Music Theory - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

1/28/2016
Music theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Musictheory
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Musictheoryisthestudyofthepracticesandpossibilitiesof
music.Itgenerallyderivesfromobservationof,andinvolves
hypotheticalspeculationabouthowmusiciansandcomposers
makemusic.Thetermalsodescribestheacademicstudyand
analysisoffundamentalelementsofmusicsuchaspitch,rhythm,
harmony,andform,andreferstodescriptions,concepts,or
beliefsrelatedtomusic.Becauseoftheeverexpanding
conceptionofwhatconstitutesmusic(seeDefinitionofmusic),a
moreinclusivedefinitioncouldbethatmusictheoryisthe
considerationofanysonicphenomena,includingsilence,asit
relatestomusic.
Thepresentarticleisaboutmusictheoryproperlyspeaking,i.e.
abouttheories,speculationsandhypothesesmadeaboutthe
variousaspectsormusic.Itdescribestheelementsofmusiconly
insofarastheygivewaytosuchtheoriesotherinformations
abouttheseelementswillbefoundinotherarticlessuchas
Aspectofmusicandthespecificparametersofmusicdescribed
there.Textbooks,especiallyintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,
oftenalsoincludeundertheterm"theory"elementsofmusical
acoustics,considerationsofmusicalnotation,techniquesof
(oftentonal)composition(HarmonyandCounterpoint),etc.,
whichwillnotbedealtwithassuchhere,butonlyastheywere
thesubjectoftheoriesandhypotheses.
PythagorasandPhilolausengagedin
theoreticalinvestigations,ina
woodcutfromFranchinusGaffurius,
Theoricamusic(1492)
Musictheoryisasubfieldofmusicology,whichisitselfasubfieldwithintheoverarchingfieldofthe
artsandhumanities.Etymologically,musictheoryisanactofcontemplationofmusic,fromtheGreek
,alookingat,viewing,contemplation,speculation,theory,alsoasight,aspectacle.[1]Assuch,it
isoftenconcernedwithabstractmusicalaspectssuchastuningandtonalsystems,scales,consonance
anddissonance,andrhythmicrelationships,butthereisalsoabodyoftheoryconcerningsuchpractical
aspectsasthecreationortheperformanceofmusic,orchestration,ornamentation,improvisation,and
electronicsoundproduction.[2]Apersonwhoresearches,teaches,orwritesarticlesaboutmusictheoryis
amusictheorist.Universitystudy,typicallytotheM.A.orPh.Dlevel,isrequiredtoteachasatenure
trackmusictheoristinanAmericanorCanadianuniversity.Methodsofanalysisincludemathematics,
graphicanalysis,and,especially,analysisenabledbyWesternmusicnotation.Comparative,descriptive,
statistical,andothermethodsarealsoused.
Thedevelopment,preservation,andtransmissionofmusictheorymaybefoundinoralandpractical
musicmakingtraditions,musicalinstruments,andotherartifacts.Forexample,ancientinstrumentsfrom
Mesopotamia,China,[3]andprehistoricsitesaroundtheworldrevealdetailsaboutthemusicthey
producedand,potentially,somethingofthemusicaltheorythatmighthavebeenusedbytheirmakers
(seeHistoryofmusicandMusicalinstrument).Inancientandlivingculturesaroundtheworld,thedeep
andlongrootsofmusictheoryareclearlyvisibleininstruments,oraltraditions,andcurrentmusic
making.Manycultures,atleastasfarbackasancientMesopotamiaandancientChinahavealso
consideredmusictheoryinmoreformalwayssuchaswrittentreatisesandmusicnotation.
Contents
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_theory
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Contents
1 History
1.1 Prehistory
1.2 Antiquity
1.2.1 Mesopotamia
1.2.2 China
1.2.3 India
1.2.4 Greece
1.3 MiddleAges
1.3.1 China
1.3.2 Arabiccountries
1.3.3 Europe
1.4 Modern
1.4.1 China
1.4.2 Arabiccountries
1.4.3 Europe
1.4.3.1 Renaissance
1.4.3.2 Baroque
1.4.3.3 17501900
1.5 Contemporary
2 Fundamentalsofmusic
2.1 Pitch
2.2 Scalesandmodes
2.3 Consonanceanddissonance
2.4 Rhythm
2.5 Melody
2.6 Chord
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2.6 Chord
2.7 Harmony
2.8 Timbre
2.8.1 Dynamics
2.8.2 Articulation
2.9 Texture
2.10 Formorstructure
2.11 Analysis
2.12 Musicperceptionandcognition
2.13 Expression
2.14 Genreandtechnique
2.15 Mathematics
2.16 Serialcompositionandsettheory
2.17 Musicalsemiotics
3 Musicsubjects
3.1 Notation
4 Educationandcareers
5 Seealso
6 Notes
7 Sources
8 Furtherreading
9 Externallinks
History
Prehistory
Preservedprehistoricinstruments,artifacts,andlater,depictionsofperformanceinartworksgiveinsight
intoearlymusicmakingandassuch,mightimplicitlyrevealsomethingofaprehistorictheoryofmusic.
SeeforinstancePaleolithicflutes,Gd,Anasaziflute.
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Antiquity
Mesopotamia
SeealsoMusicofMesopotamia
SumerianandAkkadiantabletsdoincludemusicalinformationofatheoreticalnature,mainlylistsof
intervalsandtunings.[4]Threetabletsinparticular,thefirstoneknownasthePhiladelphiatablet(CBS
10996),thesecondonepreservedintheBritishMuseum(U.3011),andthethirdoneintheBerlin
Museum(KAR158),nameintervalsfromapentatonicorpossiblyaheptatonicscale.Anothertablet
fromUr(BritishMuseum,U.7/80)similarlynamestheintervalsfortuningaharpofsevenstrings,
probablybyacycleoffifths.[5]Thesetextsareconcernedmainlywithterminologyandwith
mathematicaldescriptions.[6]
China
SeealsoMusicofChinaChinesemusicology
MuchaboutChinesemusichistoryandtheoryremainsunclear.[7]
TheearliesttextsaboutChinesemusictheoryareinscribedonthestoneandbronzebellsexcavatedin
1978fromthetombofMarquisYi(died433BCE)oftheZengstate.Theyincludemorethan2800
wordsdescribingtheoriesandpracticesofmusicpitchesofthetime.Thebellsproducetwointertwined
pentatonicscalesthreetonesapart,withadditionalpitchescompletingthechromaticscale.[8]
Chinesetheorystartsfromnumbers,themainmusicalnumbersbeingtwelve,fiveandeight.Twelve
referstothenumberofpitchesonwhichthescalescanbeconstructed.TheLshichunqiufromabout
239BCErecallsthelegendofLingLun.OnorderoftheYellowEmperor,LingLuncollectedtwelve
bamboolengthswiththickandevennodes.Blowingononeoftheselikeapipe,hefounditssound
agreeableandnamedithuangzhong,the"YellowBell."Hethenheardphoenixessinging.Themaleand
femalephoenixeachsangsixtones.LingLuncuthisbamboopipestomatchthepitchesofthe
phoenixes,producingtwelvepitchpipesintwosets:sixfromthemalephoenixandsixfromthefemale:
thesewerecalledthellorlatertheshierl.[9]
Thellformedtheritualscaletowhichmanyinstrumentsweretuned.Thenameofthelowestsound,
huangzhongalsoimplyed'musicalcorrectness.'Itspitchformedapitchstandard,settingthebasepitch
ofzithers,flutesandsingersofimperialcourtorchestras.Straightwalledpitchpipeswithoutfinger
holesweremadeofcastmetal,theirlengthsspecifiedbycourtregulations.[10]Theresultingchromatic
scaleprovidedtwelvefundamentalnotesfortheconstructionofthemusicalscalesthemselves.Thell
alsohasacosmologicalvalue:itsnotesdescribetheenergeticfrequencyofthetwelvemonthsofthe
year,thedailyrhythmofthetwelvebihoursoftheChineseclock,thetwelvemainacupuncture
meridians,etc.[11]
Thetwosetsoftones(maleandfemale)dividingthetwelvetonescaleweregeneratedbythe"Method
ofSubtractingandAddingThirds,"orsanfensunyi,whichinvolvedalternatelyrisingafifthand
descendingafourththroughthesubtractionoradditionofathirdofthelengthoftheprecedingpitch
pipe.Theresultingpitchesproducedbyaddingathird(anddescendingafourth)werereferredtoby
SimaQianintheRecordsoftheGrandHistorian(91BCE)aspitchesof"superiorgeneration,"thatis,
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thepitchesofLingLunsmalephoenixthepitchesproducedbysubtractingathird(andascendinga
fifth)werereferredtoaspitchesof"inferiorgeneration,"thatis,thepitchesofLingLunsfemale
phoenix.[9]
"Apartfromtechnicalandstructuralaspects,ancientChinesemusictheoryalsodiscussestopicssuchas
thenatureandfunctionsofmusic.TheYueji("Recordofmusic",c1stand2ndcenturiesBCE),for
example,manifestsConfucianmoraltheoriesofunderstandingmusicinitssocialcontext.Studiedand
implementedbyConfucianscholarofficials[...],thesetheorieshelpedformamusicalConfucianismthat
overshadowedbutdidnoteraserivalapproaches.TheseincludetheassertionofMozi(c468c376BCE)
thatmusicwastedhumanandmaterialresources,andLaozisclaimthatthegreatestmusichadno
sounds.[...]Eventhemusicoftheqinzither,agenrecloselyaffiliatedwithConfucianscholarofficials,
includesmanyworkswithDaoistreferences,suchasTianfenghuanpei("HeavenlyBreezeandSounds
ofJadePendants")."[12]
India
TheSamavedaandYajurveda(c.12001000BCE)areamongtheearliesttestimoniesofIndianmusic,
buttheycontainnotheoryproperlyspeaking.TheNatyaShastra,writtenbetween200BCEto200CE,
discussesintervals(rutis),scales(Grmas),consonancesanddissonances,classesofmelodicstructure
(Mrchans,modes?),melodictypes(Jtis),instruments,etc.[13]
Greece
SeealsoMusicalsystemofancientGreeceListofmusictheorists#Antiquity
EarlypreservedGreekwritingsonmusictheoryincludetwotypesofworks:[14]
technicalmanualsdescribingtheGreekmusicalsystemincludingnotation,scales,consonanceand
dissonance,rhythm,andtypesofmusicalcompositions
treatisesonthewayinwhichmusicrevealsuniversalpatternsoforderleadingtothehighestlevels
ofknowledgeandunderstanding.
