June 26, 2014

Fundamentals of Radiation Protection:

Sources, Limits, Detectors, Shielding

Brent Stewart, PhD, DABMP

Professor

David Zamora, MS, DABR

Medical Physicist

University of Washington Medical Center, Department of Radiology

Diagnostic Imaging Section
A copy of this lecture is available at:
http://courses.washington.edu/radxphys/

Outline
BriefReview
RadiationMonitoring
Agencies(Regulatoryvs.Advisory)
RadiationSources/AnnualDose
DoseLimits

RadiationDetectors
Overview
PersonnelMonitors
Collar/RingBadgeandAppropriateUsage

Meters
GasFilledChambers
IonChambers
GeigerMullerTubes

ScintillationDetectors

ShieldingDesignProcess
UWandDavidZamora,MS

Interactions BigPicture

2+ AlphaParticle

Heavy

p+ Proton

Coulombic Interactions

Charged
Particle

Light

Electron

+ Positron
UnCharged
no Neutron

Fast
Intermediate
Thermal

Compton
Scattering

Excitation
Ionization
CharacteristicXrays
AugerElectrons

B)Radiative Losses
Bremsstrahlung

GammaRay

IN:photon+targetoutershelle
OUT:scatteredphoton+ejectede
Energysharedb/wphoton/e
WeakZdependence@Ediagnostic

Originatefromnucleus

ImageFormation

Xray
Originatefromelectron
interactions/states

Photoelectric
Effect

PairProduction
UWandDavidZamora,MS

A)CollisionalLosses

Rayleigh
Scattering

INTERACTIONS

Photon

XrayProduction

IN:photon+targetinnershelle
OUT:ejectede (photoelectron)
OUT:characteristicxrayorAugere
Z3/E3 dependence
IncidentEphoton mustbe>BEelec

DoseTerminologyWorkflow:
Exposure chargecollectedpermassair
(roentgensorCoulombs/kg)

AirKERMA

KERMA kineticenergyreleasedinmatter
AbsorbedDose energydepositedpermassofmaterial
(gray J/kg)
*WEIGHTBY
RADIATIONTYPE

EquivalentDose
(sievert J/kg)
*WEIGHTBY
TISSUETYPE

EffectiveDose
(sievert J/kg)
APPLICATIONS:StochasticRisk,RadiationProtection,
RadiationSafety,ModalityComparison

RadiationRiskEstimation
UWandDavidZamora,MS

RADIATION MONITORING

(i.e.theyhavepower)

Regulatory

Radiation Monitoring

Advisory

MeetsorexceedsNRCregulations
i.e.WashingtonAdministrativeCode
(WAC246225XraysinHealingArts)

Oversightofmanufactureanddistributionofmedicalmaterials(Rad /Fluoro /Mammo /CT/NM

radionuclides /pharmaceuticals)andoverresearchstudies

Performinspectionstosafeguardnuclearmatl /nuclearmatl safety

Publishradn protectionpracticesandradiologicmeasurements

ReportsfromNCRPdefinethe
processusedtocalculate
shieldingdesign(amountof
lead/concreteinwallsforsafety)

NAS (NationalAcademyofSciences)

NCRP (NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements)
ICRP (InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection)

AgreementState(TheState)

IAEA (InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency) charteredbyUN(UnitedNations)

Protectenvironment/publicfromradn (limits)
Licensesuseofradiationandradioactivematls

FDA (USFoodandDrugAdministration)

(i.e.theyrecommend)

NRC (NuclearRegulatoryCommission)

Regulatoryvs.Advisory

Privatesocietyofscientiststhatadvisesgovt BEIRVII(BiologicalEffectsofIonizingRadiation),usedto
assessRISKfromradiationdose

ICRU (InternationalCommissiononRadiationUnitsandMeasurement)

Standardsonradiationunitsandterminology

UWandDavidZamora,MS

Radiation Monitoring

AnnualDose

Terrestrial: LonglivedisotopespresentsinceEarthsformation,foundinsoiland
rocks(U235/U238/Ne237/Th232)
Radon: Radongas(anditsdecayproducts) realdangerisinhalationofdecay
products,whicharenotgaseous,butbecomeattachedtoaerosolswhichweinhale.
Mostlungdoseisfromshortliveddaughters(Po218andPo214,bothemitters).

