Work Stress and Alcohol Effects: A Test of Stress-Induced Drinking

Author(s): M. Lynne Cooper, Marcia Russell, Michael R. Frone

Source: Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Sep., 1990), pp. 260-276
Published by: American Sociological Association
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Work Stressand AlcoholEffects:

A Test of Stress-InducedDrinking*
M. LYNNE COOPER
MARCIA RUSSELL
MICHAEL R. FRONE
StateUniversity
ofNew Yorkat Buffaloand TheResearchInstitute
on Alcoholism

Journal
of Healthand Social Behavior1990, Vol. 31 (September):260-276

Drawingon bothtensionreduction
and social learningtheories,we hypothesized
thatworkstressorslead to increaseddistress,whichin turnpromotes
problematic
alcoholuse amongvulnerableindividuals.Vulnerable
individuals
are hypothesized
to possess few personal and social resourcesfor respondingadaptivelyto
work-related
stressorsand distressand to holdpositiveexpectancies
foralcohol's
effects.
We testedour modelin a randomsampleof574 employed
adults,usinga
combination
ofpath analyticand hierarchicalmoderatedregressiontechniques.
Results revealed no supportfor a simple tensionreductionmodel of work
stress-induced
drinking
and onlylimitedsupport
for a social learningmodel.We
concludethata muchmorecircumscribed
viewoftheetiologicroleofworkstress
inproblematic
alcohol use is indicated.
The beliefthatworkstresspromotesheavy
or problematic
alcoholuse is widelyaccepted
(e.g., Gupta and Jenkins1984; Herold and
Conlon 1981; Milleret al. 1988; Trice and
Roman1978). Indeed,efforts
to reducework
stress or to provide alternativeformsof
copingwithstressare currently
advocatedas
measurestoprevent
alcoholabusein thework
force(e.g., Shain 1983; see Weiss 1986 for
opposingviewpoints).
Yet despitewidespread
acceptanceof the belief that work stress
promotesproblematic
alcoholuse, few studies provideconvincingempiricalsupportfor
thisnotion.Existingresearchfailsto provide

an adequate theoretically
groundedtest of
workstress-induced
drinking.Thus the purpose of thispaper is to proposeand testa
comprehensive
modelof workstress-induced
drinking.
Theoretical
Perspectives
on
Stress-Induced
Drinking

At leasttwo majortheoretical
perspectives
articulatea causal link betweenstressand
alcohol-related
pathology.Tensionreduction
theoryproposesthatalcoholreducestension
and, more important
forour purposes,that
people drinkalcohol forits tension-reducing
* This researchwas supportedby National properties
(CappellandGreeley1987). "TenInstitute
of AlcoholAbuse and AlcoholismGrant sion" refershere to variousnegativeemo#AA05702, awarded to the second author. tional states that plausiblycould serve as
Portionsof these resultswere presentedat the aversivesourcesof motivation,
suchas fear,
annual meetingof the AmericanPsychological anxiety,distress,or depression.Thus negaAssociation,held in New York City in August tiveemotionsplaya keyintervening
rolein a
1987. The authorswishto thankJeremy
Skinner, putativecausal sequence
linkingexposureto
WilliamGeorge,Dean McFarlin,GerardConnors,
conditionsand increaseddrinking.
Jim Neff, and JennyCrockerfor theirhelpful stressful
conditionsare hypothesized
commentson an earlierdraftof thismanuscript. Thatis, stressful
Correspondence
thisarticleshouldbe to increasenegativeemotions,whichin turn
concerning
addressedto the firstauthorat 348 Park Hall, increasealcoholuse.
The social learningperspective
PsychologyDepartment,
StateUniversity
on alcohol
of New
Yorkat Buffalo,Buffalo,NY 14260.
use and abuse complementsand extends
260

WORK STRESS AND ALCOHOL EFFECTS

261

notionsin severalimportant among higher-echelon

tensionreduction
workers,who hold
ways (see Abramsand Niaura 1987 for a moreresponsibleand moredemanding
jobs,
indi- to hide their drinkingor the negative
review).Accordingto thisperspective,
vidualsaremorelikelyto drinkin responseto consequencesof theirdrinking.In the abstimuliwhentheylackother, sence of a demonstrated
link withelevated
stress-producing
copingresponsesand when negative emotion, one cannot distinguish
moreappropriate
theybelieve thatalcohol enhancespositive unequivocally
betweenthisand otheralternamood or reducesnegativemood. Hypotheti- tiveexplanations.
is
Of 17 workstress-alcohol
relationship
studiesthatwe
cally,then,thedistress-alcohol
moderated
bycopingbehaviorandbypositive found(Brometet al. 1988; Conway et al.
foralcohol'seffects.
1981;Fennellet al. 1981; Fimianet al. 1985;
expectancies
To summarize,tensionreductiontheory HarrisandFennell1988;Hingson,Mangione,
proposesa mediatedmodelin whichnegative and Barrett1981; Hingson,Scotch, et al.
emotionslink stressorsand alcohol-related 1981; House et al. 1986; Markowitz1984,
outcomes, whereas social learningtheory 1987; Menschand Kandel 1988; Parkerand
proposesa moderatedmodelin whichsome Farmer1988;Sadava et al. 1978;Seemanand
individualsare more likely than othersto Anderson1983; Seemanet al. 1988; Syrotuik
experience negative alcohol outcomes in and D'Arcy 1982; Violantiet al. 1983), only
stimuli.As noted one testedthe mediatingrole of negative
responseto stress-producing
exclu- emotion(Violantiet al. 1983). The resultsof
earlier,thesemodelsare notmutually
sive; theremay be both directeffectsof thatstudy,however,arecompromised
byuse
negativeemotionson alcohol-relatedout- of a highlyunrepresentative
sample(all male
comes and interactiveeffectsof negative police officers)and by relianceon a singleitemindicatorof drinking
to cope withwork
emotionswithcopingand expectancies.
stressas thesole dependent
measure.
An adequatetestof a sociallearning
model
of stress-induceddrinkingmandates the
EmpiricalStudiesoftheWork
inclusionof relevantvariableshypothesized
Stress-Alcohol
Relationship
to moderate
thenegativerelationship
between
A reviewof workstress-alcohol
research emotionand alcohol.Nevertheless,
onlyfive
key studies(Brometet al. 1988; Hingson,Manrevealsthatfewstudieshaveincorporated
As gione, et al. 1981; Seeman and Anderson
featuresof thesetheoretical
perspectives.
statedabove, tensionreductiontheoryre- 1983; Seeman et al. 1988; Syrotuikand
roleof D'Arcy 1982) incorporated
ofthemediating
potential
moderaquiresexplicittesting
negativeemotion.Indeed, failureto testin torvariables;of these,noneexaminedcoping
this way rendersambiguousthe resultsof or alcohol-related
expectanciesas potential
to testworkstress-inducedmoderators
of the work stress-alcohol
studiespurporting
relaOn theone hand,nullresultsmay tionship.
drinking.
to give rise to
Finally,evenwhenplausiblemediating
reflectthefailureof stressors
and
effectswere tested,most work
negativeemotionsratherthan a failureof moderating
negativeemotionsto lead to increasedalcohol stress-alcoholstudies failed to controlfor
use. On the other hand, positive results potentialconfounding
variables.Sociodemofeatureof the graphic characteristics,
such as sex and
stressful
linkinga presumably
to increasedalcohol use education,mayinfluenceboththelikelihood
workenvironment
of normative of holdinga stressful
insteadtheinfluence
mayreflect
job andratesof alcohol
that promotedrinkingor of use and abuse, therebycreatinga spurious
prescriptions
who relationship
betweenworkstressand alcohol
structural
elementsthatallowindividuals
drinkheavilyto go undetected(Herold and outcomes. Similarly,personal and social
social support)
Conlon 1981; Trice and Roman 1978). For resources(e.g., self-esteem,
theexperienceand thepercepexample,timepressuresandjob responsibili- mayinfluence
features tionof workstressors,
as stressful
on theone hand,and
tieshave been identified
thatmay lead to psychologicaldistress,patternsof alcohol
of the workenvironment
increasedalcoholuse and abuse (e.g., Parker use, and theexperienceof drinking
problems
andFarmer1988). Yet a positiverelationship on theother.
and alcohol
Of the 17 work stress-alcoholstudies
betweenthesejob characteristics
use mightreflectinstead greaterlatitude reviewed,only four (Brometet al. 1988;