Severalnamesoftheoristsareknownbeforetheseworks,includingPythagoras(c.570c.495BCE),
Philolaus(c.470c.385BCE),Archytas(428347BCE),andothers.
Worksofthefirsttype(technicalmanuals)include
Anonymous(erroneouslyattributedtoEuclid)DivisionoftheCanon,,4th3d
centuryBCE.[15]
TheonofSmyrna,OnMathematicsUsefulfortheUnderstandingofPlato,v
,115140CE.
NicomachusofGerasa,ManualofHarmonics,,100150CE
Cleonides,IntroductiontoHarmonics,,2ndcenturyCE.
Gaudentius,HarmonicIntroduction,,3dor4thcenturyCE.
BacchiusGeron,IntroductiontotheArtofMusic,,4thcenturyCEor
later.
Alypius,IntroductiontoMusic,,4th5thcenturyCE.
Morephilosophicaltreatisesofthesecondtypeinclude
Aristoxenus,HarmonicElements,,375/360after320BCE.
Aristoxenus,RhythmicElements,.
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ClaudiusPtolemy,Harmonics,,127148CE.
Porphyrius,OnPtolemy'sHarmonics,,232/3c.305CE.
MiddleAges
SeealsoListofmusictheorists#MiddleAges
China
SomeimportedearlyChineseinstrumentsbecameimportantcomponentsoftheentertainmentmusicof
theSui(581618)andTang(618907)courts:thebentneckpipa(quxiangpipa),thebili,thekonghou
andthejiegu.Theygeneratednotonlynewrepertoriesandperformingpracticesbutalsonewmusic
theories.Thepipa,forexample,carriedwithitatheoryofmusicalmodesthatsubsequentlyledtothe
SuiandTangtheoryof84musicalmodes.[16]
Arabiccountries
MedievalArabicmusictheoristsinclude:[17]
AbYsufYa'qbalKindi(Bagdad,873CE),whousesthefirsttwelvelettersofthealphabet
todescribethetwelvefretsonfivestringsoftheoud,producingachromaticscaleof25
degrees.[18]
[Yayibn]alMunajjin(Baghdad,856912),authorofRislafalmsq("Treatiseonmusic",
MSGBLblOriental2361)whichdescribesaPythagoreantuningoftheoudandasystemofeight
modesperhapsinspiredbyIshaq_alMawsili(767850).[19]
AbnNarMuammadalFrbi(Persia,872?Damas,950or951CE),authorofKitabal
MusiqaalKabir("TheGreatBookofMusic").[20]
`AliibnalHusaynulIsfahn(897967),knownasAbualFarajalIsfahani,authorofKitbal
Aghn("TheBookofSongs").
Ab'AlalusaynibnAbdAllhibnSn,knownasAvicenna(c.9801037),whose
contributiontomusictheoryconsistsmainlyinChapter12ofthesectiononmathematicsofhis
KitabAlShifa("TheBookofHealing").[21]
alasanibnAmadibn'AlialKtib,authorofKamladabalGhin'("ThePerfectionof
MusicalKnowledge"),copiedin1225(Istanbul,TopkapiMuseum,Ms1727).[22]
SafialDinalUrmawi(12161294CE),authoroftheKitabualAdwr("Treatiseofmusical
cycles")andarRislahaarafiyyah("Epistletoaraf").[23]
Mubrakh,commentatorofSafialDin'sKitbalAdwr(BritishMuseum,Ms823).[24]
Anon.LXI,AnonymouscommentaryonSafialDin'sKitbalAdwr.[25]
Europe
Modern
China
Arabiccountries
Europe
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Renaissance
SeealsoListofmusictheorists#Renaissance
Baroque
SeealsoListofmusictheorists#17thcenturyListofmusictheorists#18thcentury
17501900
AsWesternmusicalinfluencespreadthroughouttheworldinthe1800s,musiciansadoptedWestern
theoryasaninternationalstandardbutothertheoreticaltraditionsinbothtextualandoraltraditions
remaininuse.Forexample,thelongandrichmusicaltraditionsuniquetoancientandcurrentculturesof
Africaareprimarilyoral,butdescribespecificforms,genres,performancepractices,tunings,andother
aspectsofmusictheory.[26][27]
SeealsoListofmusictheorists#19thcentury
Contemporary
SeealsoListofmusictheorists#20thcenturyListofmusictheorists#21stcentury
Fundamentalsofmusic
Musiciscomposedofauralphenomena,and"musictheory"considershowthosephenomenaapplyin
music.Musictheoryconsidersmelody,rhythm,counterpoint,harmony,form,tonalsystems,scales,
tuning,intervals,consonance,dissonance,durationalproportions,theacousticsofpitchsystems,
composition,performance,orchestration,ornamentation,improvisation,electronicsoundproduction,
etc.[28]
Pitch
Pitchisthelownessorhighnessofatone,forexamplethe
differencebetweenmiddleCandahigherC.Thefrequencyof
thesoundwavesproducingapitchcanbemeasuredprecisely,
buttheperceptionofpitchismorecomplexbecausewerarely
hearasinglefrequencyorpurepitch.Inmusic,tones,eventhose
soundedbysoloinstrumentsorvoices,areusuallyacomplex
combinationoffrequencies,andthereforeamixofpitches.
Accordingly,theoristsoftendescribepitchasasubjective
sensation.[29]
MiddleC(261.626Hz) Play.
Mostpeopleappeartopossessrelativepitch,whichmeanstheyperceiveeachnoterelativetosome
referencepitch,orassomeintervalfromthepreviouspitch.Significantlyfewerpeopledemonstrate
absolutepitch(orperfectpitch),theabilitytoidentifypitcheswithoutcomparisontoanotherpitch.
Humanperceptionofpitchcanbecomprehensivelyfooledtocreateauditoryillusions.Despitethese
perceptualoddities,perceivedpitchisnearlyalwayscloselyconnectedwiththefundamentalfrequency
ofanote,withalesserconnectiontosoundpressurelevel,harmoniccontent(complexity)ofthesound,
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andtotheimmediatelyprecedinghistoryofnotesheard.[30]Ingeneral,thehigherthefrequencyof
vibration,thehighertheperceivedpitch.Thelowerthefrequency,thelowerthepitch.[31]However,
evenfortonesofequalintensity,perceivedpitchandmeasuredfrequencydonotstandinasimplelinear
relationship.[32]
Intensity(loudness)canchangeperceptionofpitch.Belowabout1000Hz,perceivedpitchgetsloweras
intensityincreases.Between1000and2000Hz,pitchremainsfairlyconstant.Above2000Hz,pitch
riseswithintensity.[33]Thisisduetotheear'snaturalsensitivitytohigherpitchedsound,aswellasthe
ear'sparticularsensitivitytosoundaroundthe20005000Hzinterval,[34]thefrequencyrangemostof
thehumanvoiceoccupies.[35]
Thedifferenceinfrequencybetweentwopitchesiscalledaninterval.Themostbasicintervalisthe
unison,whichissimplytwonotesofthesamepitch,followedbytheslightlymorecomplexoctave:
pitchesthatareeitherdoubleorhalfthefrequencyoftheother.Theuniquecharacteristicsofoctaves
gaverisetotheconceptofwhatiscalledpitchclass,animportantaspectofmusictheory.Pitchesofthe
sameletternamethatoccurindifferentoctavesmaybegroupedintoasingle"class"byignoringthe
differenceinoctave.Forexample,ahighCandalowCaremembersofthesamepitchclasstheclass
thatcontainsallC's.Theconceptofpitchclassgreatlyaidsaspectsofanalysisandcomposition.[36]
Althoughpitchcanbeidentifiedbyspecificfrequency,theletternamesassignedtopitchesare
somewhatarbitrary.Forexample,todaymostorchestrasassignConcertA(theAabovemiddleConthe
piano)tothespecificfrequencyof440Hz,ratherthan,forinstance,435HzasitwasinFrancein1859.
