordedbehindthescenesattheParisiangrandsspectaclesoftheageof
Meyerbeer,AuberandEugneScribe,forusebystagemanagers,prompters,
rptiteursandtherehearsersofrevivals.Stagingalmostforstaging'ssake
flamboyantRomantichistoricaldcor,crowdeffects,exploitationofthenew
fangledgasilluminationfounditselfintheforegroundinFrenchgrandopra.Of
course,thesheervocalandhistrionicskillsofsuchprincipalsasAdolpheNourrit
andlaterPaulineViardotwerevitaltoanoveralltheatricalsuccessbuttherewas
somuchelseaswelltoclaimtheattention.Soitisnotsurprising,giventheneed
tokeepsomecontroloveritall,thatpositionswiththefairlyinterchangeable
designationsrgisseurdelamiseenscne,directeurdelascneandmetteuren
scnebegintoappearinParisianpersonnellists.
ThenewlyprominentFrenchrgisseurswereentrustedwiththetaskofconniving
withtheoperaticteamlibrettist,composer,companydirector,scenicartist,
costumedesigner,choreographerandleadingsingerssoastodeviseadurable
stagingofthelatestscore,andofmakingsurethatthestagingwasadheredto
duringtherun.Indeed,itwaslikelytobesetinstone,tobecomevirtuallypartof
theworkitselfforParisianrevivalsandproductionsinotherplaces,throughthe
rgisseur'scompilationofasophisticatedlivretdemiseenscne,whichincludeda
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movementbymovement,propbypropaccountofthewholecomplexspectacle.
Theselivrets,whichevolvedfromlessambitiousattemptsinthe1800stofixthe
stagingsofParisianmelodramasandoprascomiquesforthebenefitofprovincial
managers,wereoftenputintoprintby1850over80ofthemhadbeenpublished
inParisdistant,indirectdescendantsofthepracticalprefaceGaglianohad
writtenforDafnein1608.
InItalianspeakingoperahousesatthetimetherewouldhaveseemedtobelittle
needforsuchlivrets.StagingmethodswhichwouldhavebeenfamiliartoGoldoni
werestillbeingcarriedoutmoreorlessefficiently,andtherearerecordsof
librettistssuchasRomani,CammaranoandPiavelistingprops,coaxingsome
actingoutofsingers,blockingchorusscenes(wheresuchexisted),organizing
comparseandtroubleshootingbackstageatpremires.ButasItalianopera,
largelythroughthematuringofVerdi'sgenius,becametheatricallymorecomplex
andhencemoreatriskafterthepremire(whichwasartisticallyinthehandsof
thecomposerandhisclosecolleagues)especiallywhentakenupbyanother
companyatadistanceamorerigorousmeansofqualitycontrolinstagingwas
calledfor.IfVerdicreatedtheproblem,however,healsohad,indeedinsistedon,
aparticularsolution.LouisPalianti'sseriesofParisianlivretsdemiseenscne
hadincludedaccountsoftwoproductionsofVerdipieceswithwhichthecomposer
hadbeencloselyinvolvedwhileinFranceinthe1850s.Passionatelyconcernedto
getandkeepstagebusinessright,Verdiwasmuchtakenwiththelivretidea.That
forLesvpressicilienneswastranslatedintoItalian,andfromthenoneachof
Verdi'snewoperashaditsowndisposizionescenicapreparedandprintedbyhis
publisherRicordiwiththecomposer'scollaboration.Bytheendtheywere
immenselyelaboratethatforOtello(1887)oneforFalstaffhasyettobefound
includes270diagramsofstagepositionsandmoves(seefig.21).Becauseof
recentdevelopmentsinthemusicdrama,everymovementhasitsraisond'tre
andtheoldstageconventionsarenolongeracceptable,saysRicordiinhis
epiloguetothedisposizioneforAida(1872).Hehadnocausetoponderwhatthe
statusoftheprescribeddcorsandmovementsmightbewhenoperaticstaging
itselfhaddevelopedstillfurther.
6.Wagnerandafter.
