FTC ATG Notes & Questions

ATP
TECHNICAL & GENERAL
ATP Technical & General

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FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

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INDEX
ATP TECHNICAL & GENERAL
1. Revision
2. Transonic Aerodynamics
3. Turbine Engines
4. Turbofans
5. Turboprops
6. Electrics
7. Cabin Pressurization
Annex A
Annex B
01
33
75
131
133
141
225
Sample Exams
Answers to Questions
281
293
This book should be used in conjunction with the

CPL ATG book, also another good reference is the
book titled The Jet Engine by Rolls Royce.
Copyright 2001 Flight Training College of Africa

All Rights Reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced in any manner
whatsoever including electronic, photographic, photocopying, facsimile, or stored in a
retrieval system, without the prior permission of Flight Training College of Africa.

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CHAPTER 1
REVISION
The Atmosphere
The properties of the atmosphere are very important to those of us who operate aircraft with
fixed or rotary wings, (i.e. aeroplanes or helicopters), and powered by air-breathing engines.
The performance (efficiency) of the wing and engine is dependent on various parameters
(such as pressure, density and temperature), of the atmosphere at the operating altitude.
In general terms the atmosphere is made up of four concentric gaseous layers extending up
to some 2,500,000 ft.
Troposphere extends from the sea level up to the tropopause. The tropopause is
not at a constant height, but varies from 20,000 ft to about 60,000 ft depending on
latitude. At higher latitudes (poles) the tropopause is lower.
Stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to about 120,000 ft. The main
characteristic of the stratosphere is constant temperature (isothermal), with the
increasing altitude. The upper level of the stratosphere is the normally accepted limit
of conventional air breathing engines.
Mesosphere extends up to 300,000 ft. The upper level of the mesosphere
represents the design altitude of the X-15 high-altitude rocket powered research
aircraft.
Thermosphere extends out to about 400500 nm. The thermosphere is the outer
layer of the atmosphere, where temperature increases significantly.
The above layers of the atmosphere are the main accepted method of describing various
divisions of the gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth, however from time to time
scientists define other spheres within the four listed above to specify a particular
phenomenon or characteristic. The ionosphere is an important example:
Ionosphere extends from about 200,000 ft to 1,250,000 ft and defines the zone
within the mesosphere/thermosphere, which contains significant ionization (presence
of charged particles). The varying intensity of the ionosphere affects the passage of
electromagnetic transmissions, both natural and man-made.

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Characteristics of the Atmosphere

Pressure
The atmospheric static pressure is mainly a function of the amount of air that is pressing
down under the effect of gravity on a given molecule of air at a given altitude. When
considering a column of air with a footprint at sea level of one square foot, the total weight of
that column is just under 1,000 kg (over 2,000 lb). Since air is a fluid it is compressible, and
consequently the majority of air tends to squash itself into the lower part of the atmosphere
under the effect of gravity. Therefore, the majority of air is contained within the troposphere.
At sea level, the standard atmospheric pressure is 1013.25hPa, and that pressure reduces
steadily as altitude is increased. The rate of reduction of pressure is less as altitude increases
since the amount of compression of air (i.e. the weight of air) is greatest at sea level and
decreases with altitude. The static pressure at the tropopause is about 23% of that at sea
level and above the tropopause, the pressure rapidly approaches a vacuum.
Temperature
Temperature is really a means of measuring the amount of thermal energy present in a given
object or volume of fluid. In air, temperature is an indication of the activity of individual
molecules of air and as such is affected by the distance between molecules (mass per unit
volume or density). At sea level, the molecules of air are very close (high density) and some
of the heat present in a given molecule of air is readily transferred to another body because of
the very large number of molecules in a given volume that can do the same. Thats why we
feel hot when we open the door on the tarmac Nairobi!

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As long as the density of air is of a reasonably high value the temperature we feel in a given
parcel of air (by means of heat transfer one way or the other) is a fair indication of the
temperature of individual air molecules. At high altitudes however, density decreases
significantly and so the ability of a given volume of air to transfer or receive heat is very
different. Notice that in the thermosphere individual molecule temperature increases
dramatically but because there are not many molecules present, the ability of a given volume
of air (say, that taken up by a space shuttle) to transfer that heat is minimal.
It is important to understand this concept so that the temperatures shown above and below
are taken in the correct context. Because of the changing density of air with altitude, it is only
possible to record the molecule temperature. The only other way to graph heat against
altitude would be show the amount of heat energy present in a specified volume. A graph
made up for the space shuttle wouldnt be much good if you later got a command on the
Starship Enterprise.
The ICAO standard atmosphere defines a sea level temperature of +15C, which decreases at
a standard lapse rate of 1.98C per 1,000 ft or 6.5 per 1,000 metres up to the tropopause
where it is considered to be 56.5C at an altitude of 36,090 ft. This temperature is then
constant (in the theoretical standard atmosphere at least!) for most of the stratosphere.
Performance tables for foreign aircraft are sometimes calculated against Fahrenheit. To
convert F to C subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9. To convert C to F, multiply by 9/5 and then
add 32.
Density
The concept of density has been discussed in the paragraphs under temperature. Density, or
mass per unit volume is normally indicated by the Greek letter rho () and has a defined
value of 1.225 kg per cubic metre at sea level in the standard atmosphere. The relative
density column above shows the density at a given altitude as a percentage of the sea level
value and is useful in understanding the varying thickness of the air at various altitudes.

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Density is affected by a number of variables, the main two being temperature and pressure.
Humidity, or the presence of water vapour also affects the density of air since water vapour
itself is less dense than standard air (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and a few
other trace elements).
Pure water vapour has a density of 0760 kg per cubic metre as against 1.225 for standard dry
air. Consequently, air that contains water vapour is less dense than dry air at the same
temperature. For a given mass of gas, there is a fundamental relationship between
temperature, pressure and density, which can be expressed as follows:
p
T
constant (for that particular gas)
where p = pressure in hPa, T = temperature absolute (K) and = density

NOTE:
Absolute temperature is based on a zero value of 273.15C, so that 15C = 288K
Composition of the Atmosphere
Dry air is a mixture of many gases, of which nitrogen and oxygen are the most abundant. It
has the following composition, with traces of other gases including helium, hydrogen and
ozone.
Aerodynamic Force
When a body is moved through the air it experiences a resultant force as a reaction to that
motion. The familiar terms of lift and drag are simply parts or components of that force and for
the ease of understanding are considered to be at right angles and parallel to the direction of
flight respectively.
In conventional aerodynamics the changing pressure distribution around an aerofoil (wing) is
the best way to understand the way in which this force is produced. The relevant theories are
called the Equation of Continuity and Bernoullis Theorem.

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The pattern of the airflow around an aircraft at low to moderate speeds

depends on:
shape of aircraft;
attitude (angle) to the undisturbed airflow;
size of aircraft
density of air; and
viscosity of air.
The last three factors together make up Reynolds number (R) which will be discussed later in
this chapter.
Equation of continuity
The equation of continuity states that mass of a fluid cannot be created or destroyed, and that
when considering the flow of a given mass of air through varying sized openings:
Air mass flow is a constant.
When considering the flow of air through a venturi tube, the air mass flow will be the product
of cross-sectional area (A), flow velocity (V) and density (p). This product is constant at all
points along the tube:
AV = constant
At low speeds (i.e. below Mach 04 where pressure changes are so small as to be considered
negligible) density will not vary as a function of flow velocity. At these speeds, the equation of
continuity is now:
AV = constant
Applying this relationship to the venturi, it can be seen that for a decrease in cross-section a
corresponding increase in velocity will occur and vice-versa.

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BERNOULLIS THEOREM
Any gas (air) in steady motion possesses four types of energy, the total of which represents
the amount of energy possessed by a given parcel of air.
They are:
kinetic energy due to the velocity of the air;

heat energy;
pressure energy; and
potential energy due to height above a given level.
Bernoulli proved that the sum of these energies remains constant in a steady streamline flow.
The limitations of this theory are basically that it should only be used for precise
measurement below 0.4 Mach where density changes due to compression of the air will not
occur. If we assume that the heat energy will not change for a given flow (a reasonable
assumption) and that the flow is occurring at the same height (potential energy constant),
then the theorem can be simplified to:
Pressure energy + kinetic energy = constant
Since kinetic energy (1/2mV) per unit volume can be expressed as 1/2pV, and
this term translates into dynamic pressure for air in motion (see Measurement of Speed next
topic), then the equation takes on a more practical meaning of:
Static pressure + dynamic pressure = constant
The Distribution of Airflow around and Aerofoil
Pressure gauges fitted to an aerofoil at differing angles to the relative airflow (angle of attack)
show pressure distributions as illustrated below. The direction and magnitude of the arrows in
the diagram represent the resultant effect of the pressure change as compared with ambient
static pressure. Arrows pointing away from the aerofoil show a negative pressure (compared
with ambient), and arrows pointing toward the aerofoil show increased pressure. Clearly, a
large arrow on the top surface represents a large reduction in pressure, which in turn will
produce a force upwards (lift). This concept can be expressed in a quantitive manner by
comparing the free-stream static pressure () with the pressure at any given point on the
surface (p), in the form:

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A negative value of this term would be represented by an arrow away from the surface, and a
positive value by an arrow towards the surface. A glance above indicates that at all angles of
attack () there is greater reduction in pressure on the top surface than below. Clearly, in the
examples shown, the resultant effect is for an upwards force (lift), and the size of this lifting
force appears to increase with an increase in angle of attack with the leading edge of the
aerofoil having significantly more effect at the higher angles.
By aerodynamic convention, the term (p p0) is converted to a non-dimensional one by
dividing it by another pressure, free-stream dynamic pressure (q). This results in a pressure
coefficient for each of the plotted points, equal to the term:
Cp = (p-p0)
Q
Below shows these coefficients plotted for a particular aerofoil at a given angle of attack with
each point on the upper and lower surface having its own value. In effect these are local lift
coefficients, and the total lift coefficient for the entire aerofoil at that angle could be calculated
by summing all those shown on the diagram. Negative values are plotted above the zero
point to more easily indicate the production of lift in an upward direction.
Note that at the forward stagnation point the Cp is equal to +1. The stagnation point is shown
in the diagrams on the previous page by the arrows pointing towards the surface.

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Aerofoil Terms
Although you should be thoroughly conversant with the terms used to describe the elements
of an aerofoil, we have included the following by way of revision.
The terminology used in the discussions on aerofoils is illustrated, and the meanings of the
terms are shown below.
1.
Chordline is a straight line connecting the leading edge and the trailing edge of the
aerofoil.
2.
Chord is the length of the chordline. All aerofoil dimensions are measured in terms of
the chord.
3.
Mean camber line is a line drawn halfway between the upper surface and the lower
surface.
4.
Maximum camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line and the
chordline. The location of maximum camber is important in determining the
aerodynamic characteristics of the aerofoil.
5.
Maximum thickness is the maximum distance between the upper and lower surfaces.
The location of maximum thickness is also important.

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6.
Leading edge radius is a measure of the sharpness of the leading edge.

It may vary from zero, for a knife-edge supersonic aerofoil, to about 2% (of the chord)
for rather blunt leading edge aerofoils.
Measurement of Speed
The traditional method of measuring an aircrafts speed through the air is to compare total
pressure (static dynamic) with static pressure, which will result in a value of only dynamic
pressure. Dynamic pressure is of course a result of an aircrafts motion through the air. This
is the principle of the airspeed indicator (ASI).
Dynamic pressure
Because air in motion possesses mass by virtue of its density, it also has energy proportional
to its speed. When brought to rest, air exchanges that kinetic energy to produce pressure
energy. The amount of energy that air possesses as a result of its motion is a function of its
speed and density. The kinetic energy (KE) of one cubic metre of air of density () in kg per
cubic metre, moving at V metres per second is:
V joule
Converted to pressure energy when brought to rest, this dynamic pressure (q) is expressed
as:
q = V
Although there are a number of types of speed for various purposes, dynamic pressure can
be thought of as an expression for indicated airspeed in most cases.

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Types of airspeed
Indicated airspeed (lAS) is the value indicated on the ASI scale. Calibrated airspeed (CAS).
When IAS is corrected for pressure error correction (PEC), which is a function of the position
of pitot/static, sources, and for instrument error (IE), the result is CAS. PEC will vary
depending on the pressure pattern around the aircraft at varying speeds and configurations
and will be tabulated in the aircraft flight manual. IE is normally very small and is the result of
indicating errors within the instrument itself. Thus CAS is really a true value of dynamic
pressure ( V2).
CAS = IAS PEC + IE

Equivalent airspeed (EAS). When CAS is corrected for pressure errors due to
compressibility (CEC) at higher speeds the result is EAS. CEC is sometimes included
in flight manual correction tables by adjusting the PEC tables at higher speeds.
EAS = CAS + CEC
or
EAS = IAS + PEC + IE + CEC
True airspeed (TAS). For the same dynamic pressure at higher altitudes where
density (p) is less, V must increase. In fact, the V in 1/2pV2 is TAS. Thus the
relationship between TAS and IAS (or of course CAS and EAS) is a function of the
change in density. This change in density from sea level is called relative density (a),
and is expressed as:
=
0
where 0 is density at sea level and p is density at the subject altitude.
The TAS at a subject altitude, for a given EAS can be found as follows:
Referring back, the value of relative density at 40,000 ft is about 0.25, so at that altitude TAS
equals:

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Lift
During the discussion on aerodynamic force the pressure pattern around an aerofoil was
shown. The total effect of this pressure pattern is to provide a net upward force (lift) at low
positive angles of attack for most conventional aerofoil sections. The normal way of
representing the total effect is to consider the result as a single force acting through one point
on the section. This point is the centre of pressure (CP).
As the angle of attack is increased the size of the force increases and the CP moves forward
until the stalling angle of attack is reached when the CP moves back. The range of movement
of the CP is between 2030% of the chord from the leading edge for a cambered aerofoil
section. For a symmetrical section there is little movement of the CP at normal angles of
attack.
Lift is the component of the total aerodynamic force acting through the CP, and is
perpendicular (at right angles) to the flightpath of the aircraft. There are a number of factors,
which affect the size of the total aerodynamic force, and therefore also affect the amount of
lift produced:
the free-stream air velocity (or the velocity of the aircraft through the air) V;
the density of the air
the area of the wing S; and
the angle of attack degrees.
Additionally, for different wings or when circumstances change, the following factors will affect
the amount of lift produced:
condition of the wing surface;

wing shape;
the viscosity of the air; and
the local speed of sound.

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However, for a given wing in a specified air mass (constant altitude, temperature etc.) the first
four factors are the ones, which determine the amount of lift.
When discussing aerodynamic force it was shown that the changing pressure pattern that
resulted from different angles of attack could be expressed as a different coefficient of lift for
each new angle of attack. Thus, when attempting to quantify the effect of the first four factors,
angle of attack can be represented as a coefficient (i.e. a coefficient of lift CL).
The formula for lift is:
LIFT = CLVS
Factors affecting the co-efficient of lift
As discussed earlier, angle of attack is one factor that will vary the pressure pattern around a
wing and thus the coefficient of lift. However, there are a number of other factors, which also
determine the coefficient of lift. Anything that varies CL will of course vary the total lift
produced in a given situation.
The factors that determine CL are:
angle of attack;
shape of the wing section (camber) and wing planform;
Reynolds number; and
Mach number.
The boundary layer

Before discussing the factors affecting CL, we need to understand that the ability of the wing
to produce lift at a given point on the wing is largely determined by the condition of the thin
layer of air adjacent to the surface the boundary layer.
Since air is viscous, it tends to cling or stick to an object that is moving through it. In the case
of a wing, the molecules of air immediately adjacent to the surface are in fact attached to that
surface and as such have a relative velocity of zero. Molecules slightly further away from the
wing are dragged along by the attached molecules beneath, although not to the same
degree. Thus they have a measurable velocity relative to the wing. The further from the wing,
the less the air is dragged along, and hence the greater is the relative velocity. Eventually a
layer of air is reached that is not affected by the wing and as such has the maximum velocity
relative to the wing. This of course is the free-stream air, and the relative velocity of this free
stream to the wing is the actual velocity of the wing.
The layers of air that extend from the surface out to the free stream make up the boundary
layer. (Of interest, aerodynamicists define the boundary layer as that region of flow in which
the speed is less than 99% of the free-stream flow).
Initially, the boundary layer is made up of numerous layers of air that slide relative to each
other. A boundary layer characterized by this structure is classified as laminar. Further back
along the surface the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent flow. The point of
change from laminar to turbulent flow is called the transition point. These features of the
boundary layer is shown below:.
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Angle of attack
Below we can see how the CL changes as angle of attack is increased for a conventional
aerofoil section with a thickness/chord ratio of about 13:100. Note that at lower angles there
is a linear increase in CL for a given increase in angle, but, just before the stalling angle is
reached, the rate of increase of CL reduces. This is represented by the curve leaning over
before reaching the stalling angle. At the stall, there is a rapid reduction of CL but note that
the wing is still producing some lift.