InEngland,thatAvariedbetween439and452.Thesedifferencescanhaveanoticeableeffectonthe
timbreofinstrumentsandotherphenomena.Manyculturesdonotattempttostandardizepitch,often
consideringthatitshouldbeallowedtovarydependingongenre,style,mood,etc.Inhistorically
informedperformanceofoldermusic,tuningisoftensettomatchthetuningusedintheperiodwhenit
waswritten.Afrequencyof440HzwasrecommendedasthestandardpitchforConcertAin1939,and
in1955theInternationalOrganizationforStandardizationaffirmedthechoice.[37]A440isnowwidely,
thoughnotexclusively,thestandardformusicaroundtheworld.
Pitchisalsoanimportantconsiderationintuningsystems,ortemperament,usedtodeterminethe
intervallicdistancebetweentones,aswithinascale.Tuningsystemsvarywidelywithinandbetween
worldcultures.InWesternculture,therehavelongbeenseveralcompetingtuningsystems,allwith
differentqualities.Internationally,thesystemknownasequaltemperamentismostcommonlyused
todaybecauseitisconsideredthemostsatisfactorycompromisethatallowsinstrumentsoffixedtuning
(e.g.thepiano)tosoundacceptablyintuneinallkeys.
Scalesandmodes
Notescanbearrangedinavarietyofscalesandmodes.
Westernmusictheorygenerallydividestheoctaveintoa
seriesoftwelvetones,calledachromaticscale,within
whichtheintervalbetweenadjacenttonesiscalleda
ApatternofwholeandhalfstepsintheIonian
halfsteporsemitone.Inequaltemperamenteach
modeormajorscaleonC Play.
semitoneisequidistantfromthenext,butothertuning
systemsarealsoused.Selectingtonesfromthissetof12
andarrangingtheminpatternsofsemitonesandwholetonescreatesotherscales.[38]
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Themostcommonlyencounteredscalesaretheseventonedmajor,theharmonicminor,themelodic
minor,andthenaturalminor.Otherexamplesofscalesaretheoctatonicscaleandthepentatonicorfive
tonescale,whichiscommoninfolkmusicandblues.NonWesternculturesoftenusescalesthatdonot
correspondwithanequallydividedtwelvetonedivisionoftheoctave.Forexample,classicalOttoman,
Persian,IndianandArabicmusicalsystemsoftenmakeuseofmultiplesofquartertones(halfthesizeof
asemitone,asthenameindicates),forinstancein'neutral'seconds(threequartertones)or'neutral'thirds
(sevenquartertones)theydonotnormallyusethequartertoneitselfasadirectinterval.[39]
IntraditionalWesternnotation,thescaleusedforacompositionisusuallyindicatedbyakeysignature
atthebeginningtodesignatethepitchesthatmakeupthatscale.Asthemusicprogresses,thepitches
usedmaychangeandintroduceadifferentscale.Musiccanbetransposedfromonescaletoanotherfor
variouspurposes,oftentoaccommodatetherangeofavocalist.Suchtranspositionraisesorlowersthe
overallpitchrange,butpreservestheintervallicrelationshipsoftheoriginalscale.Forexample,
transpositionfromthekeyofCmajortoDmajorraisesallpitchesofthescaleofCmajorequallybya
wholetone.Sincetheintervalrelationshipsremainunchanged,transpositionmaybeunnoticedbya
listener,howeverotherqualitiesmaychangenoticeablybecausetranspositionchangestherelationship
oftheoverallpitchrangecomparedtotherangeoftheinstrumentsorvoicesthatperformthemusic.
Thisoftenaffectsthemusic'soverallsound,aswellashavingtechnicalimplicationsforthe
performers.[40]
TheinterrelationshipofthekeysmostcommonlyusedinWesterntonalmusicisconvenientlyshownby
thecircleoffifths.Uniquekeysignaturesarealsosometimesdevisedforaparticularcomposition.
DuringtheBaroqueperiod,emotionalassociationswithspecifickeys,knownasthedoctrineofthe
affections,wereanimportanttopicinmusictheory,buttheuniquetonalcoloringsofkeysthatgaverise
tothatdoctrinewerelargelyerasedwiththeadoptionofequaltemperament.However,manymusicians
continuetofeelthatcertainkeysaremoreappropriatetocertainemotionsthanothers.Indianclassical
musictheorycontinuestostronglyassociatekeyswithemotionalstates,timesofday,andotherextra
musicalconceptsandnotably,doesnotemployequaltemperament.
Consonanceanddissonance
Consonanceanddissonancearesubjective
qualitiesofthesonorityofintervalsthat
varywidelyindifferentculturesandover
theages.Consonance(orconcord)isthe
qualityofanintervalorchordthatseems
stableandcompleteinitself.Dissonance(or
Theminorsecond,a
Theperfectoctave,a
discord)istheoppositeinthatitfeels
dissonance Play
consonantinterval Play
incompleteand"wantsto"resolvetoa
consonantinterval.Dissonantintervals
seemtoclash.Consonantintervalsseemtosoundcomfortabletogether.Commonly,perfectfourths,
fifths,andoctavesandallmajorandminorthirdsandsixthsareconsideredconsonant.Allothersare
dissonanttogreaterorlesserdegree.[41]
Contextandmanyotheraspectscanaffectapparentdissonanceandconsonance.Forexample,ina
Debussyprelude,amajorsecondmaysoundstableandconsonant,whilethesameintervalmaysound
dissonantinaBachfugue.IntheCommonPracticeera,theperfectfourthisconsidereddissonantwhen
notsupportedbyalowerthirdorfifth.Sincetheearly20thcentury,ArnoldSchoenbergsconceptof
"emancipated"dissonance,inwhichtraditionallydissonantintervalscanbetreatedas"higher,"more
remoteconsonances,hasbecomemorewidelyaccepted.[42]
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Rhythm
Rhythmisproducedbythesequentialarrangement
ofsoundsandsilencesintime.Metermeasures
musicinregularpulsegroupings,calledmeasuresor
bars.Thetimesignatureormetersignaturespecifies
howmanybeatsareinameasure,andwhichvalue
ofwrittennoteiscountedorfeltasasinglebeat.
Throughincreasedstress,orvariationsindurationor
articulation,particulartonesmaybeaccented.There
Metriclevels:beatlevelshowninmiddlewith
areconventionsinmostmusicaltraditionsfor
divisionlevelsaboveandmultiplelevelsbelow.
regularandhierarchicalaccentuationofbeatsto
reinforceagivenmeter.Syncopatedrhythms
contradictthoseconventionsbyaccentingunexpectedpartsofthebeat.Playingsimultaneousrhythmsin
morethanonetimesignatureiscalledpolymeter.Seealsopolyrhythm.
Inrecentyears,rhythmandmeterhavebecomeanimportantareaofresearchamongmusicscholars.
RecentworkintheseareasincludesbooksbyBengtOlovPalmqvist,FredLerdahlandRayJackendoff,
andJonathanKramer.
Melody
Amelodyisaseriesoftonessoundinginsuccession
thattypicallymovetowardaclimaxoftensionthen
resolvetoastateofrest.Becausemelodyissucha
prominentaspectinsomuchmusic,itsconstruction
andotherqualitiesareaprimaryinterestofmusic
theory.
"PopGoestheWeasel"melody[43] Play
Thebasicelementsofmelodyarepitch,duration,
rhythm,andtempo.Thetonesofamelodyare
usuallydrawnfrompitchsystemssuchasscalesormodes.Melodymayconsist,toincreasingdegree,of
thefigure,motive,semiphrase,antecedentandconsequentphrase,andperiodorsentence.Theperiod
maybeconsideredthecompletemelody,howeversomeexamplescombinetwoperiods,oruseother
combinationsofconstituentstocreatelargerformmelodies.[44]
Chord
Achord,inmusic,isanyharmonicsetofthreeormorenotesthatisheardasifsounding
simultaneously.[45][46]Theseneednotactuallybeplayedtogether:arpeggiosandbrokenchordsmay,for
manypracticalandtheoreticalpurposes,constitutechords.Chordsandsequencesofchordsare
frequentlyusedinmodernWestern,WestAfrican,[47]andOceanian[48]music,whereastheyareabsent
fromthemusicofmanyotherpartsoftheworld.[49]
Themostfrequentlyencounteredchordsaretriads,socalledbecausetheyconsistofthreedistinctnotes:
furthernotesmaybeaddedtogiveseventhchords,extendedchords,oraddedtonechords.Themost
commonchordsarethemajorandminortriadsandthentheaugmentedanddiminishedtriads.The
descriptionsmajor,minor,augmented,anddiminishedaresometimesreferredtocollectivelyaschordal
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quality.Chordsarealsocommonlyclassedbytheirrootnoteso,forinstance,the
chordCmajormaybedescribedasatriadofmajorqualitybuiltuponthenoteC.