Thestoryofmodernoperaproductionmaywellbeseenasbeginningwiththefirst
BayreuthFestivalof1876.NotonlywasWagnertheprototypeofthe20thcentury
director,butalsothefestivalheinauguratedremainedforoveracenturyoneofthe
chiefpowerhousesofdevelopmentsindramaturgy.Bycontrastwiththeprevious
theatricalpractice,wherestagingmightdependonacombinationofinterested
parties,Wagner,incollaborationwithhischoreographerRichardFricke,imposed
himselfasthecentralintelligence.Strongemphasiswasplacedontheroleof
improvisationandinspirationinstageblocking.Traditionalstockhistrionicswere
replacedbynaturalexpression,andsingerswereencouragedtoignorethe
audienceandrespondonlytofellowperformersonthestage.Thiswastheapogee
ofillusionism,theprevailingmodeinthespokentheatre,atleast,fromthemid
18thcentury.
WagnernaturallytookakeeninterestintheworkofGeorgII,theDukeofSaxe
Meiningen,whosecoincidentinnovationswithhistravellingtroupewereahuge
influenceontheevolutionofstagecraft.InMeiningenproductions,scenery(three
dimensional,usingtheboxset)wasdesignedtoaccommodatethemovementsof
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actorscostumes,propsandlightingwereexploitedtocreatemoodand
atmosphere.Thedukealsodidmuchtoestablishthesupremacyofthedirector.
WhenCosimaWagnerassumedcontroloftheBayreuthFestivalafterthe
composer'sdeath,shebroughtanaturaldramatictalenttobearandcontinuedthe
progressivetendencyofnaturalisticactingshehadobservedatthefirstfestivals.
Atthesametime,herpursuitofanidealperformancesuchasWagnerwould
haveapprovedledtooverprescriptivenessandthestiflingofinspiration.
NaturalisminactingandstagingwasalsosoughtbyKonstantinStanislavsky,who
in1898foundedtheMoscowArtTheatrewithVladimirNemirovichDanchenko.
Recognizingthattherepresentationofinnertruthonthestagemightinvolvean
abandonmentofrealism,hesoughttoprojectlifenotasitisperceivedinrealitybut
asitisexperiencedinourdreams,ourvisions,ourmomentsofspiritualuplift.
Theseprinciples,groundedinthesystemknownastheMethod(basedonthe
actor'spersonalexperienceandidentificationwiththerole),wereembodiedin
Stanislavsky'sworkintheBol'shoyTheatreOperaStudio,whichhefoundedin
1918.Fusionofwords,musicandmovementwastheobject,butitwasthescore
ratherthanthelibrettothatwastoprovidethecues.
MorerevolutionarywastheMoscowArtTheatreMusicalStudio,foundedin1919
byNemirovichDanchenko,whorejectednaturalismandrealisminfavourofthe
kindoftechniquespioneeredbyEmileJaquesDalcroze,strictlysynchronizing
movementandgestureinabstractsettings.NemirovichDanchenko,likemany
others,wasinfluencedbytheideasoftheSwissdesignerAdolpheAppia,whohas
beendescribedasthefatherofnonillusionistmusicaltheatre.Appiaaimedto
createatheatricalspaceindependentofreality:alivingbackgroundthat
projectedmoodandatmospherepredominantlybyimaginativelighting.Hisset
designsweregeometricalstructuresinspiredbycontemporaryconstructivist
principlesbutoffsetbyevocativedeploymentoflightandshadow(fig.44).His
theoriesofoperaproduction,expoundedinaseriesofessays,alsoproposed
simple,stylizedcostumesandquasisymbolic,nonrealisticstagemovements.
SimilarideaswereespousedbytheEnglishtheatredesigneranddirectorEdward
GordonCraig,buthealsoattemptedtoreplacepaintedscenerywithscreens,
variableinshape,sizeandcolouraccordingtothemoodofthescene.His
uncompromisinglyantirealiststancefurtherledhimtoproposereplacingactors
altogetherwithberMarionetten:puppetsmanipulatedbyanomnipotentdirector.