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As the turbulent flow in the boundary Layer moves back along the top surface of the wing, it
will be unable to stay attached. At this point, it is said to have separated and will no longer
allow the wing to generate lift.
As we see the separation point (SP) moving forward as the angle of attack is increased. This
movement of the SP follows behind, and in the same direction, as the centre of pressure. In
fact, the movement of the SP is linked to the movement of the CP since the boundary layer
separates as a result of pressure changes aft of the CP. The CP is situated in the area of
lowest pressure on the upper surface of the wing and behind the point of lowest pressure the
pressure increases steadily to ambient pressure. Thus the air in the boundary layer is moving
against progressively higher pressures an adverse pressure gradient (APG). It is worthy of
noting that the CP is not the lowest point of pressure on the upper surface of the wing, it is
that point where the resultant of all pressures around the wing act through. The CP does
however fall close to the point of minimum pressure on the upper surface of the wing.
As the distance over which this APG increases with forward movement of the CP, and also as
the total amount of pressure change increases with lowering pressure at the CP, then so the
ability of the boundary layer to stay attached decreases. In effect, the boundary layer has an
uphill job to stay attached and to a large extent will finally separate when it runs out of kinetic
energy (see also the later section on drag). At the stalling angle the rate of forward movement
of the SP increases and not enough wing is left to provide adequate lift. This sudden
decrease in CL is of course the stall.
Too sudden an onset of the stall is an undesirable feature of any aircraft, so many wings have
either wash-out where the angle of incidence of the wingtip is less than at the wing root, or a
varying wing section across the span to make the stall more progressive.
Wing shape and planform
There are many ways in which a wing design may be varied to change the local or total CL.
The main ones are discussed below.
Leading edge radius
A wing leading edge has a small radius if it appears sharp. A fat or well-rounded leading
edge has a large radius. Leading edge radius affects the CL at or near the point of the stall,
with the small radius producing a sharper effect on the CL curve and the large radius giving a
more progressive stall and flattening of the CL, curve. Below shows the effect of leading edge
radius of the CL curve.

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Camber
Awing has positive camber if the mean camber line lies above the chord line. Most low-speed
or general-purpose aerofoil sections have some positive camber, whereas some high-speed
(supersonic) sections are symmetrical and as such have no camber. Below shows the effect
on CL of different sections with progressively increasing camber. Note that the symmetrical
section has a CL value of zero at 0 angle of attack, but has a higher stalling angle. Wing
sections with greater camber give a higher value of CL for the same angle and also produce
a higher maximum value of CL at the stall. These comparisons assume that all other features
of the wings are the same.

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Aspect ratio
Because a wing has a finite length, at some point the air from the upper and lower surfaces,
each of which are at a different pressure, will meet. The net result of this mixing of air is the
creation of vortices at the tips and trailing edge which impart a downwards motion to the
airflow known as induced downwash. This downwash affects the net direction of the freestream air approaching the wing and in effect reduces the effective angle of attack. The
coefficient of lift is determined by the effective angle of attack. A low aspect ratio wing, having
the tip vortices closer together than a high aspect ratio wing will produce a greater downwash
and consequently a greater reduction in the effective angle of attack. Thus the lift of a low
aspect ratio wing will increase less rapidly with increasing angle than does the lift on a high
aspect ratio wing. We will return to aspect ratio and the effect of downwash when considering
induced drag.

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Sweepback
The effect of sweepback on CL is discussed in later chapters.
Surface condition
Roughness of the wing surface will affect the condition of the boundary layer and thus the
ability of the wing to generate lift. Experimentation over the years has shown that a
roughened leading edge, up to the front 20% of the chord, will significantly reduce the
maximum value of CL. that can be achieved. This makes sense because it is over this section
of chord length, particularly at high angles of attack, that the boundary layer is accelerating
into the area of lowest pressure and thus gaining its kinetic energy for the uphill flow into the
adverse pressure gradient (APG).
The rougher the surface at this stage, the less kinetic energy gained by the boundary layer
compared with a smooth surface. The lower the speed gained (kinetic energy), the less is the
pressure reduction that produces lift. In Chapter 2, you will see that a rough surface can in
fact improve the lift of a wing by delaying separation. This can happen only after the boundary
layer has changed from smooth laminar flow, has become turbulent, and is about to separate
as it battles through the APG!
Reynolds number (R)
In 1883, a physicist named Osborne Reynolds discovered that there was a relationship
between the speed of flow of the fluid and the diameter of a pipe through which the fluid was
moving. At a speed, which was inversely proportional to the diameter, the fluid flow changed
from streamline to turbulent.
This relationship, called the Reynolds number (R), applies to the airflow over a wing, and
hence affects the value of CL. An increase in R will give a greater value of CL max. This is an
aerodynamic term for the value of:
R = VL
R where = density, V = TAS, L = chord length, = viscosity

Viscosity is in fact a measure of the adherence quality of the airflow against the surface, such
that a high value of viscosity will slow the airflow and vice versa. A high viscosity fluid is thick
(honey) and a low viscosity fluid is thin (water). For most situations density, viscosity and
chord length can be considered constant and the only likely variable at a given altitude is
speed (TAS).
If V is increased, Reynolds number will increase giving a higher value of CL max. This is
because at the higher speeds, for the same angle of attack, the boundary layer will receive
more kinetic energy, which will result in delayed separation, and consequently a higher
maximum value of CL. Below shows this effect.

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A reduction in density at higher altitude (all other factors the same as at low altitude) will
reduce R and hence reduce CL max. Again the reason is linked with the energy of the
boundary layer.
A lower density gives lower mass and hence lower kinetic energy since kinetic energy is
a function of mass as well as speed.
Mach number
The effect of Mach number on lift is covered later in Chapter 2.
Drag
Total drag on an aircraft is the sum of all forces acting parallel to the flightpath in opposition to
the forward motion of the aircraft. Although there are many components to total drag, caused
by a variety of reasons, at subsonic speeds it is normal to sub-divide drag into two main
heading types:
parasite drag (also known as zero lift drag); and
induced drag (sometimes referred to as lift-dependent drag).
As with lift, the boundary layer has a significant role to play. It is the size and behaviour of the
layer that determines the drag on aircraft at most speeds.
Parasite Drag
Parasite drag (sometimes referred to as zero lift drag), is made up of the following types of
drag.

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Surface friction drag

Surface (or skin) friction drag is largely determined by the total area of the aircraft that is
exposed to the air flowing past it. Clearly, an aircraft with significantly more surface area than
another will experience much more dragging effect of the boundary layer air flowing past.
The type of boundary layer present also has significant effect with laminar flow creating less
surface friction drag than turbulent flow. This is because laminar flow exposes only one layer
of air to the surface, which slides past adjacent layers of air. Turbulent flow, on the other
hand, with its characteristic eddies exposes more air to the surface with greater mixing of the
lower layers with the faster moving air further away from the surface. This mixing creates
greater drag on the surface.
The third factor affecting surface friction drag is the coefficient of viscosity of the air. The
greater the viscosity, the greater the dragging effect of the air.
For a given size of aircraft, surface friction drag can really only be reduced by controlling the
type of boundary layer present. In the previous section on lift, we saw how the adverse
pressure gradient eventually causes the boundary layer to run out of energy and separate.
Any area of wing without an attached boundary layer does not produce lift. For minimum
surface friction drag, the transition from laminar to turbulent must be delayed as long as
possible.
The main factors affecting the transition are:
surface condition a rough surface, particularly in the first 20% of chord length will
accelerate transition;
adverse pressure gradient (APG) once past the point of minimum pressure, the
boundary layer has to negotiate the APG. Experience has shown that it is very difficult
to maintain laminar flow past this point, which is normally also the point of maximum
thickness of the wing.
Form drag
Form drag is also known as pressure drag. When the boundary layer finally separates, or in
areas where surface features prevent it from forming (drain holes etc.), the separated flow still
impacts against the aircraft surface causing drag. This is form drag. A given area subjected to
separated flow will give more drag (form drag) than the same area subjected to the skin
friction drag of a turbulent boundary layer. Consequently, efforts are made to delay
separation of the boundary layer in an attempt to reduce form drag.
Of interest when attempting to retain the boundary layer, the favoured type of flow within the
layer is turbulent in preference to laminar flow. This is due to the higher amount of kinetic
energy contained in a turbulent boundary layer as a result of greater molecular activity. With
greater kinetic energy, the boundary layer can resist the effects of the adverse pressure
gradient for longer, thus reducing drag and delaying separation.
Another major benefit of delaying separation of the boundary layer is the greater lift achieved.
Since the separation point moves forward with increase in angle of attack, the effect of
delayed separation is to increase CL at the higher angles and most importantly to increase
CL max. Below shows the relationship between the boundary layer and separated flow.
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Interference drag
It has been found that the total parasite drag of an aeroplane is greater than the sum of
surface friction and form drag. The additional drag is caused by mixing, or interference, of the
boundary layer airflow at the junction of the wings, fuselage, nacelles etc. Interference drag is
minimized by the provision of fairings.
Interference drag is not directly associated with the production of lift, and as such is a
component of the total parasite drag.
Summary of parasite drag
Parasite drag increases with airspeed, and at very high airspeeds nearly all the total drag (i.e.
parasite + induced) is caused by it. The predominance of parasite drag at high speeds shows
the need for aerodynamic cleanness to obtain maximum performance. Parasite drag is
proportional to the square of EAS, thus doubling the speed will quadruple the amount of
parasite drag.

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Induced Drag
Induced drag is a direct result of the aircraft producing lift. If the wing is flown at an angle of
attack such that it produces no net force perpendicular to the direction of flight, then it is not
producing any induced drag. It will of course be producing parasite drag as we have already
seen. Induced drag is the major component that some aerodynamicists term lift-dependent
drag.
The other components of lift-dependent drag are additional increments of surface friction
drag, form drag and interference drag caused by the changing pressure pattern around the
aircraft as a result of changes in lift. But regardless of how they are caused, they are still form
drag etc.
As you can see above shows the difference in pressure between the upper and lower
surfaces of the wing as viewed from behind. This difference in pressure causes air to spill
around the tip, deflecting the upper surface flow towards the fuselage and the lower surface
flow toward the tips. As the two flows meet at the trailing edge a series of vortices is formed,
which accumulate at the tip to form a large wingtip vortex. When the pressure difference
between the upper and lower surfaces is increased, such as when the wing is producing
more lift, then the size of the vortex will increase also.
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Having left the trailing edge of the wing, the net effect of the vortex is to impart a downward
flow to the air, known as induced downwash. Energy is clearly needed to impart this change
of direction to the air, and is taken from the energy gained as a result of the wing producing
lift. This cost of energy lost is in the form of additional drag induced drag.
Because the lift produced is in reality a result of flow, which is deflected down due to the
induced downwash, the effective lift at right angles to the free stream flow must be increased
slightly. This can only be achieved by increasing the size of the total force, which while it
increases lift, will also increase drag as the other component induced drag. The next diagram
shows the two components of the total aerodynamic force in relation to desired direction of
flight (horizontal).
Of course, in practice the wing does not go through this step-by-step approach to end up with
induced drag. This is merely a way of explaining the phenomenon. Whenever the wing is
producing lift it will be creating a vortex, deflecting the air down and producing induced drag.
Under the right conditions, the vortices are one of the few ways that we can see
aerodynamics and marvel at the physics of it all.
On take-off, all aircraft produce their first vortices of the flight as they increase angle of attack
at rotation in an effort to produce the necessary lift to counter weight at such a low speed. If
the air is moist enough, the pressure drop in the vortex may be enough to cause
condensation. The same thing can be seen (again, providing the air is moist enough) when
an F-18 pulls g in a low-level turn at an air show. All it is doing is increasing the angle of
attack and in so doing increasing the pressure differential between the wing surfaces that
then form the vortices.

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There are a number of variables that affect the amount of induced drag.
These are listed below. The first two factors are clearly design considerations. For a given
aircraft then, the main factors affecting the amount of induced drag are the amount of lift
being produced and the speed that it is flying.
Factors affecting induced drag:
wing shape, particularly planform

aspect ratio
lift, and of course weight
speed
Planform
The ideal planform for minimum drag is an elliptical one, however there are considerable
manufacturing problems in using this shape and consequently very few aircraft have been
produced with this shape. Also, aircraft that fly at higher subsonic speeds have certain design
requirements that are more important than absolute minimum induced drag. As with many
things, a compromise is needed. Out of interest, but do not commit it to memory, the equation
for coefficient of induced drag for an elliptical planform is:
The elliptical planform is the most efficient because it provides the same local coefficient of lift
at each point along the span. Thus the ratio of local coefficient of lift to wing average
coefficient of lift at any point is always 1. With rectangular wings, significant efficiency is lost
at the tips due to the vortex problem. Thus the ratio of local lift coefficient to wing average is
very low at the tips. Although such wings may have a root ratio slightly better than 1, the
inefficiency of the wingtips (due to the presence of large vortices) significantly reduces overall
wing efficiency compared with the elliptical wing.
In an attempt to improve tip efficiency, designers often use taper, or a different wing section
towards the tips. The equation for coefficient of induced drag for any other shape wing (other
than elliptical) is the same as above but multiplied by a constant (k) which is different for each
wing shape.
Aspect ratio
Aspect ratio can be found by dividing the wing span by the mean chord length, or more
commonly by the expression:
AR =

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span
chord
or
span x span
chord x span
span
area

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Thus aspect ratio is more an expression for wing shape rather than wing size. Thus long thin
wings will have a high aspect ratio and short stubby wings a low aspect ratio. The vortices
shed along the length of the wing tend to roll up into a large wingtip vortex at a distance of
approximately 5 to 20 chord lengths behind the wing. For a long thin ( high aspect ratio) wing,
the tip vortex is thus much smaller than for a short stubby ( low aspect ratio) wing. It therefore
imparts less downwash onto the wing and has less induced drag
If two wings of the same area but different aspect ratio are producing the same total lift (to
counter the same weight), then the low aspect ratio wing, with the greater downwash must
increase its total angle of attack to the freestream flow to achieve the same lift. This is due to
the reduction in effective angle of attack caused by greater downwash. Remember that a
wing of low aspect ratio will always need to be flown at a higher angle of attack to the freestream flow to achieve the same lift as a wing of high aspect ratio (for a given area).
Effect of lift and weight

The induced downwash angle, and consequently the amount of induced drag, depends on
the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing. This difference in
pressure is of course the lift per unit area provided by the wing. Thus, at a given speed, an
increase in lift (which at a given speed would need to be provided by an increase in CL) will
increase induced drag. This increase in CL. may be needed by an increase in weight or in a
manoeuvre.
Effect of speed
As speed changes in level flight, a wing must produce the same lift at each speed for a given
weight. To do this, it must be flown at a varying angle of attack to maintain the required value
of CL. An increase in angle of attack inclines the total aerodynamic force more rearwards,
thus increasing the induced drag component.

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To summarize, the slower we fly the greater the angle of attack required and hence the
greater the downwash angle. This in turn increases the value of induced drag. Conversely,
the faster we fly, the less the amount of induced drag. You will note that this is the opposite to
parasite drag, where the faster we flew, the greater the drag. This combination will be
discussed in more detail shortly.
Summary of induced drag - its causes and effects

Wingtip vortices form as higher-pressure air below the wing spills into the area of
lower pressure above the wing.
Downwash is caused by the wingtip vortices.
This downwash deflects the original remote airflow down by the amount called the
downwash angle.
The average direction of the remote airflow is changed and the angle of attack is
reduced.
The effective lift vector is then tilted backwards by the induced angle of attack, which
is equal to half the downwash angle; this maintains the lift at right angles to the
relative airflow at the CP.
The horizontal rearward component of the tilted lift vector is the induced drag.
The higher the angle of attack, the greater the downwash angle, and hence the
greater the induced drag.

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Total Drag
The graph below shows the variation of total drag with EAS, which is made up of the two
main components:
parasite drag (which varies as the square of EAS); and
induced drag (which varies as the inverse of the square of EAS).
The result is a graph which has a minimum point known as minimum drag speed (Vmd) which
for a given weight is also the speed for maximum value of lift to drag (L/D) and as such is the
most efficient speed. A total drag curve can only be shown for a certain set of conditions, if
any one of the conditions changes, it will alter the shape of the curve, and consequently the
minimum point.
Effect of weight
Looking below the drag curve for two weights. Note that an increase in weight moves the
curve up and to the right. This gives a higher total drag at the higher weight for any speed
and also an increase in minimum drag speed.

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Configuration
Selection of landing gear and speed brakes in any aircraft will increase parasite drag without
an increase in induced drag. Thus only one of the two component curves is affected. An
increase in parasite drag for each speed will move the parasite drag curve up which will move
the total drag curve up and to the left. The effect is to give a lower Vmd with the configuration
change as shown below.
Effect of aerofoil shape
The in-flight efficiencies that are demanded of modern airliners dictate the need for minimum
drag in the cruise configuration. Apart from attempts to reduce induced drag as much as
possible by employing optimum aspect ratio etc., designers use aerofoil sections that give the
lowest parasite drag at the cruise angle of attack. This is normally done by attempts to retain
a laminar boundary layer for as long as possible and so reduce surface friction drag.
All aerofoils will have a range of angles of attack where the transition point has not moved
significantly forward and thus the percentage of chord covered by a laminar flow is greatest.
These are the angles of attack (normally fairly low) where coefficient of drag does not change
significantly for a given change in angle of attack (and therefore change in CL). The result is a
characteristic of the Cn curve called the laminar bucket. By employing an aerofoil that has the
laminar bucket at angles used for cruise, a designer can achieve great fuel savings. This
normally means a cambered section and is the basis of the supercritical aerofoil concept
discussed later in the course.

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As you can see, the change in laminar bucket position (CL or angle of attack) for two sections
with the same thickness/chord ratio.
Effect of compressibility (Mach number)
Up to now, we have been considering relatively low speeds. Effects of high speed on drag will
be covered in the next chapter.
Airframe Efficiency
As with any machine, the measure of efficiency of an aircraft is determined by a comparison
of output to input. Since the output is lift, to overcome weight and thus be able to fly, and
the input is thrust to counter drag, then efficiency can be expressed as:
Lift
Thrust
or more easily
Lift
Drag
Both lift and drag are components of the same total aerodynamic force, and consequently the
efficiency of an aerofoil (its lift/drag ratio) depends on the angle of the total aerodynamic
reaction to the free-stream flow. This curve can be compared with the angle of attack of
CLmax. Note that the angle of attack for maximum lift/drag is significantly lower than that for
maximum lift. Although the wing is capable of producing high values of CL. at high angles of
attack, it will also suffer higher induced drag as previously discussed. Thus a compromise
angle needs to be flown.