262

JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Seeman and Anderson1983; Seeman et al. emotionand incorporates

potentialmodera1988; Syrotuikand D'Arcy 1982) included torsof thenegativeemotion-alcohol
relationcon- ship.Finally,to controlforpossiblespurious
andpsychosocial
bothsociodemographic
trols. Thus 13 of 17 work stress-alcohol associationsamongworkstressors,distress,
explanations and alcohol-related
outcomes,the proposed
studiesareopento third-variable
model,as estimated,
will controlfora range
of theirfindings.
To summarize,existingresearchsuffers of potentially
confounding
individualdifferfromtwo important
limitations.First,key ence variables.
of tensionreducimplications
methodological
Althoughthe proposed model specifies
tion and social learningmodels of stress- moderating
effectson boththeworkstressorhave notbeen incorporateddistressand thedistress-alcohol
induceddrinking
links,we test
studies. moderating
effectsonlyon thelatter.Moderintothedesignof workstress-alcohol
In particular,these studies have largely ating effectson the work stressor-distress
ignored the mediatingrole of negative relationshiphave been studiedextensively
emotions and the moderatingeffectsof elsewhere(forreviewssee Froneand McFarcoping and alcohol expectancieson the lin 1989; Greenhausand Parasuraman1986;
link. Mattesonand Ivancevich1987) and are not
negativeemotion-alcohol
hypothesized
Second, few studieshave includedadequate centralto eithertensionreductionor social
and psychosocialcontrols learningmodels of alcohol use and abuse.
sociodemographic
effectson
despiteboth theoreticaland empiricalevi- Thus testsof potentialmoderating
linkare beyondthe
dence suggestingthe potentialfor serious theworkstressor-distress
of perceivedwork stressand scope of thispaper. Nonetheless,insofaras
confounding
work distressis foundto exertsignificant
pathology.
alcohol-related
directeffects
on alcohol-related
outcomes,the
presenceof significant
moderating
effectson
thefirstlinkcould have implications
forthe
THE PRESENT STUDY
magnitude
of thetotalworkstressor
effecton
1
We propose and test a model of work alcoholoutcomes.
thataddresseseach of
stress-induced
drinking
the above limitations.Accordingto this
model (Figure 1), work stressorsincrease DETAILED HYPOTHESES
negativeemotions(distress),which in turn
On the basis of tensionreductiontheory,
promoteheavy or problematicalcohol use,
thattherelationship
between
especially among vulnerable individuals. we hypothesize
on theone hand,anddrinking
to possess workstressors,
Such individualsare hypothesized
few resources and skills for responding to cope, alcohol use, and alcoholproblems,
adaptivelyto workstressorsand consequent on theother,willbe mediatedby increasesin
positiveexpectan- work distress.Thus stressorsand alcohol
distress,andto holdstrong
This
cies foralcohol's effects.Thus theproposed outcomeswillbe relatedonlyindirectly.
roleofnegative relationshipgives rise to the following
modelspecifiesthemediating
hypotheses:
FIGURE 1. Hypothesized Model Relating
Aftersociodemographic
and personaland
Work Stressors and Distress to social resourcevariablesare controlled,
work
AlcoholOutcomes
stressorswill be related significantly
and
positivelyto workdistress(Hla). Similarly,
\H2a/
I
workdistresswillbe relatedsignificantly
and
to cope, alcohol use,
positivelyto drinking
and alcoholabuse (Hlb).
On thebasis of a social learninganalysis,
we hypothesizethat individuals low in
director main adaptivecoping shouldbe morelikelythan
hypothesized
Note: Solid linesrepresent
moderating those high in adaptivecoping to drinkto
hypothesized
effects;brokenlines represent
effects.Pluses and minuseson the paths indicatethe cope, to drinkheavily,and to experience
to
of hypothesized
direction
correspond
effects;numbers
in response to work
neither drinkingproblems
specifichypotheses.For the sake of simplicity,
effectsnor hypothesizedthree-way distress. Four broad groups of adaptive
sociodemographic
are examinedin thepresent
interactions
2e) are modeled.
(see Hypothesis
copingindicators
Adaptive
Personal & Social Resources