InhisnotableproductionsforthePurcellOperaticSociety,190003,hisrejection
oftraditionalstageconventionsanddeploymentofcolouredlightborewitnessto
thesymbolistapproachthatwastomakeitseffectfeltonsubsequentgenerations
ofdirectors.AswithAppia,Craig'sinfluencewaschieflythroughhistheoriesrather
thanhisproductions.AppiamountedTristanundIsoldeatLaScalain1923and
designedanaustere,abstractDasRheingoldandDieWalkreinBasle,19245
(theRingthusinitiatedwasabandoned,aftervigorousprotests)buthisideaswere
contemptuouslydismissedbyCosimaWagnerandnottakenupseriouslyat
BayreuthuntilthereformingregimeofWielandandWolfgangafterWorldWarII.
Therewere,however,otherprogressivespiritsintheearlydecadesofthecentury
whofollowedAppiainrejectingpictorialism.GustavWunderwald'santinaturalistic
representationoftherockyheightsinhisRheingoldfortheDeutscheOper,Berlin,
in1914showedanawarenessofAppia'sideas,asdidtheworkofAlfredRollerin
Vienna,HansWildermanninCologne,DortmundandDsseldorf,andLudwig
Sievert,whoseRingwasfirstseeninFreiburgin191213,thenagain,withsome
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variations,inBadenBaden(1917),Hanover(1925)andFrankfurt(19267).
Sievertwasabletointroducebothacyclorama(suchasAppiahadwantedbuthad
beenpreventedfromexecuting)andarevolvingstage.TheinfluenceofAppiais
alsoevidentinthedark,suggestive,geometricshapesofSievert'sRingdesigns
(therockycleftinDieWalkre,Act2,forexample),thoughtheslantingwallsand
convergingperspectivehereproduceacompositionthatwasquiteoriginalandin
turnwidelyimitated.
Roller'sdesignsforMahler'sWagnerandMozartproductionsinViennafrom1903
onwardsappliedelementsofneoromanticismtoarchitectonicstructuresderived
fromAppiaandCraig.AmorethoroughgoingavantgardedirectorwasVsevelod
Meyerhold,whosedeterminationtodrawattentiontotheartificeandmechanicsof
theactofstageproductionforeshadowedBrechtianalienationtechniques.
Meyerhold'sfirstoperaproductionwasanimaginativelyreductiveTristanund
IsoldeattheMariinskyTheatreinStPetersburgin1909.
AnotherprominentdirectorwhogavepracticalexpressiontothetheoriesofAppia
andCraigwastheAustrianMaxReinhardt,whoplayedakeyroleinestablishing
thedirector/impresariointheoperahouse,andisbestknownforhiscollaborations
withRichardStraussandHofmannsthal.Reinhardt'sapproachwasaneclectic
one,incorporatingelementsofrealism,symbolismandExpressionisminan
attempttorecaptureinmoderntermsthevisionaryexperienceaffordedbythe
traditionaltheatre.Theaccusationthathisobtrusiveproductionmethodobscured
theauthor'sorcomposer'sintentionisanearlyexampleofthecriticalreaction
againstproducer'sopera.
Anewwaveofrealism,rootedintheantiromantic,functionalprinciplesofthe
Bauhaus,informedthemoststimulatingexperimentinoperaproductioninthe
1920s:theBerlinKrollOperaunderKlemperer(192731).Theartistandstage
designerEwaldDlberg,whowasresponsibleforproductionsthereofFidelio
(fig.45),Oedipusrex,DerfliegendeHollnderandRigoletto,aimedprimarilyat
creatingclearlydefinedstagespaces,withstarklylitcompositionsdrawingon
principlesofCubistabstraction.Dlberg'scostumesforDasfliegendeHollnder
(directedbyJrgenFehling)werebothmodernandtimelessSentasportinga
bluepullover,greyskirtandabrightredwigwhiletheshipswererepresentedas
geometricshapesloominginthedark.From1928Dlberg'smonopolygaveway
totheparticipationofsuchartistsasCasparNeher,TraugottMller,OskarStrnad,
OskarSchlemmerandLszlMoholyNagy.InMoholyNagy'scontroversialLes
contesd'Hoffmann,Romanticscenerywasreplacedbyconstructivistdesigns
consistingofgeometricandspiralmotifsinthestyleoftheBauhaustherewere
sharpcontrastsoflighting,andtheplayingspacewasoccupiedbysurrealpuppet
figuresandthefirststeelfurnituretoappearontheoperaticstage.