Natural
(Background)
Radn Sources

Cosmic:Sunandstars/highelevation lessatmosphericprotection moredose

Internal: Ingested,absorbed,wound/cut,inhalation(Ex.K40inbanana)
ComputedTomography
Medical

NuclearMedicine
InterventionalFluoroscopy

ManMade

ConventionalRadiography/Fluoroscopy
Consumer

1Gy =100rad
1Sv =100rem

Industrial/Occupational

NCRPReport93(1987)

Redistributed

NCRPReport160(2009)

18%

CollectiveEffectiveDose[PersonSv]
Natural
82%

UWandDavidZamora,MS

ManMade

50%

50%

Annualeffectivedoseperindividualin
theUSPopulation[mSv]

Early1980s
835,000

2006
1,870,000

3.6

6.2

c.f.NCRPPressReport.MedicalRadiationExposuresoftheU.S.PopulationGreatlyIncreasedSincetheEarly1980s.3March2009

Radiation Monitoring

AnnualDose

MEDICAL

BKG

TIME

%AnnualEffectiveDose
(1987)

AnnualEffectiveDose in
1987 [mSv]

55%
8%
11%
8%

2.00
0.27
0.40
0.28

TIME

%AnnualEffectiveDose
(2009)

AnnualEffectiveDosein
2009[mSv]
2.30
0.34
0.28
0.19
1.50
0.43
0.33
0.80
0.12
<0.01
<0.01

RadonandThoron
Cosmic
Internal
Terrestrial
ComputedTomography
InterventionalFluoroscopy
ConventionalRad/Fluoro
NuclearMedicine
Consumer
Occupational

11%

0.39

4%
3%
0.1%

0.14
0.07
<0.01

37%
5%
5%
3%
24%
7%
5%
12%
2%
<0.1%

Industrial

0.1%

<0.01

<0.1%

3.0mSv vs.3.1mSv
0.5mSv vs.3.0mSv
(6XMore)

3.6mSv vs.6.2mSv AnnualEffectiveDose

UWandDavidZamora,MS

c.f.NCRPPressReport.MedicalRadiationExposuresoftheU.S.PopulationGreatlyIncreasedSincetheEarly1980s.3March2009[Adapted]

Radiation Monitoring

AnnualDose

IfyouneedfurtherconvincingthatCTis,inlargepart,theculpritbehindtheincreasein
medicalradiation,NCRPRpt160offersthebelowtable.Youcanseethatbothcollective
doseandpercapitadoseishighestfromCT,thoughitisnotthemostnumerous
proceduretype.

# Procedures
(millions)

Collective Dose
(Person-Sv)

Per Capita
(mSv)

Computed
Tomography

67a

17

440,000

49

1.50

Nuclear Medicine

18

231,000

26

0.80

Radiography &
Fluoroscopyb

293

74

100,000

11

0.30

Interventional

17

128,000

14

0.40

Modalities

Total

UWandDavidZamora,MS

~395

c.f.NCRPReport#160.March2009.

899,000

~3.0

Radiation Monitoring

DoseLimits

Bushberg Table 23-18. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Regulatory Requirements:

Maximum Permissible Dose Equivalent Limitsa
Maximum Possible Annual Dose Limit

Limits

mSv

rem

Total effective dose equivalent (ED)

50

Total dose equivalent to any individual organ

(except lens of eye)

500

50

Dose equivalent to the lens of the eye

150

15

Dose equivalent to the skin or any extremity

500

50

10% of adult limit

10% of adult limit

5 in 9 months

0.5 in 9 months

1.0 per yr

0.1 per yr

0.02 in any 1 hrc

0.002 in any 1 hrc

Occupational Limits

Minor (< 18 years old)

Dose to an embryo/fetusb
Non-occupational (Public) Limits
Individual members of the public
Unrestricted area
a