Work
Stressors

Hia

Dist
stress

Alcohol
Expectancies

Hib

Alcohol
Use/Abuse

WORK STRESS AND ALCOHOL EFFECTS

263

previousresearchsuggests
study:social support(which may be con- (H2c). In contrast,
copingdoes not
ceived usefullyas copingassistance;Thoits thatactive,problem-focused
betweengroupswithandwithout
1986), copingresources,copingstyles,and discriminate
copingresponses.Accordingto theproposed clinically significantevidence of alcohol
effect pathology(Billingsand Moos 1983; Moos et
model, the natureof each moderator
dependsto a greatextenton the a priori al. 1981). Thus we do not anticipatethat
coping will moderatethe
specificationof the moderatorvariable as problem-focused
adaptiveor maladaptive.That is, adaptive relationshipof work distress to alcohol
to buffer outcomes.
resourcesandskillsarehypothesized
the negative emotion-alcoholrelationship, Our model suggeststhatindividualswho
whereas maladaptiveattributeswould be hold strongpositiveexpectanciesfor alcothis hol's effects
shouldbe morelikelyto drinkto
expected to exacerbateor strengthen
to drinkheavily,and
relationship.
cope withworkdistress,
Social support is widely regarded as ultimatelyto experiencealcohol problems.
adaptive(e.g., Broadheadet al. 1983; Leavy Thus we hypothesizethat positivealcohol
1983) and thuswould be expectedto buffer expectancieswill exacerbatethe relationship
relationship
(H2a). betweenworkdistressand alcoholoutcomes
theworkdistress-alcohol
positiverelationship
Coping resourcesare generalizedattitudes such thata significant
and skills thatare consideredadvantageous should be obtainedamong high-expectancy
theyincludeattitudes individualsbut not among low-expectancy
acrossmanysituations;
abouttheworld individuals(H2d).
aboutself(esteem),attitudes
skills(intelli- Finally,we proposethatindividualswho
(beliefin mastery),intellectual
skill(social compe- are deficientin adaptiveresourcesand skills
gence),and interpersonal
and who
tence)(Menaghan1983). Thus,highlevelsof (or highin maladaptiveattributes)
copingresourcesalso would be expectedto are also highin positiveexpectanciesshould
relationship be mostlikelyto experienceadversealcohol
bufferthe workdistress-alcohol
outcomesas a resultof elevationsin work
(H2b).
Copingstylesare typicalor habitualways distress.Thus, positiveexpectancies,adapof approaching
(i.e., copingwith)problems, tiveresources,and workdistresswill interact
to cope, alcoholuse, and
whereascopingresponsesare specificactions to predictdrinking
(overtor covert)made in specificsituations alcohol problems such that high-distress,
thatare intendedto reducea givenproblem low-resource,high-expectancy
individuals,
(Menaghan1983). In the presentstudywe will exhibitthe greatestinvolvementwith
contrast
twobroadformsof copingstylesand alcohol(H2e).
coping
responses-activeor problem-focused
versus avoidantor emotion-focused
coping
(Folkmanand Lazarus 1980). Priorresearch METHOD
whorelyon avoidant
suggeststhatindividuals
formsof emotion-focused
coping are more Sample
likely to experiencenegativealcohol outlife
Respondentsin the presentstudy were
comes in response to stress-inducing
events(Billingsand Moos 1983; Moos et al. drawnfroma randomsamplesurveyof 1,933
householdresidentsin Erie County,New
1981). Althoughneitherstressor-by-coping
interactionsYork.Designatedrespondents
19 yearsof age
nor negativeemotion-by-coping
were testeddirectlyin these studies,these and older were identifiedin a three-stage
data nonethelessimplythathigh-avoidance probabilitysample designedto yield equal
of two racial groups(blacks
copersare morelikelyto relyon alcoholas a representation
or managingthedistress and nonblacks)and threeeducationallevels
meansof alleviating
generatedby stressfullife events.Thus we (less thanhighschool, highschool, at least
anticipatethatcoping stylesand responses somecollege).The overallsamplecompletion
indicativeof avoidance of emotion will rate in the presentstudywas 78.3 percent;
were
exacerbatethe relationshipbetween work most (84.5%) of the noncompletions
distressand alcohol outcomessuch that a refusals.
Of the 1,933 respondents,916 were
significantpositive relationshipshould be
observedamonghigh-avoidance
copers,but employedat least 20 hours per week. Of
not necessarilyamonglow-avoidancecopers these, 175 respondentswho abstainedand

264

JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

thearithmetic
meanof
167 who drankless thanonce a monthwere formedby computing
eliminated,yieldinga final sample of 574 theirrespectiveitems.
whohaddrunkat leastonce
covariates.Sex (1 =
adultrespondents
Sociodemographic
a monthoverthepastyear.To avoid biasing male,2 = female),age (in years),race (1 =
our test of the proposed hypotheses,we nonblack,2 = black), education(in years),
2
who drank and occupationalstatus(1 = white-collar,
limitedthesampleto respondents
drinkers, = blue-collar)wereused as covariatesin the
regularly.
Abstainers
and infrequent
thoughunlikely
to use alcoholto cope, almost present study. Race and education were
degreesof controlledbecause of the highlystratified
certainly
wouldexperience
varying
job stress.Thustheirinclusionwouldtendto samplingdesign used in the presentstudy;
sex, age, and occupationwere controlled
attenuate
thepredicted
effects.
in patterns
differences
Respondentsin the presentstudy were becauseofdocumented
ofthese
sociodemographicallyheterogeneous.Ap- ofalcoholuse andabuseas a function
characteristics
proximatelyhalf were white (51.6%); 47 sociodemographic
(e.g., Hilpercentwere marriedor living in stable ton 1987; Olkinuora1984).
Workstressors.We assessedtwostressors:
relationship;
51 percentwere female.They
rangedin age from19 to 69 (mean = 36.5, workpressureand lack of job control.Work
sd = 10.8). Nearly73 percentof thesample pressure(WP; 11 items) assessed the frehad completedhighschool;an additional22 quencywithwhichindividuals
perceivedhigh
percenthad completedfouror moreyearsof job-relateddemands resultingfrom heavy
Lack of job
college. White-collaroccupations(profes- workloadand responsibilities.
sional,technical,managerial)werefollowed control(LJC; six items) assessed the frequency with which individualsperceived
by 53 percentof thesample.
constraints
on theirabilityto function
autonomously and to influenceimportantjob
Bothscales werederivedempiriparameters.
Procedures
cally froma pool of 17 itemstakenfrom
Data were collected by a corps of 27 several previouslypublished measures of
in thesummerand fallof 1986. workstressors
interviewers
(viz., House et al. 1979; Insel
Interviewers
receivedfive days of intensive and Moos 1974; Pearlinand Schooler1978).
techniques, We used a four-point
trainingon generalinterviewing
responseformat
(almost
of the survey,and study- neverto almostalways).
administration
specific procedures.Interviewswere conwereintended
to
Althoughitemsoriginally
ductedin respondents'
homesaccordingto a measurethreestressor
dimensions
(workload,
and lack of job control),both
highly structuredinterviewschedule that responsibility,
and self-adminis-principalcomponentsand factor analyses
containedbothinterviewerteredportions.The completeinterviewre- revealedtwo robustfactorsin whichitems
90 minutesto adminis- constituting
theworkloadandtheresponsibilquiredapproximately
werepaid $25 fortheirtime. ity dimensionsloaded togetheron the first
ter.Respondents
factor.Because theobtainedtwo-factor
strucacrossboth
tureprovedto be largelyinvariant
sexes and races and because it yieldedthe
Measures
most reliable indices, we employed the
We employeda totalof 24 indicesin the empiricallyderivedscales in all subsequent
presentstudyto assess six broadcategoriesof analyses(see appendixforindividualitems).
variables: 1) sociodemographiccovariates Alcoholoutcomemeasures.We examined
(five indicators),2) work stressors(two threealcohol-related
outcomesin thepresent
outcomes(three study: 1) the self-reported
measures),3) alcohol-related
frequencywith
used alcohol to cope, 2)
measures),4) workdistress(one measure),5) whichrespondents
personaland social resources(12 measures), averagedaily consumption
over the past 12
and 6) alcohol expectancies(one measure). months,and 3) the numberof drinking
These measuresare describedbelow; esti- problems experiencedover the past 12
matesof internal
reliability
(coef- months.
consistency
ficientalpha), zero-ordercorrelations,and
Drinkingto cope (Polich and Orvis 1979)
statistics
are providedin Table 1. was assessed by six items.On a four-point
descriptive
all scaleswere scale, respondents
of
Exceptwherenotedotherwise,
reportedthe frequency

TABLE 1. DescriptiveStatisticsand CorrelationsamongMajor StudyVariables

4a

4b

4c

5a

Sb

6a

6b

6c

6d

7a

7b

7c

(78)
22

(80)

10
25
16
32
-13 -03

(68)
57
10

(65)
25

(52)

-13

04

08

21

(82)

Stressors

1. Workpressure
(81)
2. Lack ofjob control
17
MediatingVariable
3. Workdistress
37
Moderating
Variables
4. Social support
a. Appraisal
02
b. Belonging
-02
c. Tangible
03
5. Copingresources
a. Mastery
-04
b. Self-esteem
02
6. Copingstyles
a. Anger-in
13
b. Anger-out
14
c. Anger-reflect -04
d. Activecoping
09
7. Copingresponses
a. Activebehavioral 13
b. Activecognitive
09
c. Avoidance
03
8. Positivealcohol
11
expectancies
OutcomeVariables
9. Alcoholconsumption-02
10. Drinking
problems -04
11. Drinking
to cope
06
Demographic
Variables
12. Sex (1 = male,
2=female)
06
13. Race (I = nonblack,
2=black)
-18
14. Age (years)
-06
15. Education(years)
15
16. Occupation
(I = whitecollar,
-20
2=bluecollar)