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Note also that the graph shown plots values of CL., CD and CL/CD, and that a specific value
of the coefficient or coefficient ratio occurs at one specific angle of attack. Consequently, if we
are able to determine what value of a specific coefficient we need to satisfy a particular
requirement (range, glide angle etc.), we can easily see what angle of attack should be flown
to achieve that objective.

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CHAPTER 2
TRANSONIC FLIGHT
Compressibility Theory
Aircraft that are flying at speeds well below the speed of sound send out pressure waves (by
disturbing the air) in all directions. This creates the sound that we hear as an aircraft
approaches and also gives warning to the air ahead. These waves are in fact the result of
one molecule of air moving and striking an adjacent molecule which strikes the next one and
so on. The air does not flow as the waves move away from the aircraft, but rather the
molecules of air vibrate about a mean position. The amount of vibration depends on the
amount of disturbance or pressure the air is subjected to in the first place.
Because air is compressible, the change in pressure that goes with the disturbance also
creates a change in density and temperature. Consequently, the changing characteristics of
the air will vary the speed of wave movement (speed of sound) by altering the ability of one
part of air to pass the message of the disturbance on to the next parcel. This concept, that
the speed of sound varies depending on the condition of the air, is a very important one to
understand and memorize.
Wave Propagation
A stationary source of pressure waves gives off a pattern much like the radiating ripples from
a stone thrown in a pond. If the pressure source is moving at subsonic speed, the waves
ahead of the source (an aircraft) tend to bunch up. Although they bunch up ahead of the
source, they can never catch up with one another since they all emanate from the same
source travelling at a constant speed. Notice that the distance between the waves ahead of
the aircraft is the same. This distance, although constant will get progressively smaller as the
speed of the aircraft approaches the speed of sound. When the aircraft is travelling at the
speed of sound all the pressure waves bunch up together to form a Mach wave.
Although an aircraft could be travelling at any speed in relation to the speed of sound, the
speed of sound will vary from one air mass to another. Thus the tendency of the pressure
waves to bunch up will not always be to the same amount for a given aircraft speed. It all
depends on what the speed of sound is for that air mass, and more importantly, it depends on
the speed of the aircraft in relation to the speed of sound. Before we go any further then, we
must know how the speed of sound is determined, and how it can vary.

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The speed of sound in a given mass of air is the speed at which sound waves move from one
part of the air to another. The ability of the waves to move is dependent on the ability of the
message to be passed between air molecules. This in turn will be determined by how much
the air is compressed and how much energy (or speed) the individual molecules have.
Molecular speed in turn is determined by the compression of the air and the air temperature.
If the air temperature is increased, the added increase in molecular speed as the air is
compressed is sufficient to cause an increase in the rate of expansion, and therefore an
increase in the speed of propagation of the pressure wave. Thus, the speed of sound will
have been increased by an increase in temperature.
Mathematically, the relationship between speed of sound and temperature has been shown
to be the only one that matters, since variation in pressure and density (both affected by
temperature) have been found to virtually cancel each other. If a is the speed of sound, then
in terms of pressure and density:
is the ratio of specific heats

R is the gas constant
T is absolute temperature
Since both the ratio of specific heats (specific heat at constant pressure to specific heat at
constant volume) and the gas constant are all fixed, the relationship can be rewritten to:
Clearly then, there is a direct relationship between the speed of sound and temperature. In
practical aviation, we do not really need to calculate the speed of sound, but we must know
how the relationship between our speed and that of sound will vary. This relationship makes it
clear that flying into a warmer air mass will increase the speed of sound and vice versa. If
needed, the formula allows us to calculate the speed of sound in knots. For such exercises
remember that T is in absolute degrees and absolute zero occurs
at 273C. Thus +15C converts into 273 + 15 = 288 absolute for use in the formula.
As discussed earlier, the speed of sound is the speed at which pressure waves will radiate
out from an aircraft moving through the air, but that speed will vary as a function of
temperature. This means that as we climb in the atmosphere, the only factor that will vary the
speed of sound is the temperature, despite the changes in pressure and density that also
occur. The table below shows the value of a speed of sound for various altitudes in the
standard atmosphere.

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Mach Number
The need to devise some other method of measuring an aircrafts speed (other than TAS) as
it approaches the speed of sound is due to the significant changes in airflow characteristics at
these speeds, and the consequent effect on aircraft handling and performance. A knowledge
of aircraft speed through the air (TAS) in relation to the speed of sound is necessary.
Although aircraft have been traveling at these speeds only since the late 1940s, the system of
speed measurement had been devised last century by the Austrian physicist, Ernst Mach.
From his name has come the term Mach number, which is the ratio of:
speed of the aircraft (TAS)
local speed of sound (a)
Mach number is designated by the letter M and since it represents a ratio of one speed to
another, it has no units. The mathematics of the ratio clearly show that if an aircraft is
travelling at the same speed as the speed of sound, then the ratio will cancel down to 1, i.e.
Mach 1. An aircraft travelling at half the speed of sound has a Mach number of 0,5 and one
travelling at twice the speed of sound has a Mach number of 2. For Mach numbers less than
1 it is usual to forget about the zero and express it as say Mach point seven, for Mach .7.
Mach numbers are normally written with the M after the figures, so that this would be written
as .7M. For clarity, throughout this text Mach numbers will be written as follows, 0.7M and
1.2M.
Although we may initially think that an aircraft has one Mach number at a given time that is
the ratio of its TAS at that time to the local speed of sound, it is important to remember that
the speed of the airflow around an aircraft is not the same at every point. The discussion of
Bernoullis theorem in Chapter 1 showed that as pressure changed around an aerofoil, so too
did the speed of flow. For all the different speeds around an aircraft (different local true
airspeeds if you like), it follows that there are different local Mach numbers. Consequently,
there is a need to define certain types of Mach number.

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Free-stream Mach number

This is the Mach number at a point in the flow at sufficient distance to be unaffected by the
aircraft. Free-stream Mach number is designated by Mfs and is found by:
Mfs =
TAS
local speed of sound
Local Mach number

For a given Mfs, the flow around the aircraft is accelerated at some places and decelerated at
others. Also, because the temperature changes around the aircraft, so too will the local speed
of sound. Thus, there will be a range of local Mach numbers for a given Mfs.
Critical Mach number Mcrit
As the Mfs of an aircraft increases, there will come a stage when the highest local Mach
number reaches unity. Since the flow may be accelerated over a wing with an increase in
angle of attack, Mcrit will be lower in that situation. Mcrit marks the lower end of the band of
Mach numbers (Mfs) where a local Mach number may be supersonic, thus marking the
boundary between subsonic and transonic speeds.
Detachment Mach number Mdet
Mdet is that Mfs where the bow shockwave (discussed later) attaches to the leading edge
and above which there is only a small movement of the bow shockwave for an increase in
speed. Above Mdet all values of local Mach number are supersonic except in the lowest
layers of the boundary layer.
Critical drag rise Mach number Mcdr
Mcdr is that Mfs above which, due to the formation of shockwaves, there is a significant rise
in drag. It is also referred to as the Drag Divergence Mach Number, Mdd
Speed Divisions
Because of the changing response of air at different speeds, it is important to define the
various divisions of speed so that we can anticipate the type of reaction to a particular speed.
The picture below shows diagrammatically the various speed divisions listed below.

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Subsonic
Subsonic flow starts at zero and has its upper limit at Mcrit. Remember that Mcrit is that Mfs
at which the highest local Mach number reaches unity. So the subsonic band contains no flow
whatsoever that is sonic (equal to the speed of sound) or supersonic (faster than the speed of
sound).
Transonic
Transonic flow begins at Mcrit (that is the Mfs that is Mcrit) and extends up to Mdet. This is
the stage at which the bow shockwave attaches to the leading edge and above which all local
Mach numbers are supersonic. Therefore the transonic band is where there is a mixture of
both subsonic and supersonic flow around the aircraft.
Supersonic
When all the local Mach numbers surrounding an aerofoil are supersonic (i.e. greater than
Mach 1), the Mfs is considered to be supersonic.
In general terms the subsonic band extends up to about 0.75M and the transonic band from
0.75M to about 1.2M.
The Formation of Shockwaves
Previously we looked at the accumulation of pressure waves ahead of a moving source (such
as an aircraft) that is moving at subsonic speeds. As previously noted, the pressure waves
are equally spaced with the distance between waves determined by the speed of the aircraft.
The distance moved by the waves in a given time at subsonic speeds is greater than the
distance moved by the aircraft because the speed of sound is greater than the aircrafts TAS.

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Above, the pattern of pressure waves is shown when V is equal to the speed of sound Mach 1. In this case a different pattern is shown with all the waves forming a single line
ahead of the moving source. This line, the Mach wave, is formed and represents the limit of
influence of the source. No pressure waves emanating from the source can travel ahead of
the Mach wave because the speed of sound is not faster than the speed of the source. In
other words, V is equal to a.
Below shows the pressure pattern from a supersonic source, where the pressure pattern
forms an oblique Mach wave or limit of influence of the source. As can be seen from the
diagram, the wave pattern is three-dimensional and the Mach wave, or boundary, becomes a
surface called a Mach cone.

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The Bow shockwave

In practical terms, the formation of shockwaves around an aircraft is in fact more complex
than the simple pressure patterns shown, because there are many variables that alter the
speed of flow and also the speed of sound at different points around an aerofoil. Of particular
importance is the compression of air immediately in front of the aircraft, which raises the air
temperature.
The effect of this increase in temperature is of course to increase the local speed of sound in
this area which results in the propagation of waves ahead of the aircraft at a rate faster than
the normal rate (speed of sound). This increased local speed of sound extends ahead of the
aircraft to a point where temperature is restored to ambient. As the aircraft speed approaches
Mach 1 the waves ahead of the object tend to bunch up as previously discussed but they will
do this well ahead of the object to form the bow wave.
As the aircraft speed exceeds Mach 1 the increased speed of wave propagation ahead of the
aircraft is offset by the increased speed of the aircraft, now travelling at a Mfs faster than
Mach 1. So although the forward waves are projected out faster than a Mfs equal to Mach 1,
due to the increased speed of sound, the aircraft partly catches up. The effect of all this is to
bring the bow wave closer to the aircraft until the aircraft is travelling at such a speed that the
bow wave attaches to the leading edge (remember, this is Mdet).
The ability of the bow wave to attach is determined by the flow ahead of the aircraft, which in
turn is determined by the shape of the aircraft or wing. The blunter the leading edge, the
greater the compression and temperature rise, and consequently the greater the increase in
local speed of sound. The greater the increase in the local speed of sound, the more difficult
it is for the bow wave to attach.
In reality, some shapes will not allow the bow wave to attach and it will stand off slightly at all
speeds. To encourage bow wave attachment (which is desirable at higher Mach numbers to
achieve stable flow), a sharp leading edge radius is used which reduces the compression
effect ahead of the wing at transonic speeds. Once attached (or as near as it is going to get),
an increase in Mach number into the supersonic band causes a further rearward slope of the
bow wave. Below shows a bow wave not attached at a Mach number in the transonic band
(i.e. less than Mdet).

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Wing shockwaves
At the same time that the bow wave is forming as the aircraft approaches Mach 1,
shockwaves are forming on the wing itself. As the speed of the flow over the wing is
accelerated to a speed faster than Mfs, wing shockwaves will of course form well before a
Mfs of 1. The formation of wing shockwaves above O85M is quite common, although this can
be delayed by using a thinner wing section which will of course reduce the amount of flow
acceleration. Conversely, the use of thick, highly cambered sections will encourage the
formation of shockwaves at lower Mfs values.
With all wings, wing shockwaves can be induced to form at even lower values of Mfs if the
flow is accelerated by an increase in angle of attack such as when manoeuvring. Another
different feature of the wing shockwave is that, at its base, is the boundary layer. Part of the
boundary layer must of course be subsonic. The presence of the boundary layer enables the
effect of the shockwave to be transmitted forward at its base, which in effect thickens both the
boundary layer and shockwave. Pressure disturbances from behind the shockwave leak
forward in the boundary layer under the shockwave (remember that this area will be
subsonic). The thickening of the boundary layer forms an oblique shockwave, which leans
back and merges with the main shockwave. This shape at the base of a wing shockwave is
sometimes called a lambda foot since it resembles the Greek letter lambda.
Below shows a diagram of both upper and lower wing shockwaves at a representative
subsonic Mach number (about 0.85M Mfs for that wing). The Mfs at which shockwaves form
on a given aerofoil will vary from one to another depending on the shape of the aerofoil,
particularly the thickness/chord ratio.
The Nature of Supersonic Flow

In Chapter 1 the equation of continuity was used to demonstrate the pressure changes that
accompany a velocity change through a venturi. In that situation where the flow is subsonic,
pressure reduces as speed increases. For a similar flow through a venturi at supersonic
speed, considerable changes to pressure occur because of the problem of pressure wave
patterns above the speed of sound. The result is that supersonic flow through a convergent
duct results in an increase in pressure with a consequent decrease in velocity. However, the
reverse is true for a divergent duct (where the cross-sectional area is increased).

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For ducted flow the following characteristics apply
dA<0
Subsonic flow
dV>0
dP<0
Subsonic Nozzle
Supersonic flow
dV<0
dP>0
Supersonic Diffuser
dA>0
Subsonic flow
dV<0
dP>0
Subsonic Diffuser
Supersonic flow
dV>0
dP<0
Supersonic Nozzle
For unducted flow the following characteristics apply

Supersonic flow always decelerates through a shockwave
Supersonic flow always decelerates to subsonic flow through a normal (90 to the
flow) shockwave unless the flow is subjected to very bizarre thermodynamic
conditions.
If supersonic flow is forced to turn it forms a shockwave.
An obstacle in supersonic flow will cause a shockwave (because the flow is turned)
The strength of the shock wave is proportional to the angle of turning or the size of the
obstruction
If supersonic flow is turned by more than 45,58 a detached shockwave will form
Compressive corners decelerate supersonic flow
Expansive corners accelerate supersonic flow.

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Although the flow through a venturi can be used to understand the changes that take place, it
is necessary to examine how supersonic flow negotiates sharp corners on a real wing.
Expansive corners
An expansive corner is one which allows the flow to expand and thus accelerate, being
convex. If such a corner is considered to be a succession of infinitely small angular changes,
then a single corner can be broken down into a series of small steps as shown in the top the
diagram below. Consider the two streamlines in the supersonic flow as they reach the corner.
The one adjacent to the surface will sense the change as soon as it gets to the corner, the
flow will accelerate and, associated with the decrease in density, the pressure will decrease.
This pressure disturbance will be felt along a Mach line appropriate to the flow.
The streamline further away from the surface will be unaware of the corner until it reaches
the Mach line originating at the corner. This Mach line is a boundary between relatively high
and low pressure, therefore a pressure gradient is felt across it such that the streamline is
accelerated slightly and turned through an angle equal to the change in surface angle. It now
continues parallel to the new surface at a higher Mach number since V has increased and
the speed of sound is less due to a decrease in temperature. The same process will be
repeated at each corner.
This process will take place through an infinite number of Mach lines, and, because the lines
fan out, the expansion and acceleration is smooth. The region within which the expansion
takes place is limited by the Mach lines appropriate to the speed of the flow ahead and
behind the corner. This is called the Prandtl-Meyer expansion and is illustrated in the lower
half of the diagram. The decrease in pressure ( a favourable pressure gradient) round an
expansive corner in supersonic flow allows an attached boundary layer to be maintained. This
is exactly the opposite to what happens in a subsonic flow where an adverse pressure
gradient would cause the boundary layer to thicken and break away. Consequently, there is
no objection to such corners on essentially supersonic aircraft.

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Compressive corners
A compressive corner causes supersonic flow to converge, creating a shockwave whose
formation can be visualized by treating the corner as a source of pressure waves creating a
bow wave. The shockwave exhibits all the characteristics of a bow wave.
The change of flow through a shockwave
A shockwave is a very narrow region within which the air is in a very high state of
compression. Supersonic flow encountering a shockwave undergoes extreme compression,
which results in an increase in temperature, density and pressure; but a decrease in velocity
and Mach number. Flow behind a normal shockwave is always subsonic, however
shockwaves that are inclined back will support supersonic flow behind them, providing the
initial flow is fast enough and the shockwave is inclined sufficiently.
Transonic Changes in Lift
Changes in the coefficient of lift with increasing subsonic speed are easy to predict for an
aerofoil at a constant angle of attack. This is also the case for consistently supersonic flow. At
the constant angle of attack, the changes in coefficient are due to the increasing velocity of
the air. In the transonic region however, the presence of shockwaves, either forming or
moving, creates significant changes in the flow, which vary the coefficient of lift. In extreme
cases, particularly where the aerofoil is one not designed for high speed, these changes can
lead to stability and control problems.
As you can see above the variation in coefficient of lift for a subsonic aerofoil with a
thickness/chord ratio of about 12%. The changes in lift, discussed below, are so large that
this section would not be suitable for transonic or supersonic flight. The following changes to
coefficient of lift occur at the points marked on the diagram:

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Point A:
coefficient of lift has increased approaching Mcrit due to the

increase in velocity over the top surface of the wing (and therefore an
increase in Reynolds number which changes CL)
Point B:
lift has again increased due to the continued acceleration of the

top flow up to supersonic values ahead of the top shockwave (Mfs
about 0.81M).
Point C:
The bottom shockwave has formed. The top shockwave is stronger

and flow behind the top shock is unstable and causes boundary layer
separation. This reduces lift, which is further affected by the unstable
flow behind the bottom shock (Mfs 0.89M).
The top shock has moved to the rear of the wing which restores
most of the wing to stable flow (all supersonic) and thus gives more lift
to the wing. Because there is less unstable flow behind the top shock
there is less effect of flow mixing with the flow behind the lower shock
(Mfs 0.98M).
The bow shockwave has almost attached to the leading edge.
Point D:
Point E:
However the flow behind the bow shock (which is the flow over the wing producing lift) has
had its energy reduced as a result of being flow behind a shockwave. Thus although the flow
over the wing is stable, it produces less lift.
Notice that the end result of accelerating to supersonic flow is that the coefficient of lift is less
than originally available at subsonic speed for this type of aerofoil, which is mainly designed
for flight at subsonic speeds. As will be seen later, aerofoils designed for transonic flight
normally have a lower thickness/chord ratio.
Transonic Effects of Drag
The effects of shockwaves in the transonic region produce increases in drag called Mach or
wave drag. Mach drag is made up of two separate types of drag from separate sources
namely
- energy drag
- boundary layer separation drag
Energy drag
As air flows through a shockwave it experiences a rise in temperature at the expense of the
energy of the flow. This energy lost is drag on the airframe. The more oblique the shockwave,
the less energy they absorb to provide the temperature increase.
Boundary layer separation
As shockwaves move, they create varying amounts of separated flow, which creates drag.
The increase in this type of drag is greatest at about Mach 1, but as the top shock moves to
the trailing edge, reducing the amount of separated flow, drag reduces.