Chordsmayalsobeclassifiedbyinversion,theorderinwhichthenotesarestacked.
Aseriesofchordsiscalledachordprogression.Althoughanychordmayin
principlebefollowedbyanyotherchord,certainpatternsofchordshavebeen
acceptedasestablishingkeyincommonpracticeharmony.Todescribethis,chords
arenumbered,usingRomannumerals(upwardsfromthekeynote),[50]perits
diatonicfunction.Commonwaysofnotatingorrepresentingchords.[51]inwestern
musicotherthanconventionalstaffnotationincludeRomannumerals,figuredbass
(muchusedintheBaroqueera),macrosymbols(sometimesusedinmodern
musicology),andvarioussystemsofchordchartstypicallyfoundintheleadsheets
usedinpopularmusictolayoutthesequenceofchordssothatthemusicianmay
playaccompanimentchordsorimproviseasolo.
Harmony
Inmusic,harmonyistheuseofsimultaneouspitches(tones,notes),orchords.[49]
Thestudyofharmonyinvolveschordsandtheirconstructionandchord
progressionsandtheprinciplesofconnectionthatgovernthem.[52]Harmonyis
oftensaidtorefertothe"vertical"aspectofmusic,asdistinguishedfrommelodic
line,orthe"horizontal"aspect.[53]Counterpoint,whichreferstothe
interweavingofmelodiclines,andpolyphony,whichreferstothe
relationshipofseparateindependentvoices,arethussometimes
distinguishedfromharmony.
Inpopularandjazzharmony,chordsarenamedbytheirrootplus
varioustermsandcharactersindicatingtheirqualities.Forexample,
aleadsheetmayindicatechordssuchasCmajor,Dminor,andG
dominantseventh.Inmanytypesofmusic,notablyBaroque,
Romantic,modern,andjazz,chordsareoftenaugmentedwith
"tensions".Atensionisanadditionalchordmemberthatcreatesa
relativelydissonantintervalinrelationtothebass.Typically,inthe
classicalcommonpracticeperiodadissonantchord(chordwith
tension)"resolves"toaconsonantchord.Harmonizationusually
soundspleasanttotheearwhenthereisabalancebetweenthe
consonantanddissonantsounds.Insimplewords,thatoccurswhen
thereisabalancebetween"tense"and"relaxed"moments.
CMajortriad
representedin
staffnotation.
Playinjust
intonation
PlayinEqual
temperament
Playin1/4
comma
meantone
Playin
Young
temperament
Playin
Pythagorean
tuning
Barbershopquartets,suchasthis
USNavygroup,sing4part
pieces,madeupofamelodyline
(normallythesecondhighest
voice,calledthe"lead")and3
harmonyparts.
Timbre
Timbre,sometimescalled"color",or"tonecolor,"istheprincipalphenomenonthatallowsusto
distinguishoneinstrumentfromanotherwhenbothplayatthesamepitchandvolume,aqualityofa
voiceorinstrumentoftendescribedintermslikebright,dull,shrill,etc.Itisofconsiderableinterestin
musictheory,especiallybecauseitisonecomponentofmusicthathasasyet,nostandardized
nomenclature.Ithasbeencalled"...thepsychoacoustician'smultidimensionalwastebasketcategoryfor
everythingthatcannotbelabeledpitchorloudness,"[54]butcanbeaccuratelydescribedandanalyzedby
Fourieranalysisandothermethods[55]becauseitresultsfromthecombinationofallsoundfrequencies,
attackandreleaseenvelopes,andotherqualitiesthatcompriseatone.
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Timbreisprincipallydeterminedbytwothings:(1)therelative
balanceofovertonesproducedbyagiveninstrumentdueits
construction(e.g.shape,material),and(2)theenvelopeofthe
sound(includingchangesintheovertonestructureovertime).
Timbrevarieswidelybetweendifferentinstruments,voices,and
tolesserdegree,betweeninstrumentsofthesametypedueto
variationsintheirconstruction,andsignificantly,theperformer's
technique.Thetimbreofmostinstrumentscanbechangedby
employingdifferenttechniqueswhileplaying.Forexample,the
timbreofatrumpetchangeswhenamuteisinsertedintothebell,
theplayerchangestheirembouchure,orvolume.
Spectrogramofthefirstsecondofan
E9chordplayedonaFender
Stratocasterguitarwithnoiseless
pickups.BelowistheE9chordaudio:
Avoicecanchangeitstimbrebythewaytheperformer
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manipulatestheirvocalapparatus,(e.g.theshapeofthevocal
cavityormouth).Musicalnotationfrequentlyspecifiesalteration
intimbrebychangesinsoundingtechnique,volume,accent,andothermeans.Theseareindicated
variouslybysymbolicandverbalinstruction.Forexample,theworddolce(sweetly)indicatesanon
specific,butcommonlyunderstoodsoftand"sweet"timbre.Sultastoinstructsastringplayertobow
nearoroverthefingerboardtoproducealessbrilliantsound.Cuivreinstructsabrassplayertoproducea
forcedandstridentlybrassysound.Accentsymbolslikemarcato(^)anddynamicindications(pp)can
alsoindicatechangesintimbre.
Dynamics
Inmusic,"dynamics"normallyreferstovariations
ofintensityorvolume,asmaybemeasuredby
physicistsandaudioengineersindecibelsorphons.
Inmusicnotation,however,dynamicsarenottreated
asabsolutevalues,butasrelativeones.Becausethey
Anillustrationofhairpinsinmusicalnotation.
areusuallymeasuredsubjectively,therearefactors
besidesamplitudethataffecttheperformanceor
perceptionofintensity,suchastimbre,vibrato,andarticulation.
TheconventionalindicationsofdynamicsareabbreviationsforItalianwordslikeforte(f)forloudand
piano(p)forsoft.Thesetwobasicnotationsaremodifiedbyindicationsincludingmezzopiano(mp)for
moderatelysoft(literally"halfsoft")andmezzoforte(mf)formoderatelyloud,sforzandoorsforzato
(sfz)forasurgingor"pushed"attack,orfortepiano(fp)foraloudattackwithasuddendecreasetoasoft
level.Thefullspanofthesemarkingsusuallyrangefromanearlyinaudiblepianissississimo(pppp)toa
loudaspossiblefortissississimo(ffff).
Greaterextremesofppppppandfffffandnuancessuchasp+orpipianoaresometimesfound.Other
systemsofindicatingvolumearealsousedinbothnotationandanalysis:dB(decibels),numerical
scales,coloredordifferentsizednotes,wordsinlanguagesotherthanItalian,andsymbolssuchasthose
forprogressivelyincreasingvolume(crescendo)ordecreasingvolume(decrescendo),oftencalled
"hairpins"whenindicatedwithdivergingorconverginglinesasshowninthegraphicabove.
Articulation
Articulationisthewaytheperformersoundsnotes.Forexample,staccatoistheshorteningofduration
comparedtothewrittennotevalue,legatoperformsthenotesinasmoothlyjoinedsequencewithno
separation.Articulationisoftendescribedratherthanquantified,thereforethereisroomtointerprethow
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toexecutepreciselyeacharticulation.
Forexample,staccatoisoftenreferredtoas
"separated"or"detached"ratherthanhavinga
definedornumberedamountbywhichtoreducethe
Examplesofarticulationmarks.Fromlefttoright:
notatedduration.Violinplayersuseavarietyof
staccato,staccatissimo,martellato,marcato,tenuto.
techniquestoperformdifferentqualitiesofstaccato.
Themannerinwhichaperformerdecidestoexecute
agivenarticulationisusuallybasedonthecontextofthepieceorphrase,butmanyarticulationsymbols
andverbalinstructionsdependontheinstrumentandmusicalperiod(e.g.viol,windclassical,baroque
etc.).
Thereareasetofarticulationsthatmostallinstrumentsandvoicesperformincommon.Theyarefrom
longtoshort:legato(smooth,connected)tenuto(pressedorplayedtofullnotatedduration)marcato
(accentedanddetached)staccato("separated","detached")martel(heavilyaccentedor"hammered").
Manyofthesecanbecombinedtocreatecertain"inbetween"articulations.Forexample,portatoisthe
combinationoftenutoandstaccato.Someinstrumentshaveuniquemethodsbywhichtoproduce
sounds,suchasspicattoforbowedstrings,wherethebowbouncesoffthestring.