(68)
51

(86)

-10
-18
-07

-14
-19
-11

(71)
52
49

(68)
53

(72)

- 25
-23

- 26
-21

26
27

25
32

22
22

(76)
61

(85)

35
22
29
17
-16 -21
-25 -19

-19
-06
09
20

-24 -14
-08 -10
11
08
21
29

-25
-14
28
20

-31
-23
32
29

(69)
55 (70)
-31 -48
-17 -18

-01 -01
-02 -07
22
12

15
11
02
01
-21 -27

06
10
01 -02
-18 -24

07
-02
-29

-02 -01
-04 -09
32
20

-16

-13

-19

-27

29

20

01
-08
-26

-05
-09
-26

-03
-11
-24

-08
-13
-31

04
13
24

03 -02
13 -10
18 -07

00
-08
-07

-05
01
04

00
-01
08

07
16
23

16
26
46

4
3

04

-05

-11

-04

10

08

-16

00

06

04

08

03

-28

02
07
17

11 -09
17
13 -07 -07
01 -12 -02

06

14 -15

00 -08 -14
12
08 -08
15
19 -22
07

21

10

03
-15
-09

-03
-15
-02

-10 -11
01
09
17
03

-15
-04
00

-13
-08
23

-04 -06
03 -24
18 -01

07

-04

-18

-05

-14

-19

-10

05

-05

-10
-31
01

07
20
09

14
11
-06

06

01

00

-08

04

11

04

-04
0
-06

Note: N = 574. Except for sociodemographic variables, all measures are scored so that highernumbers indicate more of the me

alpha) are on the diagonal. Decimals are omitted. All correlations '

.08 are significantat p<.05.

266

JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

could socializeor
drinkingto manage or cope with negative withwhomtherespondent
emotions(e.g., to forgetyour worries,to relax).
Copingresourcesexaminedin thepresent
cheerup whenyou'rein a bad mood).
duringthe study included masteryand self-esteem.
Average alcohol consumption
past 12 monthswas estimatedfromstandard Mastery(Pearlinet al. 1981; seven items)
questionsemployedin the assessed the extentto whichindividualssee
quantity-frequency
National Health and Leisure Time Survey themselvesas controllingthe forces that
affecttheirlives. Self-esteem
refers
(Wilsnacket al. 1984). We convertedre- strongly
of self-worth;
we
sponses into averagenumberof drinksper to one's generalperception
day: one drinkwas definedas 12 ouncesof assessed this resource with Rosenberg's
scale.
beer, fourounces of wine, or one ounce of (1965) 10-itemself-esteem
In this studywe used two measuresof
.5 ouncesof
hardliquor(i.e., approximately
absolutealcohol). (See Stacyet al. 1985 for activecoping style("JohnHenryism"[JH]
and two meathereliability
and valid- active coping, anger-reflect)
evidencesupporting
sures of avoidant coping style (anger-in,
measuresof alcoholuse.)
ityof self-report
We assessed drinkingproblemswith 17 anger-out).JH activecopingstyle(Jameset
style
itemsdesignedto yielda DSM-III diagnosis al. 1983; 12 items)is a stress-coping
of alcoholabuse and dependence,takenfrom characterizedby the belief that one can
the National Instituteof Mental Health control one's environment,coupled with
Diagnostic Interview Schedule (Robins, directand active effortsto do so. Anger
Helzer, Croughan,Williams, and Spitzer copingstylesassess how individualscharacreact or behave when theyfeel
1981;also see Robins,Helzer,Croughan,and teristically
data). angryor upset. Anger-reflect
(Harburgand
Ratcliff
1981forvalidityandreliability
problemsinclude going on Gleiberman1986; four items) assesses the
Representative
control
typically
"bingesor benders,"losinga job becauseof extentto whichrespondents
drinking,and having "blackouts" or the their anger in an effortto address the
"shakes." In thepresentstudywe computed underlyingproblemor the cause of their
the anger.Anger-in(Spielberger
et al. 1985; six
an indexofdrinking
problemsbycounting
totalnumberof problemsthathad occurred items)assesses the extentto whichrespondentstypically
suppressor avoiddealingwith
one timeor morein thepast 12 months.
Workdistress.Workdistresswas assessed theirangryfeelings.Conversely,anger-out
et al. 1985; six items)measures
witha six-itemscale developedby Kandelet (Spielberger
intensity
scale, the degree to which individualsengage in
al. (1985). On a four-point
respondentsstatedhow botheredor upset, aggressive behaviors when motivatedby
frustrated,
pleased(reversescored),etc. they angryfeelings.
job
Coping responseswere assessed by the
felt when thinkingof theirday-to-day
Health and Daily Living Coping Response
experiences.
rated
Personal and social resources. We in- Index(Moos et al. 1986). Respondents
cluded four broad categoriesof resource the extentto which theyused each of 32
variablesas covariatesand examinedthemas coping responsesto deal with a recently
eventor situation.We
potentialmoderatorsof the work distress- experiencedstressful
indices: acalcohol relationship:1) social support,2) derivedthreemethod-of-coping
coping resources,3) coping styles,and 4) tivebehavioral,activecognitive,and avoidcopingresponses.All psychosocialresource ance coping. Active behavioralcoping (13
Likert-typeitems)assesses the extentto whichresponmeasuresemployeda four-point
responseformatexcept for the coping re- dentsengagedin directactionand problem
sponse indices, which used a three-pointsolving.Activecognitivecoping (11 items)
assessestheuse of cognitivestrategies
aimed
format.
or redefining
in a
thesituation
Social supportwas measuredby three at minimizing
subscales(fiveitemseach) of the morepositivelight.Avoidancecoping(seven
abbreviated
SupportEvaluationList (Cohen items)assessesrelianceon avoidance,denial,
Interpersonal
forcoping
andHoberman1983): theperceivedavailabil- or tensionreductionas strategies
event.2
ityof 1) tangibleassistanceor materialaid, 2) withthestressful
We assessed
Positivealcoholexpectancies.
appraisalsupport(i.e., the availabilityof a
andtrusted
advisor),and 3) belong- expectancieswith a compositeof six subconfidant
of someone scales takenfromthe abbreviated
versionof
ing support(i.e., theavailability

267

WORK STRESS AND ALCOHOL EFFECTS

(Rohsenow FIGURE 2. Estimated Model Relating Work

theAlcoholEffectsQuestionnaire
Stressors and Distress to Three
1983). Subscales assessed expectanciesfor
Indicatorsof AlcoholPathology
global positiveeffects,social and physical
and
aggression
pleasure,sexualenhancement,
toCp
07
and relaxation Work
power,social expressiveness,
and tensionreduction.Each item used a
two-pointscale (true,false). We obtaineda
summaryscore forpositiveexpectanciesby JobControl
themeanof themeansforthesix
computing
subscales.
positiveexpectancy
Drinking