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These changes in drag are shown above as increments on the normal drag rise (parasite
drag) for an increase in speed, except this time the speed measurement is of course Mach
number. Below shows the variation in coefficient of drag for an aerofoil operating at a
constant angle of attack.
Aircraft Control at High Speed
Longitudinal Control
As an aircraft approaches its Merit it experiences a nose-down trim change caused by two
factors:
1.
2.
The rearward movement of the centre of pressure due to the distribution of lift as the
accelerated flow forms the top shockwave.
The reduced download that is normally on the tailplane. The download is reduced due
to changing downwash from the wing caused by flow separation aft of the top
shockwave. This however depends heavily on the configuration of the aircraft.
If uncorrected, the effect of this nose-down pitching moment is to cause the aircraft to
accelerate more, thus increasing the Mach number and so increasing the nose-down effect.
Alternatively, if the pilot corrects by applying up elevator, this may again accelerate flow over
the wing due to increased angle of attack.

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The nature of the nose-down trim change places a very real limiting Mach number to which
an aircraft may be flown and is normally the basis for establishing an aircrafts maximum
operating Mach number (Mmo). This is the red line Mach number on the combined
airspeed/Mach indicator. In some aircraft, where cruise at higher Mach numbers may be
desired due to favourable drag figures, Mmo may be increased by installing a Mach trimmer
which is simply a Mach sensitive device which automatically deflects the tail plane or elevator
slightly more than is needed to counter the nose-down trim. The reason for deflecting slightly
more than is needed is so that positive longitudinal stability is maintained and so that the
aircraft must still be trimmed nose-down as speed increases.
Mmo for an aircraft also takes into account the Mach number at which shockwave intensity
will cause enough separated flow to reduce elevator effectiveness, or cause control buzz, or
both. This control buzz will become control buffet if the aircraft is accelerated further and is
formally termed high-speed buffet. Eventually, the buffet leads to loss of elevator control. In
the early days of high subsonic flight many aircraft experienced this high-speed buffet by
inadvertently accelerating beyond Mmo in turbulence and then wrongly mistaking the buffet
for low speed pre-stall buffet. Similarly, aircraft in high speed descents with speed brakes
deployed (which produce buffet) have flown fast enough to get high speed buffet, but it has
not been identified due to the masking effect of the speed brakes.
The problem of longitudinal control caused by the formation of shockwaves is amply
described in the following extract of a report of the team that first exceeded Mach 1 in the Bell
X-1.
Early in October Yeager reached Mach 0.94 and had a nasty surprise he pulled back on the
control column and nothing happened. The plane continued to fly as if he had not touched the
controls. Wisely he shut down the rocket engine. As the plane decelerated, control
effectiveness returned to normal. Williams engineers later determined that a shockwave had
formed on the horizontal stabilizer. As the X-1 increased its speed, the shock had moved
rearward, standing along the elevator hinge line at Mach 0.94, negating its effectiveness.
If an aircraft is trimmed for a given cruise speed and accelerated, a progressive push force on
the elevator is required to maintain an initial pitch attitude, assuming the elevator trim is not
used. However, as already described, at higher Mach numbers, the nose-down trim change
commences and increases with Mach number. Consequently, at higher Mach numbers the
push force turns into a pull force to maintain the set attitude. Below shows the change in
stick force that is required on a typical subsonic wing/tailplane combination as the aircraft is
accelerated. To ease this confusing control problem, aircraft that are designed to operate at
high subsonic cruise speeds but which have wing sections not fully optimized for transonic
flight are fitted with a Mach trimmer as mentioned previously. Basically the Mach trimmer
provides an input in the other direction of sufficient magnitude to still give a progressive
increase in push force as speed (Mach number) is increased. The second half of the diagram
shows this compromise.

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Lateral Control
Disturbances in the rolling plane are often experienced with aerofoil sections not designed for
transonic flight by unequal formation of shockwaves on either wing. Apart from the varying
amount of total lift available on each wing (which would produce lateral control problems), the
formation of shockwaves can result in loss of aileron effectiveness due to flow separation
ahead of the aileron surface. To overcome the problem of reduced aileron effectiveness at
higher speeds, many aircraft are fitted with outboard spoilers, which operate through the
aileron control at high speeds. By deploying a spoiler device on the down wing, drag is
increased which induces a roll in the required direction.
The use of spoilers at high speed is also a result of the problem experienced with early highspeed designs where the use of aileron increased the lift at the rear of the upgoing wing,
which led to the wing twisting about its lateral axis. The result of this was to decrease the
angle of attack of the upgoing wing which instead of increasing wing lift, and sustaining the
demanded roll, in fact reduced the lift on the upgoing wing and reversed roll direction. In early
high-speed flight this was known as aileron reversal.
Directional Control
As with other controls, the rudder will normally have reduced effectiveness at high subsonic
Mach numbers due to the formation of shockwaves ahead of the control hinge line. For
modern high-speed aircraft that are required to manoeuvre in the transonic region, an all
moving slab fin is sometimes employed. However, for transport aircraft designed for high
subsonic cruise, a conventional fin and rudder combination is normally used so that low
speed directional stability requirements are also satisfied.

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The use of rudder at high subsonic Mach number can result in yaw in the opposite direction.
Application of rudder will cause one wing to travel faster than the other, which will then drive
that wing further into higher speed flow with resulting increase in drag. This increase in drag
will of course result in a yaw in the opposite direction to that demanded. As a result of this
sensitivity to yaw control at high Mach number, all aircraft designed for high speed/altitude
flight employ a yaw damper, which rigidly monitors directional control requirements and inputs
very small amounts of rudder at the earliest possible stage when required.
Aircraft Design for High-Speed Flight
Modern transport aircraft have the need to operate at the highest possible subsonic speeds
and also achieve the best possible operating economics. This of course means the lowest
drag possible for the desired cruise speed so that fuel burn is minimal. In short, design
objectives for the past 20 years have focussed on getting an aircraft to cruise at the highest
possible subsonic Mach number before the effects of Mcdr are felt. The following design
features have been found essential to satisfy these requirements.
Supercritical Wing Section
The purpose of the supercritical wing is mainly to increase Mcdr by delaying the formation of
shockwaves until a higher Mfs. In doing this there is also the objective of not reducing the
total lift achievable by a wing of given area. In other words it is just the wing section (camber
etc) that is changed.
The design difference with a supercritical wing is to flatten the top surface of the wing, thus
reducing the amount of top surface deceleration and consequently delaying the deceleration
of the flow and the formation of shockwaves. The shockwaves form more toward the trailing
edge of the wing and consequently reduces the effect of wave drag. The end result is an
increase in Mcdr for the wing, which allows a higher cruise speed for no significant increase
in drag. Clearly, the flattened top surface will reduce the amount of lift available from the wing
at a given speed, so to partly compensate for this a reflex camer is employed at the rear
undersurface. This design feature provides lift at the rear of the aerofoil and assists in
stabilizing the flow at the trailing edge of the wing. This in turn reduces drag that would
normally result from separated flow.
Supercritical wing sections allow increased cruising speed but also permit greater range for a
given airframe/engine mix by allowing reduced fuel flow in the cruise.
Wing Thickness/Chord Ratio

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One of the greatest problems in attempting to cruise at high Mach number is the drag
associated with flow separation behind a strong shockwave. If the onset of shockwave
formation can be delayed, or if the shockwave strength can be reduced, then drag penalties
will be minimal.
In the earliest days of design research for high-speed flight, it was found that a wing with a
low thickness/chord ratio (t/c) had far better high speed drag characteristics than a wing of
high t/c. With a low t/c the airflow over the top surface does not accelerate to Mach 1 as
readily, thus delaying the formation of the shocks and increasing Mcdr. Also, the intensity of
shocks is reduced which in turn reduces the degree of boundary layer separation and
consequently reduces the amount of total drag when Mcdr is reached. The drag curves below
readily demonstrate the benefits of low t/c ratio in terms of total drag and the delay in Mcdr.
The effects (if a high t/c ratio on transonic drag were first confirmed during US testing on the
X-1 series of aircraft as the following report extract shows:
NACA XS-1 testing also indicated, with shocking impact, just how much drag thick wing
sections added at transonic speeds. The NACA XS-1, with its 10% thickness/chord ratio
wing, had 30% more overall drag at transonic speeds than did the thinner wing of the Air
Force XS-1. Thick wing sections simply imposed unacceptable penalties for transonic and
supersonic airplane design
Low t/c wings also exhibit significant handling benefits in the transonic speed range. The CL,
curve below shows how rapid variations in lift are avoided, which greatly improves
longitudinal handling and stability. Note however that the total amount of lift is reduced in the
transonic range for the low t/c wing.

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Despite the benefits of low t/c wings for transonic flight, there are of course some
disadvantages. In the approach stage of flight these aerofoils are operating less efficiently
than a wing of high t/c and consequently have higher stalling speeds and higher induced
drag. To counter this problem, high-lift devices (normally leading and trailing edge flaps) must
be used to achieve reasonable approach speeds and landing distances.
Sweepback
A brief look at all modern transport aircraft designed for high-speed cruise demonstrates that
wing sweep is an essential design feature of such aircraft. Following the first exploratory
flights to high Mach numbers in the late 1940s, it was soon discovered that wing sweep had a
significant effect in delaying the detrimental effects of compressibility (shockwaves) and
permitted higher speeds to be achieved.
Below shows a wing that is swept back at an angle relative to the lateral axis of the aircraft.
Shown in the diagram is the flow across the wing due to the aircrafts forward motion (V). This
can be resolved into one component at right angle to the leading edge (V1), and the other
parallel to the leading edge (V2). Since the flow component V2 has no effect on the flow
across the wing, the component V1 will produce the entire pressure pattern over the wing.
Thus it is the component of the flow across the wing that affects the value of Merit and Mcdr.
Consequently, a much higher value of Mfs (V in the diagram) can be flown before V1 reaches
Mach 1, so delaying the onset of compressibility effects.

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Because the component of forward speed that is at right angles to the leading edge is the one
that determines the amount of lift at that section, then the amount of lift for a given speed is
less than for the same speed with no sweep. Consequently, the coefficient of lift (CL) for a
given aerofoil is less at a specific angle of attack for a swept wing than one without sweep. It
is for this reason that the swept wing lift curve has significantly less slope than a straight
wing, as shown below.

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The next diagram shows the effect of wing sweep on coefficient of drag. The ability to delay
the onset of transonic drag rise is of course the major benefit of sweepback for high-speed
transonic transport aircraft. However if the whole aircraft is considered, as must be the case
for practical application, the variation of drag with increasing speed is a little different as
shown below. By employing a wing sweep that delays the maximum wing drag until a later
Mach number, the aircrafts total drag increase is spread over a larger range of Mach
numbers. Also, the total value of maximum drag is less than if both wing and fuselage
reached their respective maximum at the same Mach number.
Limitations of Wing Sweep

The use of wing sweep was a crucial design step that allowed aircraft to travel faster; but
more importantly for the transport category aircraft, to travel far more efficiently at higher
Mach numbers. The theoretical benefits of wing sweep are unfortunately limited by two
factors, and the use of sweep has resulted in other handling and performance limitations.

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Reduction of theoretical benefit of wing sweep

Change in tip flow direction
Because of the lower pressure on the top surface of the wing, there is a change in the freestream flow direction near the tips as shown. The effect of this is to reduce the effective wing
sweep angle. Consequently, the onset of compressibility effects is experienced at a lower Mfs
than the theoretical value of the wing. The larger velocity component normal to the wing
leading edge gives a larger tip loading and the tip could bend and flex. Also the higher Mach
number at the tip causes compressibility effects and the tip could stall as a result of shock.
Flow compression at the wing root

The greatest acceleration of the flow takes place where the local t/c is, greatest, at the wing
root. Because the flow at the root is constrained by the fuselage, the accelerating flow is
compressed resulting in the formation of a series of weak compression waves. Adjacent to
the fuselage the compression may be diffused along a section of the chord, but further out
along the span these compression waves may coalesce and form a rear shockwave as
shown below. The overall effect of all this is greater transonic drag than theoretically
demonstrated for an isolated wing section.

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Handling and performance limitations of wing sweep.

Lower increase in lift with higher stall angle
The effect of the smaller increase in lift with increase in angle of attack as shown below
makes it difficult to achieve the necessary lift coefficients at reasonable landing speeds. To fly
at an angle of attack safely below the stall angle and thus achieve the best possible lift for
landing, requires the aircraft to be flown at a very high body angle in relation to the horizon.
So high in fact that it is too impractical because of the difficulty in forward vision and also
because this would necessitate very long landing gear legs to keep the tail from striking the
ground.
Concorde is a good example of the need to design around these problems of high sweep
angle. Concorde must have very high sweep due to very high cruise Mach numbers, but it
also has a droop nose for forward visibility during take-off and landing and it also has very
long gear legs. Not all aircraft can use these compromises so landing speeds are increased
or other means of lift augmentation are used (leading edge slats and flaps are the best
example used on all swept wing transport aircraft).
High drag at high angle of attack
Because of the formation of deep wing tip vortices, which combine with vortices on the
outboard leading edge, high sweep aircraft suffer very high values of induced drag at high
angles of attack. The effect of the sweep is to give a spanwise flow, toward the tip, in the
boundary layer. This spanwise flow encourages the tip vortex to extend its origin inboard
which exposes more wing to the vortex, and when flow separates at high angles
subsequently exposes more wing to separated flow, thus increasing drag. The very high
values of drag at high angles of attack make flight in this area inefficient and particularly
hazardous in the approach (to landing) phase.

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Attempts to reduce this effect include methods of boundary layer control, particularly leading
edge slats/slots (which energize the boundary layer at high angle, delaying separation);
boundary layer suck or blow control (not very common because of the large amount of engine
bleed air required); vortex generators which re-energize the boundary layer and delay
separation (but increase profile drag); and a saw-tooth leading edge which provides a break
in the leading edge, and holds the vortex at that point to prevent further inboard movement of
the vortex.
High minimum drag speed

The high minimum drag speed of swept wing aircraft makes speed control on final approach
very difficult. If the minimum drag speed is so high that the aircraft must approach below that
speed, then any small decrease in speed due to turbulence will result in significantly more
drag which will further reduce speed incurring even more drag, and so on. As a result, very
large power changes may be needed to regain correct approach speed. Many early
generation high performance swept wing military aircraft have been lost due to this problem.
The most common fix to this problem is to reduce the minimum drag speed temporarily by
deploying speed brakes or other drag device. In the early days one aircraft type had a drag
parachute that was specifically deployed on the approach to reduce minimum drag speed.
Today, aircraft are designed such that minimum drag speeds are not so high and high lift
devices are deployed on final approach.
Tip stalling and pitch-up
Because of the pressure pattern around a wing, all aerofoils have a tendency to tip stall
unless specific design measures are used. The use of washout is one common method of
reducing the likelihood of this problem in both straight wing and swept wing aircraft. However
with swept wing aircraft, any tendency to tip stall not only makes lateral control difficult but
also gives undemanded pitching moments. When a swept tip stalls, the effective centre of
pressure of the wing moves forward, which tends to pitch the nose of the aircraft up. Other
methods of boundary layer control, which prevent the spanwise flow that favours tip stalling,
will also reduce the tendency to tip stall. Pitch up can also be caused in thin swept wing
aircraft at high load factors (g). Under this condition, the wing flexes which reduces the angle
of attack, most notably at the tips. This causes the centre of pressure to move forward with
the result being pitch up.

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Deep stall
A swept-wing aircraft suffering pitch up may take the angle of attack well past the stalling
angle due to inertia effect of the pitching moment. Unlike a straight wing, which will
experience a pitch down when stalled, a stalled swept wing is likely to have a steady nose-up
pitching moment from the only remaining attached flow near the wing root. If a conventional
low tailplane is fitted, the tailplane/elevator can be used to pitch the nose down and regain
stable flight. However, if a high tail is fitted, the separated flow from the wing may envelope
the tailplane thus making it ineffective. In this case no restoring control is available and it may
not be possible to recover. The ensuing high rate of descent will further increase the angle of
attack thus perpetuating the deep stalled condition.
Below illustrates the problem of the high or T-tail in a deep stall. Swept wing aircraft with this
configuration are all fitted with stick pushers, which provide an undemanded nose-down
control at a very high angle of attack. This prevents the aircraft from achieving very high
angles of attack in the first place.