Texture
Inmusic,textureishowthemelodic,rhythmic,and
harmonicmaterialsarecombinedinacomposition,
thusdeterminingtheoverallqualityofthesoundina
piece.Textureisoftendescribedinregardtothe
density,orthickness,andrange,orwidth,between
IntroductiontoSousa's"WashingtonPostMarch,"
lowestandhighestpitches,inrelativetermsaswell
mm.17 Playfeaturesoctavedoubling[56]anda
asmorespecificallydistinguishedaccordingtothe
homorhythmictexture.
numberofvoices,orparts,andtherelationship
betweenthesevoices.Forexample,athicktexture
containsmany"layers"ofinstruments.Oneoftheselayerscouldbeastringsection,oranotherbrass.
Thethicknessalsoisaffectedbytheamountandtherichnessoftheinstrumentsplayingthepiece.The
thicknessvariesfromlighttothick.Alightlytexturedpiecewillhavelight,sparsescoring.Athicklyor
heavilytexturedpiecewillbescoredformanyinstruments.Apiece'stexturemaybeaffectedbythe
numberandcharacterofpartsplayingatonce,thetimbreoftheinstrumentsorvoicesplayingtheseparts
andtheharmony,tempo,andrhythmsused.[57]Thetypescategorizedbynumberandrelationshipof
partsareanalyzedanddeterminedthroughthelabelingofprimarytexturalelements:primarymelody,
secondarymelody,parallelsupportingmelody,staticsupport,harmonicsupport,rhythmicsupport,and
harmonicandrhythmicsupport.[58]
Commontypesincludedmonophonictexture(asinglemelodicvoice,suchasapieceforsolosopranoor
soloflute),biphonictexture(twomelodicvoices,suchasaduoforbassoonandfluteinwhichthe
bassoonplaysadronenoteandthefluteplaysthemelody),polyphonictextureandhomophonictexture
(chordsaccompanyingamelody).
Formorstructure
Thetermmusicalform(ormusicalarchitecture)referstotheoverallstructureorplanofapieceof
music,[60]anditdescribesthelayoutofacompositionasdividedintosections.[61]Inthetentheditionof
TheOxfordCompaniontoMusic,PercyScholesdefinesmusicalformas"aseriesofstrategiesdesigned
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tofindasuccessfulmeanbetweentheoppositeextremesof
unrelievedrepetitionandunrelievedalteration."[62]Accordingto
RichardMiddleton,musicalformis"theshapeorstructureofthe
work."Hedescribesitthroughdifference:thedistancemovedfrom
arepeatthelatterbeingthesmallestdifference.Differenceis
quantitativeandqualitative:howfar,andofwhattype,different.In
manycases,formdependsonstatementandrestatement,unityand
variety,andcontrastandconnection.[63]
Analysis
Amusicalcanon.Encyclopaedia
Britannicacallsa"canon"botha
compositionaltechniqueanda
musicalform.[59]
Musicalanalysisistheattemptto
answerthequestionhowdoesthis
musicwork?Themethodemployed
toanswerthisquestion,andindeed
exactlywhatismeantbythe
question,differsfromanalystto
analyst,andaccordingtothepurpose
oftheanalysis.AccordingtoIan
Bent,"analysis,asapursuitinits
ownright,cametobeestablished
onlyinthelate19thcenturyits
emergenceasanapproachand
methodcanbetracedbacktothe
Typicallyagivenworkisanalyzedbymorethanonepersonand
1750s.However,itexistedasa
differentordivergentanalysesarecreated.Forinstance,thefirsttwo
scholarlytool,albeitanauxiliary
barsofthepreludetoClaudeDebussy'sPellasetMelisandeare
one,fromtheMiddleAges
analyzeddifferentlybyLeibowitz,Laloy,vanAppledorn,andChrist.
onwards."[64]AdolfBernhardMarx
LeibowitzanalysesthissuccessionharmonicallyasDminor:IVIIV,
wasinfluentialinformalising
ignoringmelodicmotion,LaloyanalysesthesuccessionasD:IV,
conceptsaboutcompositionand
seeingtheGinthesecondmeasureasanornament,andbothvan
musicunderstandingtowardsthe
AppledornandChristanalysesthesuccessionasD:IVII. Play
secondhalfofthe19thcentury.The
principleofanalysishasbeen
variouslycriticized,especiallybycomposers,suchasEdgardVarse'sclaimthat,"toexplainbymeans
of[analysis]istodecompose,tomutilatethespiritofawork".[65]
SchenkeriananalysisisamethodofmusicalanalysisoftonalmusicbasedonthetheoriesofHeinrich
Schenker(18681935).ThegoalofaSchenkeriananalysisistointerprettheunderlyingstructureofa
tonalworkandtohelpreadingthescoreaccordingtothatstructure.Thetheory'sbasictenetscanbe
viewedasawayofdefiningtonalityinmusic.ASchenkeriananalysisofapassageofmusicshows
hierarchicalrelationshipsamongitspitches,anddrawsconclusionsaboutthestructureofthepassage
fromthishierarchy.Theanalysismakesuseofaspecializedsymbolicformofmusicalnotationthat
Schenkerdevisedtodemonstratevarioustechniquesofelaboration.Themostfundamentalconceptof
Schenker'stheoryoftonalitymaybethatoftonalspace.[66]Theintervalsbetweenthenotesofthetonic
triadformatonalspacethatisfilledwithpassingandneighbournotes,producingnewtriadsandnew
tonalspaces,openforfurtherelaborationsuntilthesurfaceofthework(thescore)isreached.
AlthoughSchenkerhimselfusuallypresentshisanalysesinthegenerativedirection,startingfromthe
fundamentalstructure(Ursatz)toreachthescore,thepracticeofSchenkeriananalysismoreoftenis
reductive,startingfromthescoreandshowinghowitcanbereducedtoitsfundamentalstructure.The
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graphoftheUrsatzisarrhythmic,asisastrictcounterpointcantusfirmusexercise.[67]Evenat
intermediatelevelsofthereduction,rhythmicnotation(openandclosednoteheads,beamsandflags)
showsnotrhythmbutthehierarchicalrelationshipsbetweenthepitchevents.Schenkeriananalysisis
subjective.Thereisnomechanicalprocedureinvolvedandtheanalysisreflectsthemusicalintuitionsof
theanalyst.[68]Theanalysisrepresentsawayofhearing(andreading)apieceofmusic.
TransformationaltheoryisabranchofmusictheorydevelopedbyDavidLewininthe1980s,and
formallyintroducedinhis1987work,GeneralizedMusicalIntervalsandTransformations.Thetheory,
whichmodelsmusicaltransformationsaselementsofamathematicalgroup,canbeusedtoanalyzeboth
tonalandatonalmusic.Thegoaloftransformationaltheoryistochangethefocusfrommusicalobjects
suchasthe"Cmajorchord"or"Gmajorchord"torelationsbetweenobjects.Thus,insteadof
sayingthataCmajorchordisfollowedbyGmajor,atransformationaltheoristmightsaythatthefirst
chordhasbeen"transformed"intothesecondbythe"Dominantoperation."(Symbolically,onemight
write"Dominant(Cmajor)=Gmajor.")Whiletraditionalmusicalsettheoryfocusesonthemakeupof
musicalobjects,transformationaltheoryfocusesontheintervalsortypesofmusicalmotionthatcan
occur.AccordingtoLewin'sdescriptionofthischangeinemphasis,"[Thetransformational]attitude
doesnotaskforsomeobservedmeasureofextensionbetweenreified'points'ratheritasks:'IfIamats
andwishtogettot,whatcharacteristicgestureshouldIperforminordertoarrivethere?'"[69]
Musicperceptionandcognition
Musicpsychologyorthepsychologyof
musicmayberegardedasabranchofboth
psychologyandmusicology.Itaimsto
explainandunderstandmusicalbehaviorand
experience,includingtheprocessesthrough
whichmusicisperceived,created,responded
to,andincorporatedintoeveryday
life.[71][72]Modernmusicpsychologyis
primarilyempiricalitsknowledgetendsto
advanceonthebasisofinterpretationsof
datacollectedbysystematicobservationof
andinteractionwithhumanparticipants.
Musicpsychologyisafieldofresearchwith
practicalrelevanceformanyareas,including
musicperformance,composition,education,
criticism,andtherapy,aswellas
investigationsofhumanaptitude,skill,
intelligence,creativity,andsocialbehavior.
Deutsch'sscaleillusion:anauditoryillusioninwhichtwo
scalesarepresentedwithsuccessivetonesalternating
betweeneachearbutareperceivedassimultaneous,
Musicpsychologycanshedlightonnon
unbrokenscales.[70]
psychologicalaspectsofmusicologyand
musicalpractice.Forexample,itcontributes
tomusictheorythroughinvestigationsoftheperceptionandcomputationalmodellingofmusical
structuressuchasmelody,harmony,tonality,rhythm,meter,andform.Researchinmusichistorycan
benefitfromsystematicstudyofthehistoryofmusicalsyntax,orfrompsychologicalanalysesof
composersandcompositionsinrelationtoperceptual,affective,andsocialresponsestotheirmusic.