Theselimitsareexclusiveofnaturalbackgroundandanydosetheindividualhasreceivedformedicalpurposes;inclusiveofinternalcommitteddoseequivalent&
externaleffectivedoseequivalent(i.e.,totaleffectivedoseequivalent).
b Appliesonlytoconceptus ofaworkerwhodeclaresherpregnancy.Ifthelimitexceeds4.5mSv (450mrem)atdeclaration,conceptus doseforremainderof
gestationisnottoexceed0.5mSv (50mrem).
c Thismeansthedosetoanarea(irrespectiveofoccupancy)shallnotexceed0.02mSv (2mrem)inany1hour.Thisisnotarestrictionofinstantaneousdoserateto
0.02mSv perhour(2mrem perhour).

UWandDavidZamora,MS

10

Therecommendedweeklyeffectivedoselimitpermittedfor
radiologistsundercurrentregulationsis:
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

10mSv
50mSv
100mSv
0.5mSv
1mSv

Payattentiontothedetail,thesearejustmemorizationquestions.Welearnedthatthe
YEARLYannualeffectivedoselimitforoccupationalworkersis50mSv/yearassume50wks
peryear(theydothisalot),andtheweeklyeffectivedoselimitis1mSv/wk.

Respons
e
Counter

NCRPReport160suggeststhattheaverageannualeffective
dosereceivedpercapitaintheUnitedStatesis:
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

3.6mSv
50mSv
6.2mSv
0.1mSv
1mSv

Recallthatthemostrecentreportsuggestsannualpercapitaeffectivedoseis6.2mSv.The
oldreportpeggeditat3.6mSv,withtheincreasecausedprimarilybymedicalusageof
radiation.

Respons
e
Counter

Thecontributionofbackgroundornaturalradiationtothe
percapitayearlyeffectivedoseasreportedbyNCRPRpts 93
and160has,overtime,mostnearly:
0%
0%
0%

A. Decreased
B. Stayedthesame
C. Increased

Backgroundeffectivedosehasapproximatelystayedthesameovertime,at~3mSv/yr

Respons
e
Counter

RADIATION DETECTORS

Detectors

GlobalPerspective
Film(oldmethod)
FilmBadge

Personnel
Monitors

OpticallyStimulatedLuminescence(OSL)
RingBadge Thermoluminescent Dosimeter(TLD)

PassiveDetectors:
informationstored
andreadoutlater

Radn
Detectors
IonChamber(electrometerandsurveymeters)
GasFilled

GeigerMller (pancakeandendwindow)
ProportionalCounter

Meters
Scintillator

NaI SurveyMeter

ActiveDetectors:
Effectivelyrealtime
feedback

ThyroidUptakeProbe

SemiConductor purecrystalswithtraceimpurities,actlikediodes

Wellkeeplearningaboutdetectorsthroughoutthecourse,startlearningthedifference
betweenactive/passiveradiationdetectors,andstartpayingattentiontoclassification
thiswillbehelpfullaterwhenwelearnaboutappropriateusesandbenefits/deficiencies
ofeachdetector.
UWandDavidZamora,MS

15

Detectors

WHY:
WHO:

Film Badge

PersonnelMonitors:FilmBadge

To ensure compliance with regulatory limits on occupational dose

Anyone expected to receive 10% of annual occupational dose limit

OLD WAY:
NEW WAY:

Film w/ filter overlay Higher Optical Density (darkening) Higher Dose

Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) w/ filter overlay

1.

The OSL material (Al2O3:C), when exposed to radiation, has electrons trapped between valence and conduction band

2.

We release the trapped electrons (some) back to the conduction band via exposure to LED or laser light

3.

This transfer between bands releases light at a different part of the spectrum

4.