Presure

.276

Work

-.096

Alcohol

Distress

Consumption

023

Lack of

Dnnking
Problems

IndirectEffectsofWorkStressors on AlcoholOutcomes
Alcohol Outcomes

RESULTS
TensionReductionModel of theWork
Relationship
Stress-Alcohol

Alcohol
Consumption

Dnnking
Problems

Work
Pressure

.020

-.026

.006

Lack of
Job Control

.027

-.035

.008

Work
Stressors

Drinking
to Cope

for each of the alcohol

Note: The path coefficients

The directand indirecteffectsof work outcomeswere estimatedin separateequations,but,

resultsare presentedin a singlepathdiagramto avoid
stressorsand distresson threealcohol out- redundantpresentationof the stressor-distress
coefficomemeasures(as depictedin Figure1) were cients. We estimatedthe model controllingfor all
psychosocialresource,and expecestimatedin two steps,using standardpath sociodemographic,
analytictechniques(see Kenny1979).3First, tancyvariables.All indirecteffectsare nonsignificant.
* p<.OOl.
we estimatedthe direct effect of work
stressorson distressby regressingwork
Thus ourresultsfailedto supporta simple
distresson workpressure(WP) andon lackof tensionreductionmodel of alcohol use in
Second,we responseto the experienceof work-related
job control(LJC) simultaneously.
thedirecteffectsof workstressors stressorsand negativeemotionalsequelae.
estimated
and distresson drinkingto cope, alcohol Althoughwork stressorsdid increasework
consumption,and drinkingproblems by distress(thussupporting
Hla), we foundno
each alcohol outcomein turnon significanteffectsfor work stressorsor
regressing
WP, LJC, and workdistresssimultaneously.distress on three separate alcohol-related
forall criteria
eachequationcontrolling
We estimated
forsociodemographic
aftercontrolling
sociodemographic,personal resource, and andpsychosocial
failingto
resources(thereby
social resource variables described previ- supportHlb).5
ously.Relevantresultsof theseanalysesare
in Figure2.
summarized
As shownin Figure2, bothWP and LJC Social LearningModel of theWork
exertedsignificantdirect effectson work Stress-Alcohol
Relationship
and
distress,even after sociodemographic
The hypothesizedmoderatoreffectsof
psychosocialresourcevariables were conthesestressors
accounted social support,coping resources, coping
trolled.Collectively
for a nontrivialincrementin explained styles,copingresponses,and alcoholexpecrelationvariance(R2 = .214, p < .001) of work tancieson theworkdistress-alcohol
distress.Thus Hypothesisla was supported. shipwereestimatedvia standardhierarchical
techniques(Cohen and
regression
As shownin Figure2, however,Hypothesis moderated
lb was not supported.Afterall sociodemo- Cohen 1983). For each of three alcohol
measures(drinking
to cope, alcohol
graphicand psychosocialresourcevariables criterion
workdistressdid notsignif- consumption,and drinkingproblems),we
werecontrolled,
icantlypredictanyof thealcoholoutcomes.4 enteredthe main effectsfor all sociodemoon each graphic,psychosocialresource,expectancy,
effectsof workstressors
The indirect
in Figure workstressor,and distressvariables(a total
of theseoutcomesare summarized
direct of 21 variables)on thefirststep,followedby
2. Because of the lack of significant
effectsof work distress on the alcohol a block of relevant two-way distressor distress-by-expectancy
interacoutcome measures, none of the indirect by-resource
effects would be considered statisticallytion termson the second step. To reduce
(interamongcross-product
multicollinearity
reliable(Cohenand Cohen 1983).

JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

268

low (- 1 sd
variables, abovethemean)and at relatively
action)termsand theirconstituent
we centeredall variables(or deviatedthem below the mean) levels of the relevant
variable.
from their means) before computingand moderator
We believe thatthe presentdata analytic
testingthe hypothesizedinteractions(see
is conservative
withrespectto TypeI
Finneyet al. 1984fora discussionofthisand strategy
otherissues relatedto the estimationand errorwithoutunduly sacrificingstatistical
power. We use an inherently
conservative
effects).
of modifier
interpretation
procedurein whichthevariables
We estimatedseparateequationsforeach hierarchical
interestmustmake significant
moder- of theoretical
of thefivecategoriesof hypothesized
contributions
aftera largenumators and for each of the three alcohol independent
outcome measures. Thus a total of 15 ber of potentiallyconfoundingsociodemoequationswas estimated.Analyses graphicand psychosocialresourcevariables
regression
arecontrolled,
andwe probeinteractions
only
in Table 2.
are summarized
We conductedfollow-upanalyses only when the entireblock of producttermsis
at the conventional
significant
p
when the block of interactionsattained statistically
significanceat the conventionalp < .05 < .05 level.
to cope relationlevel. We probed significantinteractions Workdistress-drinking
describedbyCohenand ship. As shownin the firsttwo columnsof
following
procedures
Cohen (1983). Specifically,we generated Table 2, copingresources,copingstyles,and
separateregressionlines fromthe overall alcohol expectanciesinteractedsignificantly
thedistress- with work distress in the predictionof
equationto represent
regression
to cope. The magnitude
of all effects
at relatively
high(+ 1 sd drinking
alcoholrelationship
TABLE 2. Summary of Hierarchical Moderated Regression Analyses Predicting Alcohol
Outcomes from Work Distress, Personal and Social Resources, and the Distressby-ResourceInteractions
Drinkingto Cope
Moderator
Variables

AR2

AlcoholConsumption
AR2

Drinking
Problems
AR2

DF

Step 1:
.147**
143**
21,552
.318**
All maineffects
Eq. 1, Step2:
.004
.002
3,549
.007
WD x social support
.042
1,549
-.044
-.056
Appraisalsupport
- .056
- .051
- .020
1,549
Belongingsupport
.048
1,549
.056
.016
Tangiblesupport
Eq. 2, Step2:
.002
.000
2,550
.008*
WD x copingresources
.009
.039
-.009
1,550
Self-esteem
- .008
- .100*
1,550
- .050
Mastery
Eq. 3, Step2:
.009
4,548
.014*
.009
WD x copingstyles
.016
.062
-.023
1,548
Anger-in
1,548
-.018
.016
.098*
Anger-out
.088*
1,548
.100*
-.010
Anger-reflect
.012
1,548
.038
.095*
JHactivecoping
Eq. 4, Step2:
.005
.012*
3,549
.008
WD x copingresponses
- .027
- .018
1,549
.030
Behavioralcoping
- .024
.091*
.050
1,549
Cognitivecoping
-.008
.123**
.031
1,549
Avoidancecoping
Eq. 5, Step2:
.001
.004
1,551
WD x expectancies
.011**
- .037
.108**
.064
1,551
Positiveexpectancies
* p<.05; **p<.01.
Note: WD = Workdistress.Main effectsforthefollowing21 variableswereenteredin a blockon thefirststep:
sex, age, race, education,occupationalstatus,tangiblesupport,appraisalsupport,belongingsupport,mastery,
activebehavioralcoping,active cognitivecoping,
active coping,anger-in,anger-out,anger-reflect,
self-esteem,
avoidancecoping,positivealcohol expectancies,workpressure,lack of job control,and workdistress.Results
these21 maineffectsmaybe otainedfromthefirstauthoron request.
concerning