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Questions
Aerodynamics questions
1.
The speed of sound is related to temperature in the following manner:

a)
b)
c)
2.
If airflow decelerates when passing through a divergent duct and accelerates when
flowing through a convergent duct, the airflow in question will be at:
a)
b)
c)
3.
transonic speeds;
M 0.5;
M 5.0.
The transonic speed range can vary in size from a/c to a/c but always:
a)
b)
c)
7.
Mcrit;
Mdet;
Mcrd.
An a/c flying at 330 kts (TAS) in an area where the speed of sound is 661 kts is flying
at:
a)
b)
c)
6.
at any point where the local Mfs have reached unity;

upper surface of the wing;
canopy only.
The speed at which shockwave formation starts to occur on a particular a/c is known
as:
a)
b)
c)
5.
subsonic speeds;
supersonic speeds;
above M = 2.0.
As an a/c approaches supersonic speeds the first shockwaves appear:

a)
b)
c)
4.
Speed of sound = 39 (TK)

Speed of sound = 661 kts x T K
Speed of sound = 39 T K
Starts at M 0.7 and ends at Mcrit;

Begins at Mcrit and ends at Mdet;
Starts at Force divergence speed and ends at Mcrd.
Wave drag increases sharply at:

a)
b)
c)
the critical Mach Number;

the force divergence Mach Number;
at a speed 5 to 10 % below the critical Mach Number.

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8.
A/c approaching supersonic speeds experience:

a)
b)
c)
9.
At high transonic speeds a/c display a pitching tendency caused by the movement of
the CP, this pitching tendency is:
a)
b)
c)
10.
c)
the a/c has no more subsonic flow over it;

the bow wave is oblique;
there is no more significant movement of the bow wave with increase in a/c
speed.
Force divergence is:

a)
b)
c)
15.
The shock stall will occur suddenly.

Shock stall occurs at low angles of attack where as the conventional stall only
occurs at the critical angle of attack.
Shock stall pitch nose up, conventional stall pitch nose down.
Mdet is the speed at which :

a)
b)
c)
14.
Shock waves strike the tail section.

The a/c is flown at high angles of attack.
The formation of shockwaves cause airflow to separate from the wing.
The main difference between the shock stall and the conventional stall is:
a)
b)
13.
be halved;
be doubled;
increase four times.
The shock stall occurs when:

a)
b)
c)
12.
nose up known as Flare;

nose down known as Tuck;
first nose up then nose down.
If the thickness ratio of a wing is doubled the wave drag will:

a)
b)
c)
11.
a rearward movement of the CP;

rolling tendency to the left;
oscillatory pitching moments.
when CL decrease and CD increases suddenly;

when CL increase and CD decreases suddenly;
where the a/c diverges from its flight path because of shock wave formation.
Force divergence occurs at:

a)
b
c)
Mdet;
Mcrit;
5 % above Mcrit.

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16.
Which of the following statements regarding drag are true:

a)
b)
c)
17.
The bow wave attaches to the leading edge at:

a)
b)
c)
18.
a rounded leading edge;

a blunt leading edge;
a sharp leading edge.
Which of the following speeds will be the greatest:

a)
b)
c)
20.
Mcrit;
Mach 1;
Mdet.
A low detachment Mach Number results from:

a)
b)
c)
19.
Boundary layer separation drag is a transonic phenomena which builds up and

then decays at supersonic speeds.
Once the a/c passes through the sound barrier, drag reduces to a value below
that of the subsonic values.
The formation of shockwaves on the a/c will effectively reduce the drag on the
a/c.
Mcrit;
Mcdr;
Mach 0.5.
In order to keep drag at a low value at high speeds the principles of the area rule are
used; to comply with this the fuselage at the point where the wings are attached will:
a)
b)
c)
increase in diameter;
remain at the same diameter;
decrease in diameter.
21.
In supersonic flight the higher the T/C ratio of a wing the higher the:
22.
a)
Mcrit;
b)
Mdet;
c)
Mshock
Climbing at a constant Mach Number will result in:
a)
b)
c)
23.
decreasing T.A.S. above the Tropopause;

increasing T.A.S. above the Tropopause;
the T.A.S. remains constant with height.
A good fineness ratio for the fuselage of a supersonic or near supersonic aircraft is:
a)
b)
c)
2 %;
7 %;
10 %.

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24.
At high subsonic or transonic speeds the most important type of drag to be considered
is:
a)
b)
c)
25.
Mach No. is:

a)
b)
c)
26.
at the leading edge;

near to the point of maximum wing thickness;
at the trailing edge.
A wing at Mach 0.8 has supersonic flow between 20% chord and 60% chord. There
will be a shockwave:
a)
b)
c)
30.
speeds where the airflow is completely subsonic;

speeds where the airflow is completely supersonic;
speeds where the airflow is partly subsonic and partly supersonic.
At speeds approaching Mach 1.0, a shockwave will appear first:

a)
b)
c)
29.
be greater if temperature increases;

be less if temperature increases;
be the same at all temperatures.
The term transonic speed for an aircraft means:

a)
b)
c)
28.
the ratio of the aircraft's TAS to the speed of sound at sea-level;

the ratio of the aircraft's TAS to the speed of sound at the same atmospheric
conditions;
the ratio of the aircraft's IAS to the speed of sound at the same atmospheric
conditions.
The Mach Number corresponding to a given aircraft TAS will:

a)
b)
c)
27.
induced drag;
form drag;
interference drag.
at 20% chord only;

at 20% chord and 60% chord;
at 60% chord only.
The Critical Mach No. is:

a)
b)
c)
the Mach No. when the aircraft reaches the speed of sound;
the Mach No. when a shockwave forms at the leading edge;
the aircraft's Mach No. when the airflow reaches the speed of sound at some
point on the aircraft.

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31.
At speeds just above the Critical mach No. the drag coefficient:
a)
b)
c)
32.
At speeds just above the Critical Mach No. the lift coefficient:
a)
b)
c)
33.
the shockwaves striking the tail;

the high-speed airflow striking the leading edge of the wing;
the airflow being detached by the shockwave and the turbulent air flow striking
the tail.
During the acceleration from subsonic to supersonic speed, the centre of pressure
will:
a)
b)
c)
38.
increase;
decrease;
remain the same.
High-speed buffet is caused by:

a)
b)
c)
37.
a nose-down pitch;
a nose-up pitch;
an oscillation in pitch.
At speeds just above the Critical mach No. the L/D ratio will:
a)
b)
c)
36.
higher than a wing of high thickness/chord ratio;

lower than a wing of high thickness/chord ratio;
the same as a wing of high thickness/chord ratio.
An aircraft flying above the Critical Mach No. will usually experience:
a)
b)
c)
35.
will start to increase;

will start to decrease;
will remain constant.
For a wing of low thickness/chord ratio, the Critical Mach No. will be:
a)
b)
c)
34.
will start to increase;

will start to decrease;
move forward;
move rearward;
remain stationary.
The purpose of vortex generators is:

a)
b)
c)
to reduce drag by delaying boundary layer separation;

to increase the lift of the wing;
to counteract the effect of the wing tip vortices.

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39.
The speed of sound is defines as:

a)
b)
c)
40.
The speed of a sound wave varies with:

a)
b)
c)
41.
a speed proportional to Mcrit;

the speed of sound;
a speed which is quite unpredictable.
When a wing moves through the air, the speed at which the pressure waves produced
by its interaction with the air:
a)
b)
c)
45.
small but measurable changes in the compressibility of the air;

small variations in the density of the air which cannot be measured;
significant variations in the density of the air.
The disturbances around a wing which are caused by its passage through the medium
surrounding, it travels at:
a)
b)
c)
44.
M# = k T where K is a known constant and T are in Celsius;

LSS = k T where K is known constant and T are in Absolute;
M# = k T where K is a known constant and T are in Absolute.
Small pressure changes around a wing at low speeds cause:

a)
b)
c)
43.
temperature and density of the medium through which it is traveling;

height of the density atmosphere;
height of the aircraft.
The formula for calculating the true speed of sound at any altitude is:
a)
b)
c)
42.
the speed at which sound travels through air;

the speed at which a very small pressure disturbance is propagated in a fluid
under specified conditions;
the speed at which a very small pressure disturbance can be measured in a
fluid under specified conditions.
travel forwards from the aircraft as long as the aircraft speed is below
M 1.0;
travel forwards from the aircraft at all speeds;
travel in all directions radiating from the nose of the aircraft at the speed of
sound.
The pressure waves produced by an aircraft traveling at subsonic speed:

a)
b)
c)
completely cover the aircraft;

cover those parts of the aircraft which are ahead of the Mcrit pressure wave;
cover those parts of the aircraft aft of the Mcrit pressure wave.

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46.
At true air speeds above the local speed of sound:

a)
b)
c)
47.
TAS and compressibility effects are related by:

a)
b)
c)
48.
b)
c)
always lower than Mfs;

always higher than Mfs;
the same, higher or lower than Mfs depending on geometry and attitude.
When the airflow above the wing decelerates to subsonic a shockwave is formed:
a)
b)
c)
52.
the ratio of the actual speed of the airflow around a point to the speed of sound
at that point;
the ratio of the maximum speed of the airflow around a point to the speed of
sound at that point;
the ratio of the maximum speed of the airflow around a point to the speed of
sound at Mcrit at that point.
Mlocal is:
a)
b)
c)
51.
the M# of the fastest moving airflow associated with the passage of an aircraft;
the M# of the airflow in contact with the Mcrit pressure wave;
the true M# of the aircraft.
The local mach number (Mlocal) can be defined as:

a)
50.
IAS;
Mcrit;
M#.
Free Stream Mach Number (Mfs) is:

a)
b)
c)
49.
the air ahead of the wing is accelerated to the local free Mach No.;
the air ahead of the aircraft is completely unaffected by the pressure field
formed around the wing;
the air ahead of the aircraft is affected by the pressure field formed around the
wing to a greater of lesser degree according to the Mcrit.
above the wing at right angles to the angle of attack;

above the wing at right angles to the airflow;
above the wing at right angles to chord.
At Mcrit:
a)
b)
c)
the air immediately in front of the shock wave is transonic and the air
immediately behind the shockwave is supersonic;
the air immediately in front of the shockwave is supersonic and the air
immediately behind the shockwave is transonic;
the air immediately in front of the shockwave is supersonic and the air
immediately behind the shockwave is subsonic.

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53.
Mcrit is the Mach number when:

a)
b)
c)
54.
Mcrit for an aerofoil varies:

a)
b)
c)
55.
at the leading edge

near to the point of maximum wing thickness
at the trailing edge.
The Mach no. corresponding to a given aircraft TAS will:

a)
b)
c)
60.
the Mach no. when the aircraft reaches the speed of sound
the Mach no. when a shockwave forms at the leading edge
the aircraft's Mach no. when the airflow reaches the speed of sound at some
point on the aircraft.
At speeds approaching Mach 1.0, a shockwave will appear first:

a)
b)
c)
59.
at 20% chord only

at 20% chord and 60% chord
at 60% chord only.
The critical Mach no. is:

a)
b)
c)
58.
drop;
rise;
rise or drop according to the Mlocal.
A wing chord at Mach 0.8 has supersonic flow between 20% chord and 60% chord.
There will be a shockwave:
a)
b)
c)
57.
with angle of attack;

with aircraft CG;
with aircraft weight.
At high Mach numbers, `tuck under' will tend to cause the aircraft nose to:
a)
b)
c)
56.
Mfs reaches unity;

any Mlocal reaches unity;
a shockwave is formed ahead of the wing.
be greater if temperature increases

be less if temperature increases
be the same at all temperatures.
Mach no. is:

a)
b)
c)
the ratio of the aircraft's TAS to the speed of sound at sea level
the ratio of the aircraft's TAS to the speed of sound at the same atmospheric
conditions
the ratio of the aircraft's IAS to the speed of sound at the same atmospheric
conditions.

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61.
The term transonic speed for an aircraft means:

a)
b)
c)
62.
The critical Mach no. may be increased by:

a)
b)
c)
63.
a nose down pitch

a nose up pitch
an oscillation in pitch.
At speeds just above the critical Mach no. the L/D ratio will:
a)
b)
c)
68.
the shockwaves striking the tail

the high speed airflow striking the leading edge of the wing
the airflow being detached by the shockwave and the turbulent airflow striking
the tail.
An aircraft flying above the critical Mach no. will usually experience:
a)
b)
c)
67.
will start to increase

will start to decrease
High speed buffet is caused by:

a)
b)
c)
66.
will start to increase

will start to decrease
At speeds just above the critical Mach no. the drag coefficient:
a)
b)
c)
65.
using a higher thickness/chord ratio wing

using more powerful engines
sweeping back the wing.
At speeds just above the critical Mach no. the lift coefficient:
a)
b)
c)
64.
speeds where the airflow is completely subsonic

speeds where the airflow is completely supersonic
speeds where the airflow is partly subsonic and partly supersonic.
increase
decrease
remain the same.
For a wing of low fineness ratio, the critical Mach no. will be:
a)
b)
c)
higher than a wing of high fineness ratio

the same as a wing of high fineness ratio
lower than a wing of high fineness ratio.

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69.
For a wing of low thickness chord ratio, the critical Mach no. will be:
a)
b)
c)
70.
During the acceleration from subsonic to supersonic speed, the centre of pressure
will:
a)
b)
c)
71.
higher than a wing of high thickness/chord ratio

lower than a wing of high thickness/chord ratio
the same as a wing of high thickness/chord ratio.
move forward
move rearward
remain stationary.
The critical Mach no. will occur at the lowest TAS when:
a)
b)
c)
flying at low altitude

flying at high altitude at ISA +10 C
flying at high altitude at ISA -10 C

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Supersonic Flight Questions

1.
At supersonic speeds converging flow causes:

a)
b)
c)
2.
An obstruction placed in a supersonic flow will cause:

a)
b)
c)
3.
subsonic;
supersonic but less than the flow in front of the wave;
supersonic and greater than the flow ahead of the wave.
If supersonic flow were to encounter divergence, the flow would:

a)
b)
c)
8.
the oblique shock wave;

the rise in ram temperature at the leading edge;
the decrease in the speed of sound close to the leading edge.
The flow behind an oblique shock wave will always be:

a)
b)
c)
7.
always less than the mach angle;

the same as the mach angle;
greater than the mach angle.
The subsonic flow behind an unattached bow wave is caused by:

a)
b)
c)
6.
decelerate to supersonic speeds;

become subsonic;
reduce its mach no. to M = 1.2
The wave angle in relation to the Mach angle is:

a)
b)
c)
5.
a shock wave;
a decrease in the speed of sound:
a decrease in the static temperature.
When air passes through a normal shockwave it will:

a)
b)
c)
4.
deceleration;
acceleration;
breakaway.
accelerate, decrease in pressure and density;

decelerate, increase in pressure and density;
accelerate, increase in pressure and density.
Supersonic flow encounters a compressive corner and will:

a)
b)
c)
form a shockwave decelerate and change direction;

form a shockwave and increase Mach Number;
form a shockwave and accelerate.

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9.
The type of flow in which the velocity increases in speeds above the speed of sound is
called:
a)
b)
c)
10.
Flow into a corner is called:

a)
b)
c)
11.
just below Mach 1.0;

equal to Mach 1.0;
just above Mach 1.0.
The air immediately behind a `normal' shockwave:

a)
b)
c)
16.
its speed increases;

its speed decreases;
its speed remains the same.
A bow wave develops on the wing at a speed:

a)
b)
c)
15.
static pressure increases, density decreases, temperature increases;

static pressure increases, density increases, temperature increases;
static pressure decreases, density increases, temperature decreases.
As air flows through a shockwave:

a)
b)
c)
14.
increases;
decreases;
remains the same.

a)
b)
c)
13.
expansive flow and results in a shockwave;

compressive and results in a lower velocity;
compressive and results in subsonic flow.
At supersonic speeds the maximum lift coefficient:

a)
b)
c)
12.
expansive flow;
compressive flow;
flow into a venturi.
is always subsonic;
may be transonic;
is supersonic at free stream Mach numbers above M3.5.
When a supersonic air stream passes through a shockwave:

a)
b)
c)
the static pressure behind the wave increases;

the static pressure behind the wave decreases;
the airflow direction immediately behind the wave alters.

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17.

a)
b)
c)
18.
static pressure increases, density decreases, temperature increases

static pressure increases, density increases, temperature increases
static pressure decreases, density increases, temperature decreases.

a)
b)
c)
its speed increases

its speed decreases
its speed remains the same.

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High Speed Wing Questions

1.
Wings with high fineness ratio's will have:

a)
b)
c)
2.
A high speed aerofoil will have its centre of maximum camber:

a)
b)
c)
3.
using a higher thickness/chord ratio wing;

using more powerful engines;
sweeping back the wing.
A Mach trimmer is a device which:

a)
b)
c)
8.
12 %;
10 %;
5 %.
The Critical Mach No. may be increased by:

a)
b)
c)
7.
a blunt leading edge;

maximum thickness point well aft;
a high thickness to chord ratio.
A good t/c ratio for supersonic wing is:

a)
b)
c.
6.
sweep back and low aspect ratio;

sweep back and high aspect ratio;
a straight wing with high aspect ratio.
Which of the following features will produce a higher Mcrit:

a)
b)
c)
5.
at the 25 % M.A.C. position;

at 50 % M.A.C.;
at the quarter chord point.
A good aerofoil shape in regard to operation at high Mach numbers will have:
a)
b)
c)
4.
high Mcrit;
low Mcrit;
high Mcrit.
automatically compensates the trim changes in the transonic region;

prevents the aircraft from exceeding its Critical Mach No.;
switches out the trim control to prevent damage in the transonic region.
Mcrit can be raised by:

a)
b)
c)
increasing slimness and sweepback;

decreasing aircraft weight;
increasing the power to weight ratio.