We convert the emitted light to an electrical signal with a photomultiplier tube (PMT) More Signal Higher Dose

EnergyRange
photon:5keV to>40MeV
beta:150keV to>10MeV
DoseMeasurementRange
photon:0.01mSv to10Sv
beta:0.1mSv to10Sv

ThisistheOSLmaterial

Filterallowsustodifferentiate
betweenenergiesofradiation(i.e.
betaforshallowdose)

Packaginghelpskeepoutthe
elements:moisture,heat,light
UWandDavidZamora,MS

http://www.landauer.com/uploadedFiles/Healthcare_and_Education/Products/Dosimeters/LuxelSpecifications.enUS.pdf

16

Detectors

PersonnelMonitors:RingBadge

Ring Badge

PROPER USAGE:

Wear ring on the dominant hand or the one that you believe would receive the higher radiation dose, and be
consistent
The label for your name should face inward toward your palm (i.e. toward source when holding it)

READOUT PROCESS (TLD Thermoluminescent Dosimeter):

1.

Expose the TLD (LiF, normally), electrons become trapped just like in OSL

2.

During readout, heat the TLD, electrons are released and light is given off, which we detect

3.

NOTE: this process is destructive, you can only read a TLD once with OSL, it can be read multiple times.
TLD is much more sensitive to heat and moisture, keep the ambient conditions as controlled as you can.

EnergyRange
photon:>15keV
beta:>200keVAVG

DoseMeasurementRange
photon:0.3mSv to10Sv
beta:0.4mSv to10Sv

UWandDavidZamora,MS

http://www.landauer.com/uploadedFiles/Healthcare_and_Education/Products/Dosimeters/RingSpecifications.enUS.pdf

17

Detectors

GasFilledChambers

For gas-filled chambers, the general process is:

1) IONIZATION:

Incident photon knocks out air orbital e-, leaving a free e- and a positively charged ion
We create these ion pairs at the expense of energy (34 eV per ion pair created)

2) COLLECTION:

We apply an electric field, e- are drawn to the <+> anode and positive ions are drawn to the <->
cathode

The amount of charge we collect is analogous to the amount of exposure in a given measurement
(remember the unit Roentgen? 1 R = 2.58x10-4 C/kg, where C is charge and kg refers to mass of air
in chamber)

2
1
2

UWandDavidZamora,MS

c.f.:S.R.Cherry,J.A.Sorenson&M.E.Phelps,PhysicsinNuclearMedicine,3rd Ed.,Philadelphia:Saunders,2003,Fig.71.

18

Detectors

Ion chambers are foundational to the practice of medical physics, they are used in
many situations:

Diagnostic Equipment Testing

Survey Meters (Larger volume Ion Chambers)

Match the ion chamber to the measurement situation

GasFilled:IonChambers

Pencil ion chamber for CT

Pancake ion chamber for larger volume integrated exposure
Standard cylindrical ion chamber

Again, the amount of charge created within the chamber is related to the exposure
or exposure rate

CutiePie

Output:Exposure(R)orExposureRate(R/time)
UWandDavidZamora,MS

Output:ExposureRate(R/time)orDoseRate
(Sv/time,whencalibrated)

<Left,Dosimeter>http://www.radcal.com
<Right,Yellow>CourtesyofMDAndersonCancerCenterandRichardWendt,III,Ph.D.
<Right>http://www.orau.org/PTP/collection/surveymeters/nucchicago2586.htm

19

Detectors

GasFilled:GMMeter
GeigerMller Tubesworkinasimilarway,
ionizationsstilloccurinthegas
HOWEVER,weoperateatahigher
voltage,andweimpartenoughenergyto
thefreeelectronsthattheycanionize
otheratoms avalancheofelectrons
Wereadthiscollectionofavalanchesasa
pulse,mainoutputiscountsperunittime
(cpm)
Weeffectivelyamplifythesignal,soaGM
counterisgoodformeasuringcounts,but
wecanoverwhelmit(i.e.paralyzable)

UWandDavidZamora,MS

S.R.Cherry,J.A.Sorenson&M.E.Phelps,PhysicsinNuclearMedicine,3rd Ed.,Philadelphia:Saunders,2003,Fig.78.