Ethnomusicologycanbenefitfrompsychologicalapproachestothestudyofmusiccognitionindifferent
cultures.
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Expression
Musicalexpressionistheartofplayingorsingingmusicwith
emotionalcommunication.Theelementsofmusicthatcomprise
expressionincludedynamicindications,suchasforteorpiano,
phrasing,differingqualitiesoftimbreandarticulation,color,
intensity,energyandexcitement.Allofthesedevicescanbe
incorporatedbytheperformer.Aperformeraimstoelicit
responsesofsympatheticfeelingintheaudience,andtoexcite,
calmorotherwiseswaytheaudience'sphysicalandemotional
responses.
Aviolinistperforming.
Expressiononinstrumentscanbecloselyrelatedtotheroleof
thebreathinsinging,andthevoice'snaturalabilitytoexpress
feelings,sentimentanddeepemotions.Whetherthesecansomehowbecategorizedisperhapstherealm
ofacademics,whoviewexpressionasanelementofmusicalperformancethatembodiesaconsistently
recognizableemotion,ideallycausingasympatheticemotionalresponseinitslisteners.[73]The
emotionalcontentofmusicalexpressionisdistinctfromtheemotionalcontentofspecificsounds(e.g.,a
startlinglyloud'bang')andoflearnedassociations(e.g.,anationalanthem),butcanrarelybecompletely
separatedfromitscontext.
Thecomponentsofmusicalexpressioncontinuetobethesubjectofextensiveandunresolved
dispute.[74][75][76][77][78][79]
Genreandtechnique
Amusicgenreisaconventionalcategorythatidentifies
somepiecesofmusicasbelongingtoasharedtraditionor
setofconventions.[80]Itistobedistinguishedfrom
musicalformandmusicalstyle,althoughinpracticethese
termsaresometimesusedinterchangeably.[81]
Musiccanbedividedintodifferentgenresinmany
differentways.Theartisticnatureofmusicmeansthat
theseclassificationsareoftensubjectiveandcontroversial,
andsomegenresmayoverlap.Thereareevenvarying
AClassicalpianotrioisagroupthatplays
academicdefinitionsofthetermgenreitself.Inhisbook
chambermusic,includingsonatas.Theterm
ForminTonalMusic,DouglassM.Greendistinguishes
"pianotrio"alsoreferstoworkscomposed
betweengenreandform.Helistsmadrigal,motet,
forsuchagroup.
canzona,ricercar,anddanceasexamplesofgenresfrom
theRenaissanceperiod.Tofurtherclarifythemeaningof
genre,Greenwrites,"Beethoven'sOp.61andMendelssohn'sOp.64areidenticalingenrebothare
violinconcertosbutdifferentinform.However,Mozart'sRondoforPiano,K.511,andtheAgnusDei
fromhisMass,K.317arequitedifferentingenrebuthappentobesimilarinform."[82]Some,likePeter
vanderMerwe,treatthetermsgenreandstyleasthesame,sayingthatgenreshouldbedefinedaspieces
ofmusicthatshareacertainstyleor"basicmusicallanguage."[83]
Others,suchasAllanF.Moore,statethatgenreandstylearetwoseparateterms,andthatsecondary
characteristicssuchassubjectmattercanalsodifferentiatebetweengenres.[84]Amusicgenreor
subgenremayalsobedefinedbythemusicaltechniques,thestyle,theculturalcontext,andthecontent
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andspiritofthethemes.Geographicaloriginissometimesusedtoidentifyamusicgenre,thougha
singlegeographicalcategorywilloftenincludeawidevarietyofsubgenres.TimothyLauriearguesthat
sincetheearly1980s,"genrehasgraduatedfrombeingasubsetofpopularmusicstudiestobeingan
almostubiquitousframeworkforconstitutingandevaluatingmusicalresearchobjects".[85]
Musicaltechniqueistheabilityofinstrumentalandvocalmusicianstoexertoptimalcontroloftheir
instrumentsorvocalcordstoproduceprecisemusicaleffects.Improvingtechniquegenerallyentails
practicingexercisesthatimprovemuscularsensitivityandagility.Toimprovetechnique,musicians
oftenpracticefundamentalpatternsofnotessuchasthenatural,minor,major,andchromaticscales,
minorandmajortriads,dominantanddiminishedsevenths,formulapatternsandarpeggios.For
example,triadsandseventhsteachhowtoplaychordswithaccuracyandspeed.Scalesteachhowto
movequicklyandgracefullyfromonenotetoanother(usuallybystep).Arpeggiosteachhowtoplay
brokenchordsoverlargerintervals.Manyofthesecomponentsofmusicarefoundincompositions,for
example,ascaleisaverycommonelementofclassicalandromanticeracompositions.
HeinrichSchenkerarguedthatmusicaltechnique's"moststrikinganddistinctivecharacteristic"is
repetition.[86]Worksknownastudes(meaning"study")arealsofrequentlyusedfortheimprovement
oftechnique.
Mathematics
Musictheoristssometimesusemathematicstounderstandmusic,andalthoughmusichasnoaxiomatic
foundationinmodernmathematics,mathematicsis"thebasisofsound"andsounditself"initsmusical
aspects...exhibitsaremarkablearrayofnumberproperties",simplybecausenatureitself"isamazingly
mathematical".[87]Theattempttostructureandcommunicatenewwaysofcomposingandhearingmusic
hasledtomusicalapplicationsofsettheory,abstractalgebraandnumbertheory.Somecomposershave
incorporatedthegoldenratioandFibonaccinumbersintotheirwork.[88][89]Thereisalonghistoryof
examiningtherelationshipsbetweenmusicandmathematics.ThoughancientChinese,Egyptiansand
Mesopotamiansareknowntohavestudiedthemathematicalprinciplesofsound,[90]thePythagoreans
(inparticularPhilolausandArchytas)[91]ofancientGreecewerethefirstresearchersknowntohave
investigatedtheexpressionofmusicalscalesintermsofnumericalratios.
Inthemodernera,musicalsettheory
usesthelanguageofmathematical
settheoryinanelementarywayto
organizemusicalobjectsand
describetheirrelationships.To
Thefirst16harmonics,theirnamesandfrequencies,showingthe
analyzethestructureofapieceof
exponentialnatureoftheoctaveandthesimplefractionalnatureof
(typicallyatonal)musicusing
nonoctaveharmonics.
musicalsettheory,oneusuallystarts
withasetoftones,whichcouldform
motivesorchords.Byapplyingsimpleoperationssuchastranspositionandinversion,onecandiscover
deepstructuresinthemusic.Operationssuchastranspositionandinversionarecalledisometries
becausetheypreservetheintervalsbetweentonesinaset.Expandingonthemethodsofmusicalset
theory,sometheoristshaveusedabstractalgebratoanalyzemusic.Forexample,thepitchclassesinan
equallytemperedoctaveformanabeliangroupwith12elements.Itispossibletodescribejust
intonationintermsofafreeabeliangroup.[92]
Serialcompositionandsettheory
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Inmusictheory,serialismisamethodortechniqueof
compositionthatusesaseriesofvaluestomanipulatedifferent
musicalelements.SerialismbeganprimarilywithArnold
Schoenberg'stwelvetonetechnique,thoughhiscontemporaries
werealsoworkingtoestablishserialismasoneexampleofpost
TonerowfromAlbanBerg'sLyric
tonalthinking.Twelvetonetechniqueordersthetwelvenotesof
Suite,mov.I. Play
thechromaticscale,formingaroworseriesandprovidinga
unifyingbasisforacomposition'smelody,harmony,structural
progressions,andvariations.Othertypesofserialismalsoworkwithsets,collectionsofobjects,butnot
necessarilywithfixedorderseries,andextendthetechniquetoothermusicaldimensions(oftencalled
"parameters"),suchasduration,dynamics,andtimbre.Theideaofserialismisalsoappliedinvarious
waysinthevisualarts,design,andarchitecture[93]
"Integralserialism"or"totalserialism"istheuseofseriesforaspectssuchasduration,dynamics,and
registeraswellaspitch.[94]Otherterms,usedespeciallyinEuropetodistinguishpostWorldWarII
serialmusicfromtwelvetonemusicanditsAmericanextensions,are"generalserialism"and"multiple
serialism".[95]
Musicalsettheoryprovidesconceptsforcategorizingmusicalobjectsanddescribingtheirrelationships.
ManyofthenotionswerefirstelaboratedbyHowardHanson(1960)inconnectionwithtonalmusic,and
thenmostlydevelopedinconnectionwithatonalmusicbytheoristssuchasAllenForte(1973),drawing
ontheworkintwelvetonetheoryofMiltonBabbitt.Theconceptsofsettheoryareverygeneralandcan
beappliedtotonalandatonalstylesinanyequallytemperedtuningsystem,andtosomeextentmore
generallythanthat.