Meanwhile,atBayreuth,SiegfriedWagnercelebratedthereopeningofthefestival
afterthewar(1924)withasustainedattempt,inhisfinalsixyears,tointroduce
solidthreedimensionalsetsandothercautiousinnovationsmoreintunewiththe
times.Thehandofhallowedtraditionweighedheavily,butinhislastnew
production,Tannhuser(1930),therewasatlastsomeevidencethatthe
progressiveideasofcontemporarymusictheatreweremakingheadway.
TheascendancyoftheNazis,however,putastoptovirtuallyallavantgarde
experimentationindramaturgyinGermany.OnlyatBayreuthironicallyinviewof
thecloselinksforgedbetweenthefestivalandtheregimewasthereanysign
thatcreativethinkinghadbeenallowedtocontinue.WinifredWagner's
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appointmentofHeinzTietjenasartisticdirectorofthefestivalbroughtthescenic
designerEmilPreetoriustothecentreofattention(fig.46).InhisessayWagner:
BildundVision,Preetoriusdrewattentionbothtotheabundanceofnaturaleffects
inWagner'sworksandtotheirconceptionasallegories.Ontheonehand,hefelt
thattheseeffectsmustberenderedclearlyandwithcompleteillusiononthe
other,herecognizedthatsymbolismmustplayasimportantaroleinthethinking
ofthedesignerasinthatofthecomposer.LikeAppia,helaidgreatemphasison
theuseoflighting,allowingitsdeploymentsupremacybyreducingstagepropsto
essentials.
AttheMetropolitan,NewYork,atleastonecycleoftheRingwasconductedevery
yearfrom1929to1939byArturBodanzky,usingthefaithfullynaturalisticsetsand
bearskinsoftheKautskybrothersfirstseenbeforeWorldWarI.Thesetsdesigned
forthetetralogyafterWorldWarIIbyLeeSimonsonalsofrequentlysprouted
foliage,butsinceSimonsonwasaBroadwaydesigner,theyhadmorethanatouch
ofmodernismaswell,withechoesofSievertandPreetorius.
7.SinceWorldWarII.
ThemostradicalshiftinthestagingofWagner,andakeymomentinthehistoryof
20thcenturyoperaproduction,occurredwiththereopeningoftheBayreuth
FestspielhausafterWorldWarIIin1951.Bayreuthhadbecomeindelibly
associatedwiththeNaziregime,anditwasinaconsciousattempttobreakwith
theideologyofthepastthatWielandandWolfgangWagner,thecomposer's
grandsons,discardedallthepictorialsetsandtheirtrappingsthathadbecome
suchanoutdatedfixture.Arguingthattherewasnoincontrovertiblereasonwhy
Wagner'sworkshadtobegiveninthenaturalisticmodeinwhichtheywerefirst
performed,Wielandreducedhissetstothebareessentials,essayingfidelitytothe
composernotonthesurfacebutintermsofpsychologicaltruthfulness.Theentire
actionwassetonacircularplatformordisc,andacycloramaeffectivelysuggested
anendlesshorizon(fig.47).Thestatedaimwastorevealthepurelyhuman
elementstrippedofallconvention.HisabandonmentofWagner'sspecific
instructionswasjustifiedbythedrawingofadistinctionbetweenthestage
directions,whichremainedboundto19thcenturytheatricalmodes,andthe
timelessideasoftheworksthemselves,whichdemandconstantlynew
representations.Thestagedirections,inotherwords,heregardedasinnervisions
ratherthanpracticaldemands.
Adiametricallyopposedsetofdramaturgicalprincipleswasevidentintheworkof
anotherhugelyinfluentialdirectorofthesameera,WalterFelsenstein.Having
foundedtheKomischeOperinEastBerlinin1947,heremaineditsdirectoruntil
hisdeathin1975,establishingrealisticmusictheatreonthebasisoflong,
intensiverehearsalperiodsandcommittedensembleplaying,butinsistingthatthe
centralfigureis,andremains,thesingeractor.Felsensteinemphasizedthe
creativecontributiontobemadebyperformers,inspiringthemtoreplicatethe
psychologicalstateofthecharacterstheywereplaying,drawingontheirown
emotionalreservesandexperiences.Thedramaticportrayalsofcharactersand
theirinteractionhadtobepersuasive,butFelsensteinalsodemandedthattheact
ofsinginginthetheatrehaditselftobeexperiencedasaconvincing,trueand
utterlyindispensablemodeofexpression.