WORK STRESS AND ALCOHOL EFFECTS

269

forless than interactiontermsaccountedfor significant

was small,however,accounting
to variancein alcoholconsumption.
1?/2percentof the variancein drinking
Workdistress-drinking
problemsrelationcope.
Within the block of work distress-by-ship. As shownin the last two columnsof
only mastery Table 2, only one of five moderatorsets
coping resourceinteractions,
with work distress. accountedfor a small (about 11/2%) but
interactedsignificantly
in explainedvariance.
increment
Examinationof the formof the interaction significant
withworkdisrevealed that work distress was related Avoidancecopinginteracted
of drinking
problems.
positivelyto drinkingto cope among low- tressin theprediction
a
crossover
we
observed
slight
Although
masteryindividuals, but was essentially
conditions
(1.5 on a 1-to-4
individuals. underlow-distress
unrelatedamong high-mastery
copersappearedto be
This patternis consistentwiththe hypothe- scale), high-avoidance
to
drinking
problemsunder
more
vulnerable
effectof coping resources
sized buffering
(H2c).
as
predicted
conditions,
high-distress
(H2b), exceptfora slightcrossoverat lower
Work
distress-by-resource-by-expectancy
on
1-to-4
a
work
distress
1.9
(below
levelsof
We hypothesized
thatindividuinteractions.
scale).
in
who
are
deficient
resources
adaptive
als
of theblockof workdistressExamination
for
who
also
hold
strong
expectancies
and
by-copingstyle interactionsrevealed that
be
most
effects
would
alcohol's
positive
and anger-out
interacted
signifianger-reflect
cantlywithworkdistressto predictdrinking likelyto drinkto cope, to drinkheavily,and
problemsin response
to cope. Examiningthe formof the interac- to experiencedrinking
of
distress.Empirical
to
levels
work
high
tionsrevealedthatbothhigh anger-outand
for
this
would be sughypothesis
support
individualswere more
high anger-reflect
a significant
distress-by-resourceby
gested
likely to drink in order to cope with
To test this hyinteraction.
by-expectancy
increasingwork distress, although slight
pothesis,we regressedeach of threealcohol
crossoverswere evidentat or below 1.5 for
on a blockof threeoutcomesindependently
The distressmoderators.
bothanger-coping
way interactionsafter enteringall main
interactionis consistentwith
by-anger-out
effectsand all relevanttwo-wayinteractions
Hypothesis2c, suggestingthat individuals on prior steps. We evaluated moderating
high in avoidant styles of coping with effectsin independent
equationsforeach of
emotionaremorelikelyto drinkto cope with the four categoriesof personaland social
theresultsobtained resources;thus a totalof 12 equationswas
workdistress.In contrast,
were unexpected. Prior estimated.Across these analyses (data not
for anger-reflect
has failedto findmoderat- shown), not a single block of three-way
researchgenerally
formeasuresof activeor problem- interactions
ingeffects
atp <
was statistically
significant
focused coping (e.g., Billings and Moos .05. Hence we obtainedno supportforthe
1983); in addition,if such an effectwereto predicted
interactions
(H2e).
three-way
effect
occur, one would expecta buffering
is widelyregardedas an
becauseanger-reflect
adaptivecopingstyle(Harburget al. 1979).
Summary
Finally,positivealcohol expectanciessignificantlymoderated the work distress- Resultsof these analysesprovidelimited
The formof support for the hypothesizedmoderating
drinkingto cope relationship.
was consistent
withprediction effectsof mastery(H2b), avoidantor malthisinteraction
betweendistressand adaptiveformsofcopingwithemotion(H2c),
(H2d). The relationship
and positive andpositiveexpectancies
to cope was significant
drinking
foralcohol'seffects
among individualsholding strongpositive (H2d) on the workdistress-alcohol
relationexpectanciesfor alcohol's effects;it was ship. Significant
weresmall
effectsgenerally
essentiallyzero among individualsholding in magnitude,
however;theyaccountedforno
weak expectancies.
morethan2 percentofthevariancein alcohol
Workdistress-alcoholconsumptionrela- outcomes. In addition, we obtained no
tionship.As shownin Columns3 and 4 of supportforthehypothesized
effects
buffering
Table 2, we foundno evidenceformoderat- of social supporton the distress-alcohol
outcomerelationship
(H2a) or forthehypothing effectson theworkdistress-consumption
Not one of the five blocks of esized three-wayinteractionsof adaptive
relationship.

270

JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

directeffectof .17
we obtainedan estimated
Moreover,
problems.8
sd increasein drinking
althoughthepresenceof multiplevulnerability factorsmay predisposean individualto
outcomes
experiencenegativealcohol-related
in responseto highlevels of workstress(cf.
Bry et al. 1982), few individualsin this
sample of employedpersons
representative
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
were actually high on more than one
factor.For example, only 33
This researchtesteda model of stress- vulnerability
in relationto theexperience people (about6% of the sample)were even
induceddrinking
of work stressorsand negativeemotional one-halfof one standarddeviationabove the
sequelae. Overallwe foundno supportfora meanon bothavoidancecopingandexpectansimple tension reductionmodel of work cies; only six (less than 1%) were a full
drinking.Of three separate standarddeviationabove the mean on both.
stress-induced
provedequallyrare.Thus
alcohol outcomesexamined,not one was Othercombinations
by exposureto work it seems plausiblethatthe most vulnerable
predictedsignificantly
in the
in factareunderrepresented
stressorsand the experienceof work-relatedindividuals
negative emotion after both sociodemo- workforce,perhapsbecausetheylack many
graphicand psychosocialresourcevariables of the skillsrequisiteto successfulemployand
we obtained ment.Hencetheimpactof workstressors
Furthermore,
were controlled.7
only qualifiedsupportfor a social learning work distress on alcohol outcomes may
be limitedby therelativecompedrinking.On necessarily
model of workstress-induced
theone hand,data showingenhancedvulner- tence of those who are able to secure and
employment.
withlimitedcoping maintain
abilityamongindividuals
ofpeoplewho
abilitiesand strongpositivealcoholexpectan- Becauseofthesmallnumber
logic of the appearlikelyto experiencenegativealcohol
cies supportthe fundamental
social learningperspective.On the other outcomesin responseto work stress and
of
hand, these effectswere neitherrobustnor because of thegenerallysmallmagnitude
ourfindings
suggestthat
consistentacross multipleindicatorsof a theobtainedeffects,
programsaimed at reducingand
or acrossmultipleoutcome prevention
givenmoderator
managingwork stressmay not be a costmeasures.
way to addressalcoholproblemsin
Indeed, the only consistentpatternof effective
was obtainedfor the workforce.Althoughsuch an approach
effects
interaction
significant
drinkingto cope. This patternof findings may prove usefulin reducingotherstressmay be relatedproblems(e.g., depression,absenteesuggeststhatindividualdifferences
it seems unlikelyto
fordrink- ism, low productivity),
morelikelyto governmotivations
impacton alcoholpathology.
or have significant
ingthanto influencealcoholconsumption
targetedto individuals
problemsper se. Instead,interventions
the experienceof drinking
withboth knownor suspectedto have alcohol-related
is consistent
Such an interpretation
social learningtheory(Abramsand Niaura problemsmay be more appropriate(e.g.,
Archer 1977;
1987) and empiricalresearch(Cooper et al. constructiveconfrontation,
motivations Trice and Roman 1978). In addition,strate1988), whichshowthatdrinking
of gies aimed at alteringnormsthatpromote
maymediatetheinfluence
at leastpartially
of the
or at structural
features
on alcohol heavydrinking
individual
differences
predisposing
thatallow heavydrinking
workenvironment
use and abuse.
Despite limited support for theoretical maybe useful(Triceand Roman1978).
predictionsmade by the social learning Results of the present study suggest
model, our findingssuggestthat the real- severaldirectionsforfutureresearch.First,
theneedto controlfor
worldimpactof workstressorson alcohol- ourresultsunderscore
to
in modelspurporting
relatedoutcomesis likelyto be small.Indeed, individualdifferences
even among individualsidentifiedas most examinethe impactof work stressorsand
outcomes.Zerovulnerable(e.g., those high in avoidance distresson alcohol-related
as reportedin Table 1,
of workstressors ordercorrelations,
effect
coping),theestimated
betweenwork
relationships
problemswas revealsignificant
on the experienceof drinking
small:foreach sd increasein workdistress, stressorsand distressand several alcohol

resources,expectancies,and distress(H2e).
effects
Finally,we obtainedcounterintuitive
for several indicatorsof active coping,
JHactivecoping,and
angerreflect,
including
activecognitivecoping.6