Onebranchofmusicalsettheorydealswithcollections(setsandpermutations)ofpitchesandpitch
classes(pitchclasssettheory),whichmaybeorderedorunordered,andcanberelatedbymusical
operationssuchastransposition,inversion,andcomplementation.Themethodsofmusicalsettheoryare
sometimesappliedtotheanalysisofrhythmaswell.
Musicalsemiotics
Musicsemiology(semiotics)isthestudyofsignsastheypertain
tomusiconavarietyoflevels.FollowingRomanJakobson,Kofi
Agawuadoptstheideaofmusicalsemiosisbeingintroversiveor
extroversivethatis,musicalsignswithinatextandwithout.
"Topics,"orvariousmusicalconventions(suchashorncalls,
danceforms,andstyles),havebeentreatedsuggestivelyby
Agawu,amongothers.Thenotionofgestureisbeginningtoplay
alargeroleinmusicosemioticenquiry.
"Therearestrongargumentsthatmusicinhabitsa
semiologicalrealmwhich,onbothontogeneticand
phylogeneticlevels,hasdevelopmentalpriorityoververbal
language."[96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103]
WritersonmusicsemiologyincludeKofiAgawu(ontopical
theory,Schenkeriananalysis),RobertHatten(ontopic,gesture),
RaymondMonelle(ontopic,musicalmeaning),JeanJacques
SemioticianRomanJakobson.
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Nattiez(onintroversivetaxonomicanalysisandethnomusicologicalapplications),AnthonyNewcomb
(onnarrativity),andEeroTarasti(generallyconsideredthefounderofmusicalsemiotics).
RolandBarthes,himselfasemioticianandskilledamateurpianist,wroteaboutmusicinImageMusic
Text,TheResponsibilitiesofForm,andEiffelTower,thoughhedidnotconsidermusictobeasemiotic
system.
Signs,meaningsinmusic,happenessentiallythroughtheconnotationsofsounds,andthroughthesocial
construction,appropriationandamplificationofcertainmeaningsassociatedwiththeseconnotations.
TheworkofPhilipTagg(TenLittleTunes,FernandotheFlute,MusicsMeanings)providesoneofthe
mostcompleteandsystematicanalysisoftherelationbetweenmusicalstructuresandconnotationsin
westernandespeciallypopular,televisionandfilmmusic.TheworkofLeonardMeyerinStyleand
Musictheorizestherelationshipbetweenideologiesandmusicalstructuresandthephenomenaofstyle
change,andfocusesonromanticismasacasestudy.
Musicsubjects
Notation
Musicalnotationisthewrittenorsymbolizedrepresentationof
music.Thisismostoftenachievedbytheuseofcommonly
understoodgraphicsymbolsandwrittenverbalinstructionsand
theirabbreviations.Therearemanysystemsofmusicnotation
Tibetanmusicalscorefromthe19th
fromdifferentculturesanddifferentages.TraditionalWestern
century.
notationevolvedduringtheMiddleAgesandremainsanareaof
experimentationandinnovation.[104]Inthe2000s,computerfile
formatshavebecomeimportantaswell.[105]Spokenlanguageandhandsignsarealsousedto
symbolicallyrepresentmusic,primarilyinteaching.
InstandardWesternmusicnotation,tonesarerepresentedgraphicallybysymbols(notes)placedona
stafforstaves,theverticalaxiscorrespondingtopitchandthehorizontalaxiscorrespondingtotime.
Noteheadshapes,stems,flags,tiesanddotsareusedtoindicateduration.Additionalsymbolsindicate
keys,dynamics,accents,rests,etc.Verbalinstructionsfromtheconductorareoftenusedtoindicate
tempo,technique,andotheraspects.
InWesternmusic,arangeofdifferentmusicnotationsystemsareused.InWesternClassicalmusic,
conductorsuseprintedscoresthatshowalloftheinstruments'partsandorchestramembersreadparts
withtheirmusicallineswrittenout.Inpopularstylesofmusic,muchlessofthemusicmaybenotated.
Arockbandmaygointoarecordingsessionwithjustahandwrittenchordchartindicatingthesong's
chordprogressionusingchordnames(e.g.,Cmajor,Dminor,G7,etc.).Allofthechordvoicings,
rhythmsandaccompanimentfiguresareimprovisedbythebandmembers.
Educationandcareers
Thereareadvertisementsforuniversitymusictheoryprofessorshipsfromthe2010sattheUniversityat
BuffalointheU.S.andWesternUniversityinCanadathatrequireaPh.Dinmusictheory.[106][107]In
the1960sand1970s,somemusictheoristsobtainedprofessorpositionswithanM.A.astheirhighest
degree,butinthe2010s,thePh.Disthestandardminimumcredentialfortenuretrackprofessor
positions.Adjunctandnontenuretrackinstructorpositions,suchastheoneadvertisedin2011atSt
JosephsUniversityinPhiladelphia,mayrequireonlyamaster'sdegree(whilepreferringaPhD).[108]
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Otherdoctoraldegreesaresometimesaccepted,especiallyinthe
caseofpositionsdividedbetweentheoryandappliedsubjects
(performanceorcomposition),whereaD.M.A.istheusual
terminaldegree.Sometimes,asinapositionadvertisedatthe
CollegeofWilliamandMary,"equivalentprofessional
experienceincomposition"maybeacceptedinlieuofa
doctorate.[109]Aspartoftheirinitialtraining,musictheorists
willtypicallycompleteaB.MusoraB.A.inmusic(orarelated
field)andinmanycasesanM.A.inmusictheory.Some
individualsapplydirectlyfromabachelor'sdegreetoaPh.D,and
inthesecases,theymaynotreceiveanM.A.Inthe2010s,given
theincreasinglyinterdisciplinarynatureofuniversitygraduate
programs,someapplicantsformusictheoryPh.Dprogramsmay
haveacademictrainingbothinmusicandoutsideofmusic(e.g.,
astudentmayapplywithaB.MusandaMastersinMusic
CompositionorPhilosophyofMusic).
ColumbiaUniversitymusictheorist
PatCarpenterina2013photo.
Mostmusictheoristsworkasinstructors,lecturersorprofessorsincolleges,universitiesor
conservatories.Thejobmarketfortenuretrackprofessorpositionsisverycompetitive.Applicantsmust
holdacompletedPh.Dortheequivalentdegree(orexpecttoreceiveonewithinayearofbeinghired
calledan"ABD",for"AllButDissertation"stage)and(formoreseniorpositions)haveastrongrecord
ofpublishinginpeerreviewedjournals.SomePh.Dholdingmusictheoristsareonlyabletofind
insecurepositionsassessionallecturers.Thejobtasksofamusictheoristarethesameasthoseofa
professorinanyotherhumanitiesdiscipline:teachingundergraduateand/orgraduateclassesinthisarea
ofspecializationand,inmanycasessomegeneralcourses(suchasMusicAppreciationorIntroduction
toMusicTheory),conductingresearchinthisareaofexpertise,publishingresearcharticlesinpeer
reviewedjournals,authoringbookchapters,booksortextbooks,travelingtoconferencestopresent
papersandlearnaboutresearchinthefield,and,iftheprogramincludesagraduateschool,supervising
M.A.andPh.Dstudentsandgivingthemguidanceonthepreparationoftheirthesesanddissertations.
Somemusictheoryprofessorsmaytakeonsenioradministrativepositionsintheirinstitution,suchas
DeanorChairoftheSchoolofMusic.
Seealso
Pitch(psychophysics)
APMusicTheory
Theoryofpainting
Musicology
Listofmusictheorists
Musicpsychology
Notes
1.OED2005.
2.PaliscaandBentn.d.,Theory,theorists.1.Definitions.
3.Latham2002,1517.
4.Mirelman2010Mirelman2013
5.Wulstan1968Kmmel1970AnneD.Kilmer,"TheDiscoveryofanAncientMesopotamianTheoryof
Music",ProceedingsoftheAmericalPhilosophicalSociety115/2,1971,pp.131149.
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6.AnneKilmerandSamMirelman."Mesopotamia.8.Theoryandpractice",GroveMusicOnline.Oxford
MusicOnline.OxfordUniversityPress,accessedNovember13,2015,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/18485.
7.JosephS.C.Lam,"China.",II,"HistoryandTheory",GroveMusicOnline.OxfordMusicOnline.Oxford
UniversityPress,accessedNovember15,2015,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/43141pg2.
8.RobertBagley,"ThePrehistoryofChineseMusicTheory",ProceedingsoftheBritishAcademy131,2004
(Lectures),pp.4190.
9.Service2013.
10.Crease2011,4041.
11.WuandWu2014,4142.
UniversityPress,accessedNovember15,2015,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/43141pg2.