Felsenstein'schieflegacywasthepsychologicalandsocialrealismhebroughtto
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bear,andtheemphasisheplacedonroleidentification.Hisbestknownpupils,
GtzFriedrich(fig.48)andJoachimHerz,aswellassuchdirectorsasHarry
Kupfer,fusedthoseprincipleswiththequitecontraryonesofBrechtiantheoryto
establishthefundamentalsofanapproachthatdominatedthestagesofEurope,in
avarietyofcontrastingforms,throughoutthe1960s,70sand80s.Brecht's
determinationtoshattertheillusionsconstructedbytraditional,culinarytheatre,
ashedisparaginglynamedit,ledhimtoformulatetheVerfremdungseffekt,usually
renderedasalienationeffect,thoughtheintentionwastoalienatetheaudience
fromtheactioninordertoengageitmoreimmediatelyandintellectually.
AlienationtechniqueswereusedconspicuouslybyFriedrichinhistwoRingcycles,
where,forexample,hecausedLoge,AlberichandWotantostepoutsidethe
frameworkofthedramatoaddresstheaudiencedirectly.Suchtechniqueswere
usedtoheightenthecontemporaryrelevancethatbecamethehallmarkofthe
workofFriedrich,Herz,KupferandotherEastGermandirectors.Socialand
politicalcommitmenthadbeenanintrinsicelementofFelsenstein'sproductions
too,buttheincorporationofBrechtiantechniquesgavetheworkoftheyounger
generationasharperideologicaledge.Itwasnodoubtthepotencyofthat
ideologicalelementthatprovokedbourgeoiscapitalistaudiencesandcritics
repeatedlytoobjecttowhatwasdismissedassocialistdidacticismontheoperatic
stageastage,moreover,nottraditionallyassociatedwithideological
engagementofanykind.
TheItalianGiorgioStrehlerandtheFrenchmanPatriceChreau(notablyinhis
centenaryproductionoftheRingatBayreuth,1976fig.49)alsoattractedcriticism
insomequartersfortheprominencetheyaccordedtotheideologicalaspectsof
works.Itisnocoincidencethatthetrendtheyencouragedofdirectorsturningfrom
thespokentheatretooperawasconcurrentwiththeriseofwhatcametobe
called,oftenpejoratively,producer'sopera.Theageoftheproducer,ordirector
(ashe/shehascome,followingAmericanusage,morecommonlytobeknown),
maybeseenasaresponsetoasetofsocioculturalfactorsaffectingthereception
ofoperainthemodernera.Chiefamongthesearethedeclineinthecultofthe
divaand,arguably,intheindividualityofexpression(thoughnottechnique)of
singersthepassingoftheeraoftheautocratic,charismaticconductorwho
fashionedtheproductioninhisownimageandthefailureofoperainthe20th
centurytoregenerateitsformsorrepertoryinaccordancewiththeneedsofthe
age.Thesurvivalofanantiquated,obsoletegenrehasnecessitatedrenewalin
termsofpresentation.
Notallinterventionistapproacheshaveapoliticalintention,however:some
directors(notablyJonathanMiller)haveprobedtheworksfromapsychological
vantagepoint,whileothers(notablyDavidFreeman)haveprioritizedemotional
directness.Presentdaycostumesandsettingshavesometimes,butbynomeans
always,beenthechosenmeansforsuchexplorations.Inthe1970sand80s,
somedirectorsattemptedtoemphasizetheuniversalityandtimelessrelevanceof
worksbyincorporatingpropsandcostumesfromvariouseras.
Interventionistoperaproductionshavealsogonehandinhandwiththeespousal
ofinfluentialcriticaltheoriessuchasstructuralism,poststructuralism(inparticular
deconstruction),readerorientatedapproachesandfeminism.Thequestioningof
previouscertaintiessuchasthestatusoftheauthorastheoriginofthetext,the
sourceofitsmeaningandtheprincipalauthorityforitsinterpretationeffecteda
revolutioninthewayworks,bothclassicandmodern,mightbepresented.