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9.
High speed flight requires a wing with:

a)
b)
c)
a low thickness/chord ratio;

a high thickness/chord ratio;
a high coefficient of lift.
Swept Wing Questions

1.
The best way to increase the critical Mach Number in design is to:
a)
b)
c)
2.
The biggest disadvantage of sweep back on fast jet aircraft is:

a)
b)
c)
3.
its effect on lateral stability;

the effect on longitudinal stability;
the tendency for wing tip stalling is increased.
An increase in sweep back has the greatest percentage effect on:

a)
b)
c)
4.
increase the available thrust;

decrease the sweep back angle;
increase the sweep back angle.
critical Mach Number;

drag peak Mach Number;
causes the same percentage increase in drag rise and critical Mach Number.
As sweepback is increased, drag at high speeds:

a)
b)
c)
increases;
decreases;
can vary according to the actual shape of the wing.

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Stability Questions
1.
One of the characteristics of a swept wing during a shock stall is:

a)
b)
c)
2.
As CP moves rearwards when an a/c reaches supersonic speeds its longitudinal

stability will:
a)
b)
c)
3.
c)
the same critical Mach Number as the main plane;

a lower critical Mach Number than the main plane;
a higher critical Mach Number than the main plane.
A Mach trimmer is a device that:

a)
b)
c)
7.
shockwaves form at the nose of the a/c;

there is a tendency to mount engines further back and so shifting the C of G
rearwards.
smaller tail sections are used to reduce drag.
To avoid the possibility of loss of elevator control it would be desirable for the tail
plane to have:
a)
b)
c)
6.
less lateral stability;

more lateral stability;
dihedral stability.
Directional stability will reduce for an a/c designed for high speed flight because:
a)
b)
5.
increase;
decrease;
remain the same.
In supersonic flight a/c are considered to have:

a)
b)
c)
4.
a pitch up;
a pitch down;
a yaw left and right.
compensates for all the pitch changes required through transition;

prevents the a/c from exceeding its Mcrit;
increases the Mcrit for that a/c.
Dutch roll will occur when:

a)
b)
c)
an a/c has a strong static lateral stability in comparison to its static directional
stability;
an a/c has strong static directional stability in comparison to its static lateral
stability.
an a/c must be yawed before rolled.

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8.
A/c which tend to enter spiral dives have:

a)
b)
c)
9.
The normal method of preventing or reducing Dutch Roll is:

a)
b)
c)
10.
dihedral;
yaw damper;
differential ailerons.
A Mach trimmer is a device which:

a)
b)
c)
11.
reduced directional stability and high lateral stability;

directional divergence and strong lateral stability;
strong directional stability in comparison to its lateral stability.
automatically compensates the trim changes in the transonic region

prevents the aircraft from exceeding its critical Mach no.
switches out the trim control to prevent damage in the transonic region.
The purpose of vortex generators are:

a)
b)
c)
to reduce drag by delaying boundary layer separation

to increase the lift of the wing
to counteract the effect of the wing tip vortices.

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CHAPTER 3
THE JET ENGINE
The term gas turbine is the correct name for engines that are popularly known as jet
engines. Gas turbine engines now come in a variety of forms and derivatives, the two most
common for transport aircraft being turbofan and turboprop engines. The basic name is a
simple description of any engine that derives its power from a rotating turbine that is in turn
driven by a flow of gas passing through the engine. The gas is a product of the combustion of
a fuel and air mixture, and in most gas turbines forms a jet of gas, which provides the
propulsive force.
The development of the gas turbine engine
The concept of producing a forward movement by expelling a fluid in the opposite direction is
a perfect example of Isaac Newtons third law of motion, which states that for every action
(expelling a jet of fluid) there is an equal and opposite reaction (forward movement of the
body where the jet of fluid came from).
Although Newton was the first to quantify this concept, its application had been recognized by
man for thousands of years. Like so many other basic laws of physics, the problem of
previous generations was to apply the law to advantage. About 120 BC a Greek
mathematician invented a simple steam engine, which first employed the principle of jet
propulsion. Below shows this engine which directed steam from boiling water in the lower
vessel out of nozzles mounted on each side of a sphere.
The resultant rotation of the sphere was crudely employed to operate a cable assembly for a
variety of uses. The rotating motion of the sphere is exactly the same as we see today with a
rotating water sprinkler. In both cases, an expelled fluid (steam or water) causes an opposite
reaction.

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The great thinkers of the middle ages realized that this principle could be used to propel
vehicles, if the propulsive force could be made large enough. Newton tried by building a large
steam boiler and jet assembly on top of a wagon. Like so many other attempts at powered
vehicles, the engine produced too little energy for the combined weight of the engine and
vehicle.
In the later part of the nineteenth century steam engines had been developed to a
significantly higher level of efficiency and were used widely to operate locomotives and ships.
As part of this development, particularly with marine engines, turbines were developed as a
means of extracting energy from the escaping steam to drive a rotating assembly, such as a
ships propeller. The development of turbines was the critical step needed to proceed toward
the engines of today.
In 1929 Frank Whittle, an engineering officer in the Royal Air Force, patented his design for a
turbojet (a gas turbine engine which received its propulsive force by expelling a jet of gas),
but it was not until 1941 that this engine first flew in the Gloster G-40. In the meantime, with
the same pressures of war that drove the British venture, German designer von Ohain flew
his very similar engine in 1939. In both cases, technology developed from steam turbines had
assisted in the design of the engines, but an expanding fuel/air gas mixture had replaced
steam, which allowed for significantly more energy to be extracted compared to a steam
engine of similar weight. Not only was the power to weight ratio vastly better than older steam
turbine engines, it was also much better than the power to weight ratio of wartime piston
engines. The gas turbine engine had arrived, and it was this capability to produce so much
power for relatively little weight that made it so well adapted for aviation.

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Operation of the gas turbine engine
The majority of gas turbine engines employed in aviation are jet engines. That is, they are
either the older pure turbojets or more common turbofan engines, both of which produce all of
their propulsive force by expelling a jet of gas from the exhaust and fan duct. The general
configuration of a turbojet and two types of turbofan are shown below. The manner in which
this propulsive force (thrust) is produced from these jet engines will be examined shortly, but
first we will identify the other types of engine in the gas turbine family.
Turboprop engines are the next most common form of gas turbine. These engines use the
rotating turbine assembly to drive a propeller through a suitable step-down gear system.
Turboprops combine the power of a gas turbine engine with the low speed propulsive
efficiency of a conventional propeller. Thus, they are used mainly for slower aircraft,
particularly those operating over shorter stage lengths or from shorter airstrips. A typical
turboprop layout is also shown on the next page.
Ducted and unducted fan engines are currently being developed to satisfy the two main
design criteria for the early 21st century further reduction in operating cost per passenger
mile (i.e. more efficiency), and reduced noise levels. The ducted fan is a further development
of the turbofan, with a much bigger fan utilized to increase thrust. It too can be considered a
jet engine since the air passing through the fan is contained by the duct. The unducted fan on
the other hand has some features of a turboprop since the air passing through the fan is free
to mix with ambient air and does not produce a distinct jet of exhaust from the fan. However
the unducted fan still produces jet thrust as well from the gas expelled from the engine core.

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Below shows two layouts for an unducted fan and a typical ducted fan arrangement.
The previous paragraphs show that an increasingly complex range of gas turbines is being
developed which makes the identification of the type of engine arrangement more difficult.
A simple gas turbine engine family tree:
Principles of Jet Thrust

By now we know that a jet engine produces its propulsive force and propels the aircraft
forward by expelling a jet of gas at a high velocity. The theoretical basis of this phenomenon
is found in Newtons second and third laws of motion. The third law has already been
discussed and establishes the resultant forward direction of the reaction on the aircraft after
expelling the jet rearward. For this reason a jet engine (and also a rocket) is sometimes
referred to as a reaction engine. The second law states that a change in motion (a change in
velocity) is proportional to the force applied. The air passing through the engine experiences
this change in motion and thus the force is the force applied to the air. The third law then
allows us to assume that the force applied to the air by accelerating it, is then applied in the
opposite direction as thrust. Mathematically, this law is expressed by the following equation:
F = Ma
where F = force, M = mass and a = acceleration

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In this equation, acceleration is the change in velocity that occurs. The implication of this
relationship is that when applied to the aircraft in a forward direction, this thrust force will
accelerate the aircraft by an amount depending on the aircraft mass. Before this can happen
however, the magnitude of the thrust force must be reduced by the drag force present at the
time. The forward motion creates aerodynamic drag as seen previously. To attempt to
quantify a force we must apply the term mass correctly. Although it is possible to consider
the numerical value of mass the same as a measured weight for calculations close to the
earths surface, the terms are not the same. If we are to fully understand the principles
involved, we must understand the distinction.
Mass is the amount of matter in a body and remains unchanged regardless of where in space
the body is located, i.e. on the earths surface or in the outer atmosphere. Weight is in fact a
force and varies depending on the amount of acceleration provided in turn by gravity. Since
gravity varies with distance from a large body (the earth), so too does weight. When we stand
on a set of scales we see a numerical value of the gravitational force (W) that exists as
gravity attempts to accelerate our mass (M) toward the centre of the earth at a rate ofg,
which is the gravitational acceleration constant at the earths surface. Note that this
relationship expressed as:
W = Mg
is in exactly the same form as F = Ma, shown earlier.
The thrust equation
To produce thrust from a jet engine, air that enters at the intake must be accelerated through
the engine such that the exhaust velocity is much faster than the intake velocity. This large
acceleration of a relatively small mass of air is what produces the thrust force (i.e. F = Ma).
F = Ma
The sum of all the forces on the engine (i.e. the aircraft) is equal to the time rate of change of
the linear momentum, therefore
P = MV (momentum = mass x velocity)
therefore
F = d/dt MV
so
F = Mass flow x Change in velocity

T = Mdot x (V2 V1)
where T thrust, Mdot = mass flow, V2 = exhaust velocity and V1 = aircraft velocity.
This equation is the basis for understanding how an engine produces thrust and would be
strictly correct if the inlet air passed through the engine without a change of mass. The
obvious flaw in this basic equation is that no allowance is made for the addition of fuel to the
air passing through the engine. Fuel that is fed into the air mixture is clearly essential for the
process to be ongoing, and so the momentum of the fuel must also be considered. Thus the
equation now becomes:
T = (Ma + Mf)V2 - (MaV1 + MfVf)

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where Ma is air mass flow, Mf is fuel mass flow and Vf is the initial velocity of the fuel. Since
the fuel is carried in the aircraft it has no velocity relative to the aircraft. Thus Vf is zero. The
equation can now be modified as follows:
T = (Ma + Mf)V2 (MaV1 + 0)
T = MaV2 + MfV2 MaV1
T = Ma(V2 V1) + MfV2
This equation is used when attempting to calculate an accurate measure of thrust. Since the
mass of fuel used in a given time is only a fraction of the air mass that passes through the
engine in the same time, approximate values of thrust can be calculated by the earlier
formula:
T = Ma(V2 V1)
so
T = pV2S(V2 V1)
where p is air density, V2 is exhaust velocity and S is the exhaust cross sectional area.
Generating thrust within the engine
Although when assessing aircraft performance we are only interested in the net thrust
produced by the engine measured at the exhaust, the production of a thrust force within the
engine is a progressive process. Each time the momentum of the gas mixture is increased,
thrust is produced at that point. The changing pressures through the engine are a good
indication of varying momentum and hence thrust force, since engine pressure is proportional
to thrust. As the air passes through the compressor at the front of the engine, pressure is
increased. Following combustion, pressure decreases through the turbine as power is
extracted to operate the engine. The net thrust of the engine is a result of pressure and
momentum changes through the engine. Some of these changes produce forward forces
while others produce rearward forces. Whenever there is an increase in total pressure (by
compression) or by a change from kinetic energy to pressure energy, forward forces are
produced. Conversely, rearward forces result when pressure energy decreases or is
converted into kinetic energy, as in the exhaust nozzle. However by the time the gas mixture
leaves the exhaust nozzle, the net increase in pressure is an indication of the thrust produced
by the engine.
Below shows the change in pressure and also the net increase in pressure for a simple
turbojet.

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This relationship between engine pressures and thrust is applied to modern turbofan engines
by the use of engine pressure ratio (EPR) indicators as the primary power setting instrument.
The EPR is the ratio between the compressor inlet total pressure and turbine discharge total
pressure. The total pressure of a gas stream is the sum of the dynamic pressure ( 1/2pV 2)
and the static pressure (P).
Engine Efficiency
Since power is a measure of force multiplied by speed, the propulsive power of a jet engine
can be expressed as:
Propulsive Power = Thrust x TAS
This power is either dissipated in overcoming drag forces or is used to increase the energy of
the aircraft. To provide this propulsive power, energy is extracted from fuel. Thus the overall
efficiency (No) of the engine can be expressed as:
No = propulsive power developed
fuel power consumed
Fuel power is first converted to gas power in the form of expanding gases, which are then
converted to propulsive power. During this process however, a considerable amount of
energy is lost by the release of heat energy in the exhaust gases to atmosphere. The useful
energy in the exhaust gases is of course in the form of kinetic energy, which as previously
described, represents an increase in momentum. The engines thermal efficiency is
expressed as Nth, where:
Nth =

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rate of increase in KE
rate of gases rate of energy release fuel

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Since the difference between the two variables in this equation represents lost heat to the
atmosphere, the function is described as thermal efficiency. Although thermal efficiency is a
useful measure of an engines efficiency, it does not tell the full story. Also needed is a
measure of propulsive efficiency, Np, expressed as:
Np =
propulsive power developed

rate of increase in KE of gases
Looking at the parameters used in the three efficiency terms the following relationship can be
established:
No = Nth x Np
Below shows in diagrammatic form the breakdown of the various parameters expressed in
power measurement (megawatts) form, from which calculations of the various efficiencies
can be made.
The most common means of expressing an engines efficiency is the use of propulsive
efficiency, as it is a useful way to compare the relative benefits of different engine
configurations. An analysis of thermal efficiency is more useful however, when comparing the
relative internal efficiencies of different engine models within a group of the approximate
same power. Below shows the variation of propulsive efficiency with TAS for the major engine
configurations.

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Although the conversion of fuel energy into kinetic energy determines the thermal (or internal)
efficiency of an engine, the degree of efficiency of the conversion of that kinetic energy to
propulsive work determines the propulsive (or external) efficiency. This depends on the
amount of kinetic energy wasted by the propelling mechanism which in turn depends on the
mass airflow multiplied by the square of its velocity.
From such understanding it can be seen that the high velocity and relatively low mass jet
exhaust wastes much more energy than the propeller with its low velocity, high mass airflow.
This difference in propulsive efficiencies is shown clearly at the lower speeds in the graph
above. However at higher speeds the propulsive efficiency of the propeller reduces
dramatically due to drag experienced from compressibility. On the other hand the propulsive
efficiency of the jet continues to increase as the relative velocity of the gas jet to the aircraft
speed reduces. A jet-propelled aircraft that could travel at the same speed as the exhaust
velocity would achieve 100% propulsive efficiency. Therefore, it is important to note that the
highest possible cruising speeds are desirable for jet aircraft, so that the best possible
propulsive efficiency can be achieved. Against this must be balanced the aerodynamic drag
experienced at high speeds.

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Factors Affecting Thrust

The jet engine is significantly more sensitive to operating variables than is the reciprocating or
piston engine. These variables can be divided into two main groups: those that change
because of design differences or operating characteristics of the engine; and those that
change due only to environmental variations. The first group includes the following factors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Engine speed.
Size of nozzle area and shape of the nozzle.
Weight of fuel flow.
Amount of air bled from compressor.
Turbine inlet temperature.
Use of water injection.
As the list shows, most of these factors are design features and the only one that the pilot can
normally vary is engine speed or rpm. The second group consists of factors which will vary
depending on where and how the aircraft is operated:
7.
8.
9.
10.
Aircraft speed.
Air temperature.
Air pressure.
Humidity (water vapour).
Of these various factors, only those that are likely to change from one flight to another will be
discussed these are the factors over which a pilot generally has some control.
Effect of engine speed on jet thrust
The next graph shows a typical variation of thrust as engine speed, or rpm, is increased. Note
that the relationship is not linear but shows a greater increase in thrust per unit rpm at higher
engine speeds than at lower engine speeds. By increasing engine speed, the compressor is
able to process more air in a given time. The resultant increase in thrust with increase in rpm
is due to greater mass flow of air. An inspection of the basic formula T = M(V2-V1) confirms
that an increase in mass flow will simply increase the size of the thrust force.