20

Detectors

GasFilled:GMMeter

EndwindowGM

PancakeGM

Output:Countsperunittime(cpm) with
calibrationwecanuseGMcounterasa
measureofexposurerate,thoughitispainful
(energydependenceanddetectorefficiency)

UWandDavidZamora,MS

c.f.:CourtesyofMDAndersonCancerCenterandRichardWendt,III,Ph.D.

21

Detectors
2)Photocathode
Lightphotonconverted
tophotoelectron
1)Scintillator
Photoninteractsinxtal,
lightpulsegivenoff

UWandDavidZamora,MS

ScintillationDetector

3)PhotomultiplierTube(PMT)
Photoelectronisaccelerated(viavoltagetoPMT),hitsseriesof
dynodes,liberatingmoreelectrons.Thisamplifiedsignalisread
out:moreradiation morelight moreelectrons moresignal

S.R.Cherry,J.A.Sorenson&M.E.Phelps,PhysicsinNuclearMedicine,3rd Ed.,Philadelphia:Saunders,2003,Fig.713.

22

Detectors

Questions

ACTIVEORPASSIVEDETECTOR?

GeigerMuller(GM)TubeSurveyMeter
TLD
CutiePie
NaI ScintillationDetector
Film
OSL
IonChamberSurveyMeter
IonChamberDosimetry System
ThyroidUptakeProbe

UWandDavidZamora,MS

23

Filmbadges(i.e.withactualfilm):
A. Canmeasureonlytotalradiation,andhavenoabilityto
discriminateenergy
B. Canmeasureadoseofupto100mSv
C. Areinsensitivetoheat
D. Usefilmdarkeningasametrictodeterminedose

0%
0%
0%
0%

Theopticaldensityofthefilmismeasuredtodeterminedose.Simplefiltersareusedto
differentiateradiationenergy,soa)isfalse.

Respons
e
Counter

ThebenefitsofOSLoverTLDinclude(s):
1)OSLreadoutisnondestructivetotheradiationmeasurement,butTLDcanonlybereadonce.
2)OSLusesheatduringreadout,whereasTLDonlyrequirestheusageoflight
3)OSLislesssensitivetoambienttemperatureconditions
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.

1
2
3
1,2
2,3
1,3
1,2,3

BothOSLandTLDarepassivedosimeters,OSLiscanbereadoutmultipletimesbylight
(LED),whereasTLDisdestructivelyreadoutbyheatingit.
Respons
e
Counter

RADIATION PROTECTION

Protection

GlobalPerspective

TIME
Minimizetheamountoftimethatyouspendinthepresenceofradiation
+
DISTANCE
Increaseyourphysicalseparationbetweensourcesofradiation(InverseSquareLaw)
+
SHIELDING
Positionyourselfsuchthatthereisshieldingbetweenyouandaradiationsource

ALARA Aslowasreasonablyachievable thisisaguidingprincipleinradiation

protectionthattakesintoaccountsocialandeconomicfactorsbereasonable,basically

UWandDavidZamora,MS

27

Protection

Sources

Beawareofwhereradiationcomesfrom:
Fromradiationequipment,eitherinprimary
beamorthroughleakagefromthehead
(shouldbe<100mR/hr@1m)
Fromthepatient,scatteredradiation

ThesituationcomplicatesinNuclearMedicine,
whereradiationismobileandlesspredictable.

UWandDavidZamora,MS

c.f.Bushberg,etal.TheEssentialPhysicsofMedicalImaging,2nd ed.,p760.

28

Protection

ShieldingCalculation

NCRPReport147 StructuralShieldingDesignforMedicalXrayImagingFacilities

FloorPlan

DefinePrimaryvs.
SecondaryBarriers

DesignGOAL(P)
ControlledArea:0.1mGy/wk
UncontrolledArea:0.02mGy/wk

Determine
System
Workload(W)

Define
Distances(d)

DetermineUse
Factors(U)

Determine
Occupancy
Factor(T)