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Brechtiantheoryhadalreadysuggestedthatthebourgeoistheatre'sillusionof
realitycouldfruitfullybedispelledbydisruptingthesupposedorganicunityofa
work,emphasizinginsteaditsdiscontinuitiesandcontradictions.Nowthewider
possibilitiesofexploitingdisjunctionsbetweentextandmusic,evenofcontriving
them,andofgeneratingcreativetensionbetweensurfaceindicatorsinthescoreor
stagedirectionsandtheactionasplayedoutonstagebegantoberealized.
Principlesofthissortwereinitiallymostevidentintheworkofcontinental,primarily
German,directors,thoughbythe1980sthetorchhadpassedtotheyounger
generationofdirectorsactiveinBritain.HarryKupferhadalreadycreatedover70
productions,mostlyinEastGermany,beforehecametointernationalattentionin
1978PatriceChreau'sBayreuthRing(1976)wasmoreimmediatelyinfluential.
TheGielenZeheleinregimeatFrankfurt(197787)producedaseriesofradical
stagingsbyateamofguestdirectorsincludingRuthBerghaus,AlfredKirchner,
ChristofNelandHansNeuenfelsthatpressedsuchideasintotheserviceof
vibrantmusictheatre.Berghaus'sstagingsinparticular,drawingalsoon
surrealismandtheTheatreoftheAbsurd,influencedtheworkofyoungerdirectors
suchasDavidAldenandRichardJones.Others,suchasDavidPountneyin
BritainandPeterSellarsintheUSA,ploughedtheirownfurrows,ineachcase
producingacorpusofworkthatbysheerforceofconvictionandflairinexecution
hasoftenbeenwellreceivedevenbythoseofamoretraditionalistpersuasion.
Alongsidesuchradicaldevelopments,aconservativetraditionhasbeen
maintainedinvariousguises.Visconti'sneoromantic,picturesqueopulencewas
continuedbyhisprotg,Zeffirelli,notablyatLaScalaandtheMetropolitan
(fig.50),whilefidelitytothetexthasbeenthewatchwordbothofthosedirectors
cleavingtothehumanist,Leavisitetradition(PeterHallisaprominentexample)
and,ontheContinent,ofthoseadheringtowerktreuprinciples.Itwouldbe
misleading,however,tosuggestthateitherthemainstreamtraditionalorthe
radicalinterventionistproductionshadamonopolyoninventionandimagination.
PeterStein'sOtelloandFalstaff,forexample,demonstratedthatevena
conventionalconcernforharmonyofstageactionandscorecan,inresourceful
hands,haveelectrifyingtheatricalresults.
The1990switnessedabacklashagainsticonoclasticproductions,abettedonthe
onehandbycriticsandaudienceswhowereneverentirelycomfortablewiththe
interventionismofthe1970sand80s,andontheotherbyaprevailingsenseof
ideologicalapathyandculturalmalaise.Theneed,perceivedbyeconomically
besiegedmanagements,forsurefirecommercialsuccessesisalsoamajor
contributoryfactor,andtheeclecticismaffordedbytheaestheticsof
postmodernismhasallowedawidevarietyofstylestobeessayedwithan
exuberanceandvirtuositythatconcealanunderlyingconceptualvacuum.In
generalterms,withafewexceptions,thedirectorsmostindemandwiththemajor
operahouseshaveofferedsurface,designledinnovationratherthanideological
engagement.AlfredKirchner'sBayreuthRing(19948)exemplifiesthetrend.
Shiftsinpublictastewillnodoubtcontinuetofosterexperimentation.Ina
postmodernageuncertainofitsculturalidentity,oroftheroleofoperainsociety,
iconoclasmandtraditionalismseemdestinedtocoexist,givingrisetoamultiplicity
ofstylisticapproachesforsometimetocome.
Opera
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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AGeneral.BOrigins.CEarlyopera:(i)Italy(ii)France(iii)Germany,Austria(iv)
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d:18thcentury
e:19thcentury
f:20thcentury
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