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The precise shape of the curve will vary from one engine to another, but as a general rule
approximately 50% of maximum thrust is generated in the top 25% of available rpm. For this
reason, jet engines are very responsive to power lever movement toward the higher end of
the selectable range, but give very little result (thrust increase) for a given lever movement at
the lower end.
Effect of aircraft speed on net thrust
As with the effect of engine speed, inspection of the basic formula T = M(V2-V1) shows the
effect of increasing aircraft speed. Since exhaust velocity is generally fixed by exhaust Mach
number, we could assume that an increase in aircraft speed( V1) would reduce engine thrust,
all other parameters being constant. The graph below shows the theoretical reduction in
thrust due to increasing aircraft speed. However, since air is compressible, above moderate
true airspeeds, an increase in speed results in the compression of air which in turn increases
density and hence mass flow. Thus, the theoretical reduction is actually offset by ram effect.
The second half of the previous graph shows the combined effects of reducing thrust with
speed and ram effect. The top line is the resultant of both and shows that, in practice, thrust
falls only slightly as a result of increasing speed, before increasing notably at higher speeds.
As a general rule, 250 KTAS can be considered the speed where thrust loss is the greatest,
before ram recovery takes effect.
This combined effect shown can be considered typical for most jet engines operating at
subsonic speeds. Although the ram effect shown is clearly due to increasing mass flow as a
result of higher intake pressure, at higher speeds that mass flow is reduced slightly because
of increased temperature. Ironically, the increased temperature (which has the effect of
reducing air density) is directly a result of increased air pressure, i.e. compressibility
temperature rise. Below shows the resultant ram effect due to increased air temperature,
notably at the higher speeds.
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Effect of ambient pressure and temperature on thrust

All jet engines have a declared rated power expressed in terms of static thrust. This rated
thrust is a means of assessing the relative thrust of different engines as well as an indicator of
a given engines ability to propel a specific aircraft type. Static thrust is measured at sea level,
zero airspeed and with standard atmospheric parameters of +15C and 1013 hPa. It follows
that a change to these parameters will vary the engines thrust.
Both ambient temperature and ambient atmospheric pressure dictate air density, which in
turn will affect the mass flow of air into an engine. As we have seen before, a change in mass
flow will affect thrust. Below shows the relationship between thrust and air temperature, whilst
the following graph shows thrust changes with atmospheric pressure. Of the two, temperature
has the greater effect due to the large range of operating temperatures that can be
experienced at sea level.

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Although both temperature and pressure vary at sea level, an obvious environmental
parameter that changes both is altitude. As altitude is increased, temperature reduces to the
tropopause and pressure reduces steadily to the outer atmosphere. The combined effect of
both in the troposphere is to reduce thrust as altitude is increased since the pressure effect
on density is far greater than the reducing temperature effect. Above the Tropopause
however, temperature remains constant and the rate of reduction of thrust with altitude is
increased. Figure 4-12 shows thrust reduction with altitude.
Effect of humidity on jet thrust

While humidity has a fairly large effect on the power output of a reciprocating engine, its
effect on the gas turbine is negligible, given the relatively small mass of water vapour in
humid air compared to the total air mass. Since the weight of water vapour is only 63% of that
of dry air, increasing humidity will decrease the total mass per unit volume. A reciprocating
engines carburetor is essentially a volume measuring component which will not sense the
changing mass per unit volume and will continue to provide the same fuel. Over the vast
number of individual carburetor cycles necessary to produce one horsepower, the effect of
reduced air mass has a measurable effect and thus power is lost.
However, a jet engine operates with an excess of air needed for combustion, the remainder
being used to cool the engine down. Consequently, a change in humidity has little effect on
the combustion process or the total mass of air being processed in a given time.
Internal Engine Parameter Changes
Gas turbine internal pressure changes
Air usually enters the front of the compressor at a pressure that is less than ambient,
indicating that there is considerable suction at the intake. This slightly negative pressure at
the intake may be overcome by ram air pressure as aircraft speed increases. Aft of the
intake, pressure increases through successive compression stages, with the rate of rise
increasing in the later stages of compression. The compression ratio of the compressor is
determined by compressor design and also the area of the exhaust nozzle, area of the
turbine nozzle and fuel flow, which will affect engine speed.
Aft of the final compressor stage a final rise in pressure is accomplished in the divergent
section of the diffuser. From the diffuser, air passes through the combustion section where a
slight pressure loss is experienced. Combustion chamber pressure must be less than
compressor discharge pressure at all engine speeds to establish a smooth flow of air from
front to rear and also to allow the gases to expand in the combustion process.

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A sharp drop in pressure occurs as the air is accelerated between the convergent ducts of the
turbine nozzle. The pressure continues to drop across the turbine as some of the pressure
energy in the gas flow is converted to a rotational force. A pressure reduction occurs across
each successive turbine stage. Pressure changes after the last turbine stage depends on
exhaust nozzle design and whether the nozzle is operating in a choked (exhaust velocity at
the speed of sound) or non-choked mode. When the gases leave the exhaust nozzle,
pressure continues to drop to ambient. Below shows the variation of pressure through a
typical single-shaft axial-flow turbojet.
Gas turbine internal temperature changes

Air entering the compressor at ambient, which could be anywhere between 60C and +50C,
is gradually warmed through successive stages of the compressor to about 300C. Entering
the combustion chamber, fuel is added, combustion occurs and the temperature rises to an
average of about 900C across the whole combustion chamber. At the hottest section within
the combustion chamber the temperature may be as high as 2,000C. Since this temperature
is above the melting point of most metals, the combustion chamber and surrounding parts of
the engine are protected by a cooling film of air.
Because of the cooling air, and the mixing of the two, air entering the turbine section is cooler
than combustion exhaust temperature. Acceleration of the air through the turbine further
cools the air. Most engines have a number of turbine stages so cooling takes place at each
successive turbine stage. A further temperature drop occurs through the exhaust nozzle.
Below shows the variation of temperature through a typical single shaft turbojet.

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Gas turbine internal velocity changes

Since a jet engine derives its thrust mainly from the reaction to the action of the jet efflux, the
pressure and temperature changes discussed above are important only because they must
be present to accomplish the action part of the action-reaction process. What is really needed
is a jet of high velocity gas at the exhaust of the engine.
The velocity at the front of the compressor must be subsonic for all conventional
compressors. To ensure this, particularly at high speed, intake design is very important. If
ambient air velocity is zero, such as at the start of a take-off run, the air is rapidly accelerated
as it is drawn into the compressor. On the other hand, if the aircraft is travelling at supersonic
speed, air velocity is decreased in the intake duct before being accelerated through the
compressor. Velocity through the various stages of an axial flow compressor is essentially
constant, or in many larger engines reduced slightly.
Aft of the compressor a significant reduction in speed occurs through the diverging passage
of the diffuser. However velocity then increases slightly as the air is forced into the inlet holes
at the front and along the sides of the combustion chamber. Once through the combustion
process, velocity rises sharply, accompanied by a corresponding drop in pressure as the air
passes through the converging ducts of the turbine entry nozzle. This exchange of pressure
for velocity is very desirable since the turbine is designed to mainly operate by reducing
velocity. A large portion of this velocity increase is absorbed by the turbine stages to drive the
compressor(s) and engine accessories. In the case of a turboprop, the turbine extracts as
much as possible to drive the propeller. For a turbojet or turbofan however, sufficient velocity
remains to provide the action-reaction process from the hot gas efflux.

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The Gas Turbine Cycle
A cycle is a process that begins with certain conditions and ends with those same conditions.
Both reciprocating and gas turbine engines operate on cycles. The Brayton cycle for gas
turbine engines is below. In many ways both types of engines are similar. Both power plants
are airbreathing engines and both work by providing rearward acceleration to a mass of air. In
the case of the reciprocating engine, the propeller imparts a relatively small velocity to a large
mass of air, while the gas turbine (jet) provides a relatively large acceleration to a smaller
mass of air. Although both engines convert the energy in expanding gas into thrust, the
reciprocating engine does this by changing the energy of combustion into mechanical energy
which is used to drive a propeller, while the jet engine produces and uses the propulsive force
directly. The same series of events within the engine take place: intake, compression, power,
and exhaust. In the jet engine these events are happening simultaneously in different parts of
the engine designed specifically for that purpose. In the reciprocating engine all these events
occur in the same place (i.e. in the cylinders) and must follow one another in sequence.

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Since all events are occurring at the same time in the gas turbine, it is called an open cycle.
Above shows the compression stage from point 1 to point 2 as volume decreases with an
increase in pressure. Point 2 to point 3 represent the change caused by the fuel mixture
burning in the combustion chamber at an essentially constant pressure, but with a very large
increase in volume. This increase in volume translates into an increase in velocity of the
gases as engine cross- section area changes little at this stage.
From the combustion chamber, the gases expand through the turbine wheel causing an
increase in volume and a decrease in pressure and temperature (point 3 to 4). This process
continues from point 4 to point 5 through the exhaust nozzle.
The shaded area represents the area of useful work and any increase in this area indicates
more energy available for output. But increasing the compression ratio would also increase
the compressed air temperature. Since most gas turbines operate at close to maximum
possible temperature limits, this would require a decrease in fuel flow which would decrease
total energy output. Clearly, compressor design is a major factor in being able to increase
engine output. Ideally, we would like to be able to burn as much fuel as possible in the engine
in order to raise the gas temperature and so increase the area of useful output. Below shows
the corresponding pressure/temperature cycle for the pressure/volume cycle.
During steady state operation, the work done by the turbine must be almost exactly the same
as the work needed by the compressor. The maximum possible temperature drop that is
available to obtain work from the very hot gases passing through the turbines is very much
greater than the actual temperature rise through the compressor. Also, the mass of gas
available to the turbine is exactly the same as the mass of air processed by the compressor,
assuming that bleed air mass is about the same as fuel mass added.
Therefore, despite the availability of a large turbine temperature drop, temperature drop
across the turbine is about the same as compressor temperature rise.
However, below shows that although the compressor temperature rise x equals the turbine
temperature drop y, the pressure change required is much less at the higher temperature
(across the turbine). This difference, point 4 to point 6, is why there is pressure remaining in
the turbojet to produce thrust. In the turboprop, and to some extent in the turbofan, more
energy is taken out by the turbines to drive the propeller or fan (point 4 to point 5), with a
correspondingly small amount of pressure remaining to provide jet thrust (point 5 to point 7).
The energy added in the form of fuel has been more than enough to drive the compressor.
The energy remaining produces the thrust or power to propel the aircraft.
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Gas Turbine Engine Structures

All gas turbine engines have the following basic separate structures:
intake;
compressor;
combustion chamber and diffuser;
turbine; and
exhaust nozzle.
Despite these similarities different gas turbine engines can operate in totally different ways
because of modifications to these basic structures. The most common difference in modern
engines is the arrangement of the compression process, and since the compressor is driven
by a turbine, differences in the type and number of turbines occur. Early turbojets were fitted
with either centrifugal or axial flow compressors that were driven by a single shaft powered by
one or more turbine discs attached to that shaft. Modern turbofan engines are almost
exclusively dual shaft, with one driving the fan and the other driving the high pressure
compressor which feeds air to the combustion chamber. Some very large turbofans being
introduced will have three shafts. With two or three shafts, appropriate stages of turbine are
driven by the hot gas efflux to drive the fan or compressors.
The layout of a typical high by-pass ratio turbofan used in transport aircraft:

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Intakes
The engine intake and associated ducting is a vital component of the gas turbine engine. The
efficiency of a compressor or fan is initially dependent on the airflow arriving at the
compressor face without turbulent flow, and if possible at a pressure higher than ambient.
Since gas turbine engines consume large amounts of air, inefficiencies in the inlet duct will
lead to a reduction in engine output.
An aircraft designer will attempt to design the intake such that the maximum pressure energy
is delivered to the compressor. This is termed ram recovery. The higher the total pressure
recovery the higher the ram efficiency of the intake/compressor combination. If all the ram
pressure due to velocity can be converted to static pressure at the compressor face, total
pressure recovery is achieved. Whilst this is the theoretical objective of the designer, losses
inevitably occur. Whilst attempting to increase pressure in the inlet, the designer must combat
pressure loss due to friction against the wall of the duct, and eddies formed at protruding rivet
heads.
All inlet ducts feature an increasing cross-section just before the fan/compressor so that
velocity is converted into static pressure by virtue of the divergent duct. Although the
divergent duct is a necessary feature, the result of energy conversion as velocity decreases
just in front of the compressor is a separation of the boundary layer on the duct walls. This
separation naturally incurs energy loss and provides significant design problems. Due to this
feature, intake ducts are often designed for an optimum band of airspeeds such that energy
losses are at a minimum. In the case of the jet transport aircraft, intake design is matched to
normal high-speed climb and cruising speeds.
The next graph shows the pressure ratio of a representative jet engine as Mach number
changes. Note that the design pressure ratio of the engine is maintained very well at low
speeds but approaching Mach 1 there is a slight reduction due to increased air temperature.
Also shown is the pressure ratio of the intake which at Mach 1 is virtually the same as the
engines contribution to pressure rise. Above Mach 1 the intake plays an even more important
role and at very high Mach numbers the use of optimum intake design is critical.

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Types of Inlet
Single entrance inlet
The single entrance inlet, sometimes called the pitot inlet, is the simplest type since it enables
air to be scooped directly into the face of the compressor without altering the direction of flow.
This type is used on all multi-engined transport aircraft with engines attached to the rear
fuselage (MD-80 series) or slung under the wings in pods (B737, B747 etc). These types of
ducts are short since there is no need to direct inlet air around other aircraft structures. As a
result pressure losses are generally small. The only disadvantage of short single entrance
inlets is the possibility for distorted flow to develop
when the aircraft is operating at high angles of attack. Some consideration for max. angle
climb operations must be made for transport aircraft to avoid performance losses in such a
situation.
Divided entrance inlet
The divided entrance inlet is not found on modern western transport aircraft. Its use was most
common on fighter type aircraft of the 1950s/60s where inlet air was directed around the
cockpit structures to a single engine. The primary disadvantage of this type of inlet is the
pressure loss associated with a longer intake duct.
Compressors
The compressor of a gas turbine engine is the first moving part of the engine that has to deal
with the incoming air. Depending on the speed of the aircraft, the air arriving at the face of the
compressor (or fan) may be travelling at a variety of speeds and may have static pressure
ranging from ambient upwards. The purpose of the compressor and its associated diffuser is
to increase the static pressure of that air as much as possible prior to mixing with fuel and
combustion.
The combustion of fuel and air at normal ambient pressure will not produce enough energy
from the expanding gases to satisfy the task of propulsion. As discussed earlier, the energy
produced from combustion is proportional to the mass of air consumed. Consequently, high
pressures are needed to increase the efficiency of the combustion process. The increase in
pressure through the compressor is called pressure ratio. A high pressure ratio is the prime
requirement of any compressor. Other characteristics needed by a compressor are the ability
to process a large mass of air consistent with the maximum pressure ratio, and to be able to
operate under a variety of pressure/temperature inlet conditions.
Two basic types of compressor are used on gas turbine engines: the centrifugal compressor,
and the axial flow compressor. Added to these two basic types of compressor is the fan of the
modern turbofan engine. Unlike true compressors, the purpose of the fan is to gain some
propulsive energy from a proportion of inlet air, but with a minimum of processing. For this
reason, a fan is normally only one stage, but is connected to a shaft that also has the low
pressure compressor attached. Turbofans will be discussed in the next section.

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Centrifugal Compressors
A centrifugal compressor consists of three main components: the impeller, the diffuser and
the compressor manifold. The impeller consists of a forged alloy disk, normally aluminium,
with integral radial vanes on one or both sides, which form divergent passages. To ease the
change of airflow, the vanes in the centre are curved in the direction of airflow. Below is a
typical single and double-sided impellers.
The diffuser assembly may be an integral part of the compressor casing or may be attached
separately. In either case the diffuser consists of a number of vanes formed tangential to the
impeller, with these vanes in line with the flow from the impeller. The vane ducts are divergent
so that kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy. The clearance between the impeller
and the diffuser is an important factor, as too small a clearance would lead to aerodynamic
buffeting and vibration, and too large a clearance would cause excessive air leakage.
Operation of the centrifugal compressor
The compressor operates by inducing air to the eye of the impeller and then rotating it radially
along the vanes. By virtue of its high rotational speed, the impeller forces the air to its
periphery, increasing air velocity prior to entry to the diffuser. Once in the diffuser, airflow
speed is converted to static pressure and straightened so that it may be efficiently collected
by the compress or manifold. The diffuser vanes direct the airflow into the manifold at an
angle designed to retain the maximum amount of imparted energy, but also at satisfactory
velocities for combustion.
Centrifugal compressor configurations
Shrouded impellers are sometimes used where the outer part of the impeller vanes are
closed. The purpose of shrouding is to prevent leakage of the high velocity air and thus
improve efficiency by reducing pressure variations. The shrouding design also stiffens the
blade assemblies, which makes the impeller more robust, but clearly involves a more
complicated and expensive manufacturing process.

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Another variation on the simple centrifugal compressor is the double-sided impeller. The
double-sided impeller design can process a given mass of air with a smaller diameter
impeller. This benefit can be translated into a smaller engine frontal area. However, the
benefit can be partially offset by the complications involved in delivering the air to the rear
face of the impeller disc.
Yet another variation on the basic design is to employ multi-stage impellers. For this design
air is ducted from the first stage diffuser through 180 and fed to the eye of the second
impeller, which raises the pressure further. Although this design can allow reduced engine
frontal area, and is not subjected to the inlet complications of the double-sided design, losses
through additional ducting are experienced. Above shows the layout of a two stage centrifugal
compressor design.
Centrifugal compressor operating characteristics
Because of their robust nature and design, centrifugal compressors are more resistant to
damage caused by the ingestion of ice or birds. The impellers are easier to manufacture than
multi-stage axial flow compressors and for that reason are cheaper. In smaller gas turbines it
is common for the two types of compressors to be combined, with the centrifugal impeller at
the front.
Despite these benefits, centrifugal compressors have significant performance limitations and
the type is not found on transport jet aircraft. The graph below shows the relationship of
compressor efficiency achieved at varying pressure ratios for both types of compressor. The
axial flow compressor is able to achieve a high degree of efficiency at a range of pressure
ratios, where the centrifugal type peaks at about 5 and then reduces dramatically.

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As discussed before, the purpose of a compressor is to increase pressure ratio as much as

possible to increase thrust and engine efficiency. Below, which shows a general relationship
between SFC (efficiency) and pressure ratio, highlights the need for high-pressure ratios in
modern engines. Since pressure ratios of as much as 40 or more are needed in modern
transport aircraft engines, the centrifugal compressor is not suited for this role.
Because of this inability to produce acceptable efficiencies over a range of pressure ratios,
centrifugal compressors are prone to significant operating inefficiencies when operated at
certain mass flow/pressure ratio combinations. This is basically due to the maximum flow
capacities of the diffuser and the inherent inertia of the rotating impeller. These inefficiencies
show themselves to the pilot as a tendency to surge under certain conditions, particularly
when throttling up. Since an increase in demanded engine power involves increasing fuel flow
to the combustion chamber, if the impeller is not able to supply the required air for
combustion at the same rate, overfuelling will occur.