Foragivenbarrier,wedeterminethethicknessofattenuating
materialtoreducedoseratetobelowthedesigngoal.
Primaryvs.Secondary iftubewilleverpointatabarrier,itisaprimarybarrier
Workload basedonpatientload,techniques(mGy/wk,mAmin/wk)
UseFactor indicatesfractionoftimeduringwhichtheradiationunderconsiderationispointedatabarrier
OccupancyFactor fractionoftimeduringweekthatanindividualmightspendinadjacentarea
Distances foragivenbarrier,wedefinedistancebetweensourceandbeyondbarrier
UWandDavidZamora,MS

29

Protection

ShieldingCalculation
North wall
Primary (x-table laterals) U = 0.09
Secondary U = 1
North wall: T = 1/5

West wall: U = 1
(primary and secondary)
West wall: T = 1/5 (1/20*)

Floor: U = 0.89 (primary), U =1 (secondary)

Ceiling: U = 1 (secondary only)

East wall: U = 1
(secondary only)
South wall: U = 1
(secondary only)

East wall: T = 1/2 (*1/5)

South wall: T = 1
Door: T = 1/8 (wood?)

UWandDavidZamora,MS

30

Protection

To give you an idea of what ballpark value to expect:

ShieldingCalculation

Mammo gypsum wallboard (remember, very low kV, low penetrating power)
General Radiography / Fluoro 1/32 to 1/16 of Lead
CT 1/16 or 1/8 of Lead, possibly beefed up concrete in floors/ceilings

Vendors may also supply contour maps of exposure values, use them to
identify where the safest place to stand during a procedure is:

In below map, birds-eye-view of CT scanner, with classic butterfly contour

Patient is the source of radiation via scatter, use the gantry to shield you during an
interventional procedure

Average mAs per slice = 100

UWandDavidZamora,MS

c.f.Bushberg,etal.TheEssentialPhysicsofMedicalImaging,2nd ed.,p770.[Modified]

31

c.f.PhilipsMedical.BVPulsera InstructionsforUse,Release2.1.

UWandDavidZamora,MS

32

Protection

RandomThoughts

Use the personal shielding equipment available to

you:
Lead aprons, thyroid shields
Personnel monitor outside of apron (conservative)
Dont leave them on the lead aprons, someone else will
pick it up and not notice

Leaded gloves:
There is some discord in this recommendation, they have
to be used properly

Mobile shields
Lead Drapes

UWandDavidZamora,MS

33

Forajanitorsclosetadjacenttoaradiographicroom,the
designgoal(P)forshieldingpurposesis:
0%
0%
0%
0%

A.
B.
C.
D.

50mSv/yr
1mSv/wk
0.02mSv/wk
0.1mSv/wk

Aclosetisanuncontrolledarea,thusthelimitis0.02mSv/wk.Generally,mostareasare
uncontrolled,oneexceptionbeingconsoleareas consolesconsistofradiationworkerswho
areawareofotherindividualsinthearea,soyoucouldusethemetricof0.1mSv/wk inthat
case.

Respons
e
Counter

Assumetherearenorestrictionstothedirectioninwhichthe
xraytubecanpoint.Whichofthefollowingistrue:

0%
0%
0%

A. Allbarriersmustbeconsideredprimarybarriers
B. Theoccupancyfactors(T)ofthesurroundingareas
mustbeconsidered1
C. Workload(W)ofthesystemwillincreasebecauseof
thisflexibility
D. Becauseofthesystemmobility,thedesigngoal(P)is
0.02mSv/wk

0%
Anybarrierthatcanbehitbytheprimarybeamisconsideredaprimarybarrier.Occupancy
factorsdonthaveanythingtodowithinterior,itjustrelatestohowmuchtimeisspentby
anindividualinsurroundingareas.Ididnotimplythatworkloadchanged(i.e.howmuchit
isused),onlythatitcanturnanywhere.Designgoalisrelatedtocontrolled(radiation
workersonly)vs.uncontrolledarea.

Respons
e
Counter

Main Points
Regulatoryvs.AdvisoryAgencies
AverageDosevs.DoseLimits
RadiationDetectors
Activevs.Passive
TLDvs.OSL
Basicoperationofvariousradiationdetectors

Time+Distance+Shielding
ShieldingDesignGoalsandCalculation

UWandDavidZamora,MS

36