13.TheNyastra,ATreatiseonHinduDramaturgyandHistrionics,attributedtoBharataMuni,translated
fromtheSanskritwithintroductionandnotesbyManomohanGhosh,vol.II,Calcutta,TheAsiaticSociety,
1961.Seeparticularlypp.519oftheIntroduction,TheAncientIndianTheoryandPracticeofMusic.
14.ThomasJ.Mathiesen,"GreekMusicTheory",TheCambridgeHistoryofWesternMusicTheory,Th.
Christensened.,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2002,pp.112113.
15.EnglishtranslationinAndrewBarker,GreekMusicalWritings,vol.2:HarmonicandAcousticTheory,
Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,1989,pp.191208.
UniversityPress,http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/43141pg2.
17.SeetheListofmedievalmusictheorists,whichincludesseveralArabictheoristsseealsod'Erlanger1930
56,1:xvxxiv.
18.Manik1969,2433.
19.Wright2001aWright2001bManik1969,2224.
20.Rodolphed'Erlanger,LaMusiquearabe,vol.I,pp.1306vol.II,pp.1101.
21.d'Erlanger193056,2:103245.
22.Shiloah1964.
23.d'Erlanger193056,3:1182.
24.Anon.LXIIinAmnonShiloah,TheTheoryofMusicinArabicWritings(c.9001900):DescriptiveCatalogue
ofManuscriptsinLibrariesofEuropeandtheU.S.A.,RISM,Mnchen,G.HenleVerlag,1979.See
d'Erlanger193056,3:183566
25.Ghrab2009.
26.Kubik2010,passim.
27.Ekwueme1974,passim.
28.PaliscaandBentn.d..
29.Hartmann2005,.
30.LloydandBoyle1978,142.
31.Benade1960,31.
32.Stevens,Volkmann,andNewman1937,185Josephs1967,5354.
33.Olson1967,24851Houtsma1995,269.
34.DespopoulosandSilbernagl2003,362.
35.Naven.d..
36.BartletteandLaitz2010,.
37.Cavanagh1999.
38.Touma1996,.
39.Touma1996,.
40.Forsyth1935,7374.
41.Latham2002,.
42.Latham2002,.
43.Kliewer1975,.
44.Stein1979,347.
45.BenwardandSaker2003,67,359.
46.Krolyi1965,63.
47.Mitchell2008.
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48.Linkelsn.d.,.
49.Malm1996,15.
50.Schoenberg1983,12.
51.BenwardandSaker2003,77.
52.Dahlhaus2009.
53.Jamini2005,147.
54.McAdamsandBregman1979,.
55.Mannelln.d..
56.BenwardandSaker2003,p.133.
57.BenwardandSaker2003,.
58.IsaacandRussell2003,136.
59.http://www.britannica.com/art/canonmusic
60.SchmidtJones2011.
61.Brandt2007.
62.Scholes1977.
63.Middleton1999,.
64.Bent1987,6.
65.QuotedinBernard1981,1
66.SchenkerdescribedtheconceptinapapertitledErluterungen("Elucidations"),whichhepublishedfour
timesbetween1924and1926:DerTonwillevol.89,pp.4951,vol.10,pp.402DasMeisterwerkinder
Musik,vol.1,pp.201052,p.19397.Englishtranslation,DerTonwille,vol.2,p.11718(thetranslation,
althoughmadefromvols.89oftheGermanoriginal,givesasoriginalpaginationthatofDasMeisterwerk1
thetextisthesame).TheconceptoftonalspaceisstillpresentinSchenker(n.d.,especially13),butless
clearlythanintheearlierpresentation.
67.Schenkern.d.,21.
68.Snarrenberg1997,.
69.Lewin1987,159.
70.Bregman,Albert(1994).AuditorySceneAnalysis:ThePerceptualOrganizationofSound,p.76.ISBN0262
521954.
71.Tan,Peter,andRom2010,2.
72.Thompsonn.d.,320.
73.Londonn.d..
74.Avison1752,.
75.Christiani1885,.
76.Lussy1892,.
77.Darwin1913,.
78.Sorantin1932,.
79.Davies1994,.
80.Samsonn.d..
81.Wong2011.
82.Green1979,1.
83.vanderMerwe1989,3.
84.Moore2001,.
85.Laurie2014,.
86.Kivy1993,327.
87.SmithBrindle1987,4243.
88.SmithBrindle1987,chapter6,passim.
89.GarlandandKahn1995,.
90.SmithBrindle1987,42.
91.Purwins2005,2224.
92.Wohl2005.
93.Bandur2001,5,12,74Gerstner1964,passim
94.Whittall2008,273.
95.Grant2001,56.
96.Middleton1990,172.
97.Nattiez1976.
98.Nattiez1990.
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99.Nattiez1989.
100.Stefani1973.
101.Stefani1976.
102.Baroni1983.
103.Semiotica1987,66:13.
104.Read1969,Stone1980,.
105.Castan2009.
106.Anon.2014.
107.Hung2012.
108.Anon.2011.
109.Anon.2015.
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Apel,Willi,andRalphT.Daniel(1960).TheHarvardBriefDictionaryofMusic.NewYork:Simon&
SchusterInc.ISBN0671737473
Baur,John(2014).PracticalMusicTheory.Dubuque:KendallHuntPublishingCompany.ISBN9781
465217905
Benward,Bruce,BarbaraGarveyJackson,andBruceR.Jackson.(2000).PracticalBeginningTheory:A
FundamentalsWorktext,8thedition,Boston:McGrawHill.ISBN0697343979.[Firstedition1963]
Brown,JamesMurray(1967).AHandbookofMusicalKnowledge,2vols.London:TrinityCollegeofMusic.
Chase,Wayne(2006).HowMusicREALLYWorks!,secondedition.Vancouver,Canada:RoedyBlack
Publishing.ISBN1897311559(book).
Dunbar,Brian(2010).PracticalMusicTheory:AGuidetoMusicasArt,Language,andLife.Rochester,
Minn.,USA:FactumMusicae.ISBN9780578062471.
28/29
1/28/2016
Hewitt,Michael(2008).MusicTheoryforComputerMusicians.USA:CengageLearning.ISBN9781
598635034.
Lawn,RichardJ.,andJeffreyL.Hellmer(1996).JazzTheoryandPractice.[N.p.]:AlfredPublishingCo.
ISBN0882847228.
Mazzola,Guerino(1985).GruppenundKategorieninderMusik:Entwurfeinermathematischen
Musiktheorie.Heldermann.ISBN9783885382102.Retrieved26February2012.
Mazzola,GuerinoDanielMuzzulini(1990).GeometriederTne:Elementedermathematischen
Musiktheorie.Birkhuser.ISBN9783764323530.Retrieved26February2012.
Mazzola,Guerino,StefanGller,andStefanMller(2002).TheToposofMusic:GeometricLogicof
Concepts,Theory,andPerformance,Vol.1.Basel,Boston,andBerlin:Birkhuser.ISBN978376435731
3.(Basel).ISBN9780817657314(Boston).Retrieved26February2012.
Olson,HarryF.(1967).Music,PhysicsandEngineering.NewYork:DoverPublications.ISBN0486
217698.
Miguel,RoigFrancoli(2011).HarmonyinContext,Secondedition,McGrawHillHigherEducation.ISBN
0073137944.
Mirelman,Sam,andTheoKrispijn(2009)."TheOldBabylonianTuningTextUETVI/3899".Iraq71:43
52.
Owen,Harold(2000).MusicTheoryResourceBook.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0195115392.
Seashore,Carl(1933).ApproachestotheScienceofMusicandSpeech.IowaCity:TheUniversity.
Seashore,Carl(1938).PsychologyofMusic(http://books.google.com/books?
id=p9gUknYfpjYC&printsec=frontcover).NewYork,London:McGrawHillBookCompany,Inc.
Sorce,Richard(1995).MusicTheoryfortheMusicProfessional.[N.p.]:ArdsleyHouse.ISBN188015720
9.
Taruskin,Richard(2009)."MusicfromtheEarliestNotationstotheSixteenthCentury:TheOxfordHistory
ofWesternMusic."OxfordUniversityPressISBN0195384814.
Taylor,Eric(1989).ABGuidetoMusicTheory,Part1.London:AssociatedBoardoftheRoyalSchoolsof
Music.ISBN1854724460.
Taylor,Eric(1991).ABGuidetoMusicTheory,Part2.London:AssociatedBoardoftheRoyalSchoolsof
Music.ISBN1854724479.
Yamaguchi,Masaya(2006).TheCompleteThesaurusofMusicalScales,revisededition.NewYork:Masaya
MusicServices.ISBN0967635306.
Externallinks
Dillen,Oscarvan,Outlineofbasicmusictheory
Wikibookshasmoreon
thetopicof:Musictheory
(http://www.oscarvandillen.com/Outline_of_basic_music_theory)(2011)
http://www.musictheoryhelp.co.uk
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/music/musicbasicsnotesrhythmmusic
http://www.musictheoryis.com
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Music_theory&oldid=701181248"
Categories: Musictheory Musichistory Music
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