WORK STRESS AND ALCOHOL EFFECTS

271

viewoftheetiologic
for sociodemo- ablymorecircumscribed
outcomes.Aftercontrolling
graphicand psychosocialresourcevariables, roleof workstressin alcoholpathology.
relationhowever,we observedno significant
ships between work stress and alcohol NOTES
variables.This outcomesuggeststhatsignificant zero-orderrelationshipsmay reflect 1. In the interestsof parsimonywe have made
in theproposed
severalsimplifying
assumptions
characdue to sociodemographic
confounding
model.First,drinking
to cope, alcoholuse, and
deficitsin personal
teristicsor to underlying
drinkingproblems are treated as separate
and social resources.
indicatorsof alcohol pathology,with the
Second, futureresearch using domainassumption
of similarconsequentstatusin our
specific measures of personal and social
model. Althougha causal order may exist
resourceswould providea morecompelling
amongthesedependent
measures(cf. Cooperet
of
al. 1988), we have chosen not to model
testof our model.Indeed,theassumption
relationships
amongthemin orderto maintain
consistencyimpliedby the
cross-situational
withotherpublishedresearchin
comparability
use ofgeneralmeasuresofpersonalandsocial
the workstress-alcohol
literature
wherethese
(see Swindle
resourcesmaynotbe warranted
outcomes
have
been
treated
universally
as
et al. 1988 for a recentdiscussionof this
of alcohol-related
discreteindicators
pathology.
issue). Consequentlythe failure to use
The net effectof any bias introduced
by this
domain-specificmoderatormeasures may
ofouroutcomemeasuresshouldbe to
treatment
moderatorefunderestimate
systematically
themagnitude
of the workstress
overestimate
fects.
effectson alcohol use and drinking
problems.
in viewoftheessentially
nullresults
Third, futureresearchusing prospective Therefore,
in thispaper,modelinga causal order
reported
causal
designswould enable moreconfident
inference.Yet insofaras workstress-related amongtheseoutcomeswouldnotalterourbasic
conclusions.
we specuimportant,
effectsare etiologically
characteristics
are
Second,sociodemographic
is likelyto be played
latethattheirinfluence
not modeled as potentialmoderatorsof the
out over the courseof hoursor days rather
workstress-distress
or distress-alcohol
relationday at work
thanyears.That is, a stressful
ships. Althoughit is possible that some
maybe followedbyincreasedalcoholuse that
subgroupsdefined,for example, by racial/
ethnic or socioeconomiccharacteristics
are
evening;a stressfulweek at work may be
more vulnerablethan othersto work stress
followedby heavieruse thatweekend.Hence
effectson alcohol-related
outcomes,such efwithina designsensitiveto suchshort-term,
not
relevant
to an adequate
fects
are
specifically
a
fluctuations
diary
study)
daily
(e.g.,
person
test of either tension reductionor social
may be needed to test work stress-related learningmodels. Such analysesare therefore
effectson alcoholuse moredefinitively.
beyond the scope of the presentpaper. In
weak
Finally,in keepingwiththegenerally
thesetests,however,we do notmean
omitting
resultsreportedin this and several other
to imply that these effects may not be
recent studies (e.g., Mensch and Kandel
important.In particular,gender has been
identified
as a potentially
moderator
important
1988), we believe that increasedresearch
to HorwitzandWhite(1987),
effect.According
attention
shouldbe focusedon otherpossible
stylesof
influence
on drinking malesand femalesmayhavedifferent
sourcesof work-related
is
pathology;female deviance hypothetically
usefulareas forfuture
behavior.Potentially
characterizedby internalization
of distress,
featuresof the
researchinclude structural
whereas male deviance is more outwardly
workenvironment
thatpromotedrinkingor
directedand antisocial(see Robbins 1989 for
allow it to go undetected,as well as
relateddata). Hence femalesmaybe proneto
that
workplacenorms,cultures,or networks
internalize
stress-related
whereasmales
effects,
maybe morelikelytouse alcoholandtoexhibit
encouragedrinking.
overtlyor covertly
alcohol-related
problemsas a resultof workof this study,we
Despite the limitations
relatedstressorsand distress.The available
findlittlesupportforthe widelyheld belief
data, however, lend little supportto this
alcohol
thatworkstresspromotes
problematic
hypothesis.Data reportedby bothParkerand
use. Althougha smallnumberof individuals
Farmer(1988) and House et al. (1986) suggest
who are deficientin adaptiveresourcesor
littledifference
betweenmales and femalesin
who hold strongpositiveexpectanciesfor
the magnitudeof effectsfor work-related
alcohol's effectsmay be vulnerable,our
on alcoholuse.
stressors
findingssuggestthe adoptionof a consider- 2. Accordingto LazarusandFolkman(1984), low

272

JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

reliabilitymay reflectan
internal-consistency
rather
property
of thecopingconstruct
inherent
perse. In particthaninadequatemeasurement
ular,theseauthorsarguethatthesuccessfuluse
withina givencopingdomain
of one strategy
may obviatethe need to use others.Thus the
low reliability
obtainedforseveralof
generally
the coping indices in the presentstudymay
reflectaccuratelythe underlyingnature of
coping processes. Nonetheless,we must acreliability
knowledgethat lower-than-optimal
variablesmay
amongsome of our moderator
effects 6.
attenuateestimatesof theirinteractive
(Baronand Kenny1986).
equationmodelingthat
3. The use of structural
takesintoaccountthe effectsof measurement
overstandard
errorhas severalclearadvantages
(Bollen 1989;Jameset
pathanalytictechniques
equationmodel- 7.
al. 1982). Even so, structural
ingalso has a numberof drawbacks,severalof
whichmilitateagainstits use in the present
context.First,a large numberof interaction
effectsare specifiedin the presentmodel;
fortesting
sucheffects
amonglatent
techniques
variablesare complexand carrya numberof
stringentassumptionsthat in practice are
to meet(Bollen 1989). Moreover,the
difficult
consequencesof violatingthese assumptions
(Kennyand
are notgenerallywell understood
Judd 1984). In addition,as Schmitt(1989)
pathanalyticmodelsmay
pointedoutrecently,
equation models
be preferableto structural
insofaras theyare morereadilyaccessibleto a
wider audience. Hence in at least some
themethodological
gains associated
situations,
equationmodeling
withthe use of structural
maybe morethanoffsetby theaccompanying
loss in comprehensibility.
and drinking
prob4. Both alcohol consumption
lems were highlyskewed(skewness = 4.64
To reduceskewness,we
and4.08 respectively).
both variables(skewness =
log-transformed
forconsumption
and
.01 and 1.77 respectively
verforproblems);using the log-transformed
sions, we reranall analysesinvolvingeither
dependentvariable.Resultsobtainedby using
variablesdidnotdiffer
substanthetransformed
tivelyfromthosebased on thenontransformed
variables.Thus onlyresultsusingtheuntransin thisstudy.
formedvariablesare reported
5. To assess the effectof deletinginfrequent
drinkers,we reestimatedthe path model,
whodrankless thanonce
including
respondents
a month.Resultswere essentiallyidenticalto
in Figure2, exceptthatthe
thosesummarized
path fromworkdistressto drinkingto cope
became significant
(p = .035). This change,
however,appearedto reflectan increasein
powerdue to thelargersamplesize (N = 711
vs. 574) ratherthanan appreciableincreasein
ofthepathcoefficient
themagnitude
(B = .088

vs. .074). We also reestimatedthe model,

includingbothinfrequent
drinkers
and abstainers (N = 787), and found no appreciable
or thesignificance
changesin themagnitude
of
effects
on alcoholuse or alcoholproblems.We
could not reestimate
the model in thislarger
sampleusingdrinking
to cope as theultimate
outcomebecause abstainersdid not complete
drinking
to cope items.Overall,theresultsof
these analyses suggestthatour findingsare
relatively
robustandwerenotbiasedundulyby
ourexclusionary
criteria.
Threeof theseinteractions
werenotdiscussed
previouslybecause the blocks did not reach
conventionallevels of significance.Yet the
consistency(as indicatedby the sign of the
interaction
term)observedacrosstheseseveral
activecopingindicators
is noteworthy.
One anonymousreviewerraised the concern
that several of the psychosocialvariables,
whichare treatedas potentialconfounders
and
as moderators
in the presentmodel, instead
stressor-distress
maymediatethehypothesized
or distress-drinking
to cope links.The reviewer
citestwo pieces of evidencein supportof this
possibility:
1) Pearlinandcolleagues(Pearlinet
al. 1981) reportthatdecreasesin masteryand
self-esteemmediate the impact of chronic
stressorson depression.2) On the basis of
correlationsreportedin Table 1, significant
directeffectscan be shownforseveralof the
variables(e.g., self-esteem,
psychosocial
tangible social support)on drinkingto cope. The
issue raised by thisreviewer,of course,is a
criticalone that questions the fundamental
modelproposedand
accuracyof thetheoretical
testedin thepresentstudy.
Althougha comprehensive
responseto this
concernis beyond
essentiallyepistemological
thescopeofthispaper,severalpointsmayhelp
to place it in perspective.
First,theveridicality
of this or any othercausal model cannotbe
A network
established
of variables
definitively.
can be examinedto determine
how closelythe
observedrelationships
to thehypocorrespond
theticalrelationships
thatshouldbe observedif
the theoryis correct. Affirmative
results,
ruleoutalternative
however,do noteffectively
of thedata. Indeed,thespecific
interpretations
case raisedbythisreviewer(i.e., distinguishing
betweena spuriousanda mediatedrelationship)
is a classic exampleof two alternative
models
thatcannotbe distinguished
on thebasis of the
data (see Asher 1983 and Rogosa 1979 fora
moredetaileddiscussionof thiscase). Thusthe
factthatdirecteffects
maybe shownforseveral
ofthepsychosocial
variablesdoes nothelpus to
discriminate
betweenthesemodels;itis equally
compatiblewithbothmodels.
one mustjustifythecausal order
Ultimately
specified among variables in a model on

WORK STRESS AND ALCOHOL EFFECTS

273

2. Do you feel that you have a lot of

bases. On
rational,or substantive
theoretical,
responsibility
fortheworkof others?
the basis of such criteria,our model would
3. Do you workveryhard-eitherphysically
seemto be bothreasonableand well grounded.
or mentally?
First, the model is compatiblewith widely
4. Do youworryaboutmeetingtheconflicting
accepted models of general stressprocesses
demandsofdifferent
peopleyouworkwith?
(see, e.g., CohenandWills 1985fora review),
tokeepup withnew
5. Areyouunderpressure
of work stressprocesses (see Mattesonand
waysof doingthings?
Ivancevich1987 for a reviewof workstress
6. Do you have to decide things where
drinking(see
models), and of stress-induced
mistakescouldbe quitecostly?
Blane and Leonard 1987 for a review of
7. Do you worktoo manyhours?
theoriesof alcoholuse). Second,
psychological
8. Do you have to deal withor satisfytoo
morestablevariablestypicallyare modeledas
manypeople?
causally antecedentto less stable variables
to
9. Do youhave too littlehelpor equipment
of
(Davis 1985). In this study,our treatment
getthejob done well?
psychosocialresource variables (which are
stable, traitlikecharacteristics 10. Can youtakeiteasy and stillgetyourwork
predominantly
done?(reversescored)
such as mastery)as causally antecedentis
11. Do you have important
responsibilities?
withthisguideline.Third,priorwork
consistent
by Pearlin (Pearlin and Radabaugh 1976),
Lack ofJobControl
which examinedthe relationshipbetween a
1. Areyouunsureaboutwhatpeopleexpectof
to cope, treated
chronicstressorand drinking
you?
psychosocialvariablesnot as mediatingvari2. Do youfeelthatyouareunableto influence
ables but as potentialconfoundersand as
your supervisor'sdecisions-even when
to cope
moderatorsof the stress-drinking
theyaffectyou?
wouldappearto
Thustheliterature
relationship.
Can you use your own initiativeto do
3.
the
to
containampleprecedent support posited
things?(reversescored)
causal orderamongthesevariables.Nonethe4.
keepa close watchon
Does yoursupervisor
in
mind
that
bear
should
reader
less, the
you?
alternative
causal ordersare plausibleand that
5. Are you confusedaboutexactlywhatyou
orderingmightlead to different
an alternative
are supposedto do?
conclusionsregardingthe influenceof work
6. Are you givena lot of freedomto decide
stress processes on drinkingmotives. No
how to do yourwork?(reversescored)
evidence of mediated effects was found,
however,eitherforalcoholuse or fordrinking
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in theCenterfor theStudyof Behavioraland Social

LYNNE COOPER holdsa researchappointment
of New Yorkat Buffalo.Her researchinterestsinclude
Aspectsof Health at the State University
of stresson
modelsof alcohol use, and stressandfactorsthatmoderateeffects
cognitive-motivational
on Alcoholism
she is fundedby theNationalInstitute
psychologicaland physicalwell-being.Currently
behaviorsamong
and AlcoholAbuseto studyalcohol use, sexual risktaking,and otherhealth-related
adolescents.
on Alcoholism
at New YorkStateResearchInstitute
MARCIA RUSSELL is a seniorresearchscientist
and an associate clinical professorin the Departmentof Social PreventiveMedicineat the State
ofNew Yorkat Buffalo.In additiontoherworkon alcoholuse, stress,and bloodpressure,she
University
on reproduction.
in theepidemiology
ofalcoholuse and abuse amongwomenand itseffects
is interested
psychologyat the State
MICHAEL R. FRONE is a doctoral candidate in sociallorganizational
on
at theNew YorkStateResearchInstitute
ofNew Yorkat Buffaloand a researchscientist
University
occupationalstress,and
job involvement,
conflict,
Alcoholism.His currentresearchis in work-family
employees'alcohol use.