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Overfuelling will normally lead to higher combustion chamber pressure, which then induces
an adverse pressure gradient followed by flow stagnation. The end result is interruption to
engine operation until internal pressures are reduced. Automatic prevention of overfuelling is
the only means of avoiding this condition with rapid throttle movement.
Axial Flow Compressors
Axial flow compressors convert kinetic energy to pressure energy by passing air through rows
of rotating blades. These blades change the whirl velocity of the air, and then pass the air to
alternate rows of stationary diffusing blades (stators), which then convert that kinetic energy
to pressure energy.
The rotating blades are attached to a shaft, which is driven by one or more turbine discs at
the rear of the engine. Larger and more modern engines have two and sometimes three
separate shafts, each one driving a separate axial compressor assembly. When two
compressor assemblies are fitted, the first is called the low-pressure compressor and the
second the high-pressure compressor. For a three-shaft arrangement an intermediate
compressor is fitted. Each separate compressor assembly is called a spool.
Prior to entering the first set of blades on the low pressure compressor inlet air normally
passes through a set of stationary inlet guide vanes, which align the airflow at the correct
angle. However, inlet guide vanes are not normally fitted to turbofan engines since fan
rotation is slow enough (relatively) to process airflow at a wider range of inlet conditions.
Having passed through the first rotating stage of the compressor, the air is aligned by a set of
stators, which are fitted to the compressor casing. These blades increase pressure by
diffusion and align the air for the second rotating stage. This process continues through each
stage with pressure increasing progressively. You can see a typical blade arrangement.

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Each pair of stator and rotor blade disks is called a stage. A typical single shaft turbojet may
have between 10 and 15 stages. Each rotating ring of blades is mounted on a separate disc,
or on an axial drum attached to the driving shaft. Above shows the varying blade profile that
is needed because of the change in blade speed with radius from the disc centre.
Another set of stator blades is usually fitted to align the air correctly for the combustion
chamber, or in the case of a second compressor, to align the air for the first stage of the high
pressure compressor. The cross-sectional area of the air path through a spool is
progressively reduced from front to rear in order to maintain an almost constant axial velocity
with increasing air density. Consequently the rotors and stators vary in length according to
the pressure stage. As the pressure increases through the length of the spool, each stage is
working against an increasing pressure gradient, which makes operating efficiencies difficult
to achieve.
For this reason, the compression process is often divided into two or three stages by
employing more than one compressor spool. A two spool arrangement is shown .

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The two spool compressor may be used as a pure turbojet as shown, or more commonly,
may have a fan attached to the forward spool to form a turbofan engine. This arrangement
allows the fan to handle a large mass of air, a proportion of which is supplied to the highpressure compressor whilst the remainder is ducted to the rear as a separate by-pass flow
to produce thrust. The ratio of by-pass air may be fixed, or varied automatically to suit
changing engine conditions. The fixed configuration is normal for most modern transport
aircraft engines.
The axial type of compressor also allows a convenient way of supplying air at a variety of
required temperatures and pressures for bleed air needs. One of the most important uses of
bleed air is for anti-ice heating of engine inlets and other ice prone engine components.
Operation of the axial flow compressor
Each stage of a multi-stage compressor must deal with airflow characteristics that are
different from the previous or following stage. Thus the design characteristics of each stage
must be different. Previously we saw the varying angle with length of a blade that would be
suitable for only one stage.
Thus the designer must carefully assess the needs of each stage and adjust blade angle
accordingly, since it is the blade angle that dictates the resultant rotational force in much the
same way that angle of attack determines lift of an aerofoil at a given speed. Below shows
the way the stator delivery angle and rotational speed determine the flow path of air striking
the rotating blades.

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At each compressor stage, airflow velocity is increased by the rotor and then converted to a
pressure increase through the diffusing action of both rotor and stator. The net effect is an
approximately constant mean axial velocity with a small but smooth pressure increase at
each stage. The pressure ratio across each stage is normally about 12, thus a large number
of stages are required to achieve a reasonable total pressure ratio for the whole engine.
The change of pressure and velocity through a typical multi-stage axial compressor.
Operation of twin spool compressors
Theoretically, it is possible to design a compressor with as many stages as possible to obtain
the required compression (pressure) ratio. In such an engine, at certain compressor speeds,
the rear stages would operate inefficiently and the front stages would be overloaded. This is
due to the fact that compressibility of the air is dependent on the amount of energy a gas
possesses. It is easier to compress gas that has less energy. The internal energy of a gas will
increase as the square of the molecular speed increases (temperature and pressure) and in
direct proportion to the density. Hence the cold low-pressure air at the front stages is easier
to compress than the hot, high-pressure air at the rear.
As a result, the front stages handle too great an amount of air, which the rear stages are
incapable of compressing efficiently. Such a condition could cause a compressor stall due to
the breakdown of flow through the compressor. This problem can be partly resolved by
bleeding some air from the compressor at a suitable point, but this is wasteful. Also, the wide
range of atmospheric parameters which determine the entry conditions make compressor
design difficult.

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Engine designers overcome these problems by arranging the large number of stages
required on two spools. Each is driven by its own turbine, and because of this, at the best
speed for compression at those stages. The high-pressure compressor at the rear has
shorter blades than the front low-pressure compressor or spool, with the HP spool being
designated N2 and the LP spool N1.
Each compressor and turbine assembly is mounted on its own shaft as shown. The shaft for
the LP assembly rotates within the hollow HP shaft, each supported by its own bearings.
Appropriate sets of guide vanes are positioned between the two spools to establish the
correct airflow angle prior to the air entering the faster rotating HP spool. Normally, the HP
spool is governed for speed and the LP spool rotates at its own speed, which must be
contained within normal rotational limits. Assuming a more or less constant energy output by
the turbine at a given speed, the LP spool will tend to speed up or slow down in an effort to
supply the HP compressor with a more or less constant airflow. With a fairly constant energy
output by the LP turbine, the LP compressor speed will be governed by the compressibility of
the air as it enters the engine. Thus, when the air is easily compressed (high altitude, low
density), the LP compressor will speed up, and when air is harder to compress it will slow
down.
As the air is compressed through the LP compressor, temperature and pressure increase,
and the HP compressor has to rotate at a higher speed to efficiently compress this highenergy air. This does not present operating problems since the compression achieved in the
HP compressor results in higher temperatures than the LP compressors. Higher
temperatures then allow higher blade tip speeds before the blades attain their limiting Mach
number.
Another benefit of the two-spool system is ease of starting, since a starter motor need only
rotate the lighter HP assembly to achieve ignition.
Axial compressor stall and surge
Since an axial flow compressor consists of a series of small aerofoil sections, the
aerodynamic rules that apply to a wing apply to compressor blades. Despite these
similarities, the situation in an engine is somewhat more complicated because the blades are
close together and are affected at the leading edge by the passage of air through the
previous stage. This effect is called cascading, and is of prime importance in determining
blade design and placement.
If, for some reason, the angle of attack of airflow reaching a rotating blade becomes too
small, then insufficient compression will result. Increasing angle of attack will increase
compression. However, like an aerofoil exceeding the critical angle of attack, a loss of lift will
result if the blade exceeds its critical angle. Once the blades critical angle is exceeded, the
blade stalls. This condition is never limited to only one blade and the problem soon spreads,
dramatically reducing compression and rotor speed.
The angle of attack will vary with engine speed, inlet temperature and pressure and outlet
pressure. The latter two items affect the axial airflow velocity of air through the compressor.
The next diagram shows how reduction to axial airflow at a given engine speed can
dramatically increase blade angle of attack which leads to stall.

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A similar situation can be reached if engine speed becomes too high for axial airflow velocity.
In general, any action that decreases airflow relative to engine speed will increase angle of
attack. A decrease in airflow may result from the compressor discharge pressure becoming
too high as a result of excessive fuel flow during acceleration. Once one stage of blades
become stalled, it cannot supply the following stage with air at the appropriate angle and the
rest of the compressor stalls with airflow becoming completely unstable. Reverse flow
through parts of the engine is possible. This condition is called compressor surge or stall and
can be accompanied by vibration and loud noises, and normally, a rise in exhaust
temperature. Obviously, engine thrust will rapidly decrease.
The usual symptoms that are presented to the pilot are:
rising inter turbine temperature (ITT) or exhaust gas temperature (EGT);

steady or reducing engine rpm;
steadying or reducing fuel flow; and
engine popping noise or vibration.
To clear an engine stall or surge, the pressure in the combustion chamber must be reduced
by reducing throttle setting and by ensuring a stable flow at the engine intake. If altitude
permits, the recovery procedure for most engines is to reduce throttle setting and increase
airspeed by descending. The combination of airflow and pressure ratio at which surge occurs
is called the surge point. Such a point can be identified for each engine rpm. If these points
are then plotted on a graph of pressure ratio and airflow, the line joining them is known as the
surge line as shown below. The surge line defines the minimum value of stable airflow that
can be obtained at various engine speeds. Operation at the surge line provides no margin for
error so a running line is established at the design stage, which provides the necessary
safety. All modern engines provide protection from overfuelling during engine acceleration
such that engine speed is not allowed to go above the running line, regardless of throttle
demand. This explains why, following a slam throttle opening, engine acceleration is
restrained initially, but then increases rapidly as higher engine speeds are attained. Good
airmanship however assumes a failure of this protection feature, so throttle movements
should be made at a rate that matches engine acceleration unless emergency conditions
exist.

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The surge/running lines shown are good for only one set of ambient conditions. For this
reason engine performance publications normally show this information with corrected
parameters. Instead of mass airflow on the horizontal axis, a term called relative airflow is
used which compares ambient pressure and absolute temperature to standard.
Mathematically, this term is:
Where M is air mass

T is relative temperature, which compares ambient absolute temperature to standard
absolute (Ta/288)
p is the relative pressure (Pa/ 14-7psi)
Engine speed lines are corrected to a term called non-dimensional rpm, which compares
actual engine speed to the relative temperature. The graph shows a surge line and a running
or working line corrected by these factors. Note that the shape of the curves is similar to the
basic relationship. A basic knowledge of the relationship shown is important for the transport
aircraft pilot so that an understanding of engine acceleration limitations can be made.

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One of the designers main problems, particularly for high-pressure ratio engines, is to
achieve the stall free acceleration mentioned earlier. Above the bend or knee at point B in
the surge line is typical of high-pressure ratio engines and reduces the stall margin in a region
through which the operating point must pass during acceleration.
Every point on the working line represents a stable condition where the compressor supply
just balances engine demand. Thus, when the throttle is opened to accelerate the engine
from A to the design point D, the compressor accelerates along a line ABD above the working
line. The vertical separation of the two lines is proportional to the rate of engine acceleration,
which is clearly very limited at the knee. If an engine is poorly designed, adequate stall free
acceleration may not be available.
High altitude operation gives a decrease in Reynolds number due to the lower air density.
The lower Reynolds number reduces the stalling angle of attack, which in turn moves the
surge line down, even though you are still operating at the same conditions.
Preventing compressor surge and stall
There are three main design methods of reducing the likelihood of compressor stall/surge.
Variable-incidence guide vanes/stators. These devices can assist offdesign operation
such as acceleration from idle or engine start. The vanes are adjusted according to
engine speed and temperature to correctly match airflow angle to rotor speed. The
effect is to move the operating point further from the surge line thus increasing the
stall margin and acceleration capability.
Blow-off or bleed valves. One of the causes of compressor surge is an excessive
increase in pressure at certain stages of the compressor. By sensing when the
pressure rise is excessive and then opening a valve at an intermediate stage,
pressure can be reduced. The effect of this is to move the operating point away from
the surge line. Although effective, this system wastes airflow and increases SFC when
the valves are open.
Multi-spool engines. The difficulty of matching the compressor speed to certain offdesign operating conditions in high pressure ratio engines is relieved by splitting the
task between two or more spools rotating at different speeds as described earlier. The
front spool rotates at a lower rpm, which is more suited to low-pressure airflow angles.
Combustion Systems
The combustion system is required to convert the chemical energy of the introduced fuel to
the moving airflow with the minimum amount of pressure loss to the overall system. In
addition to this process, which must be conducted in a very small space, the combustion
system must then deliver the resulting gases to the turbine at a temperature that does not
exceed the limits of the turbine components. The system must also give efficient, stable
operation over a wide range of altitudes and speeds, and must enable in-flight re-light in the
event of an engine shutdown whilst airborne.

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The quantity of fuel added to the airflow will depend on the temperature rise required, which
in turn is determined by thrust needed and the limitations imposed by other components. The
temperature rise required across the entire engine is normally in the range of 700 to 1,200C.
Since the compression process has already added temperature to the air before reaching the
combustion chamber, the combustion process needs to add about 500 to 800C.
Other requirements of the engine structure and pollution control laws dictate that the
combustion must be complete by the time the mixture leaves the combustion chamber.
The combustion process
Since air is travelling at a high speed at the end of the compression stage, even following the
pressure rise/velocity drop in the diffuser section, the first requirement of the combustion
system is to slow the air down. Therefore, a region of low axial velocity must be created in the
chamber so that the flame will remain alight throughout the range of engine operating
conditions
Considering the total airflow that passes through the combustion chamber, the overall air/fuel
ratio can range from about 45:1 to 130:1. However, for ideal combustion, the ratio should be
about 15:1. Thus, when introduced to the combustion chamber, the fuel is mixed with only a
part of the air, the rest of the air being introduced at progressively later stages. Like any
combustion process, this mixture of air and fuel is critical if the burning is to be stable,
particularly under changing conditions of mass flow and static pressure. The relationship
between pressure, mixture and mass flow needs to be managed within specific limits,
otherwise combustion will not occur or at best, will be unstable. Below shows the
demonstrated limits of the mixture/mass flow relationship,

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And below shows the static pressure/mixture relationship.
Since the thrust production requirement of the entire engine system determines the thrust
produced, the combustion chamber must be designed to minimize pressure loss. Losses of
pressure translate into lower thermal efficiency and hence higher SFC. The first type of
pressure loss is called hot loss and is an unavoidable function of basic physics, which
determines that a loss in static pressure will occur when heat is added to a constant area gas
stream. The determining factors in hot loss are airflow Mach number and the temperature
range experienced. Although unavoidable, hot losses are fortunately small. The second type
of pressure loss is cold loss which occurs through the inevitable mixing of air as it enters the
combustion chamber, particularly in the secondary cooling holes. Since turbulence will be
governed by airflow speed, cold loss can be reduced by maximum diffusion aft of the
compressor, which will of course reduce flow velocity. Diffusion also raises temperature,
which for a given velocity will reduce Mach number.
Although designers strive for complete combustion, inevitably some fuel molecules escape
combustion. These particles present themselves as carbon deposits in the engine or as
smoke in the exhaust. Modern combustion systems are very efficient and national
requirements, particularly in the USA, dictate that in emissions there should be no visible
smoke present. This is achieved by leaning the mixture to the lowest acceptable amount.
Airflow though a combustion chamber below shows the breakdown of airflow through a
combustion chamber. Only a small proportion of total airflow (20%) enters at the snout to mix
with the atomized fuel, which is introduced at the burner nozzle. Of this 20%, about 10%
passes through the swirl vanes to give the air/fuel mixture its desired motion, and the
remaining 10% passes through the flare to stabilize the flame. Together, this rich fuel/air
mixture forms the primary combustion zone.

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Aft of the primary zone a further 10% of air is introduced to mix with the flame to form the
main area of burning in the secondary zone. The rear half of the combustion chamber, the
tertiary zone, is used to introduce the remaining 70% of air, which not only continues the
burning process, but also cools the burnt gases to a temperature acceptable for turbine entry.
The proportions of air may vary from one engine to another, and the zones will overlap.
However, in all engines, air is admitted so that continuous burning is achieved over the entire
length of the chamber.
Combustion chamber systems

There are many variations of combustion chamber design but the three most common are:
multiple chamber;
cannular chamber; and
annular chamber.
A cross-section of the three systems is shown

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Multiple chamber
The multiple chamber consists of individual chambers fixed radially around the engine. These
chambers are fed by individual ducts from the compressor and their exhausts must be
merged prior to turbine entry. Although this type of chamber (normally found on much older
engines) is easier to build and service because of the individual components, it provides poor
use of radial space and often gives uneven air loads to the turbine.
Cannular chamber
The cannular system was a logical development from the multiple system and in many ways
is very similar. It still has the servicing flexibility of individual component change, maintains
strict control of each tube flame and is relatively easy to construct. It is designed for better
interconnection between tubes than the multiple system, to economize on ignition systems
and to give a more even burn, and it provides a far more even mixing of the combustion
gases prior to turbine entry. This type of system is found on many large turbojet and turbofan
engines.
Annular chamber
The annular combustion system uses the whole of the annulus between the compressor and
turbine for combustion. The system is far more space efficient and for that reason can handle
a larger mass flow for a given engine space. Thus they can be lighter for a given thrust
requirement. In addition, annular systems suffer less pressure loss due to reduced surface
area and also require less cooling air. Consequently, they are common on large turbofan
engines. Their main disadvantage is that for maintenance, the engine must normally be
removed from the aircraft to access the burner liner. Earlier annular systems also suffered
from uneven burning due to the tendency of fuel droplets to descend to the lower portion of
the chamber prior to full combustion. This problem has been largely rectified by pre-mixing
the air and fuel before entering the chamber.
Fuel burners
A combustion chamber fuel burner must introduce the fuel such that it will burn efficiently and
completely. The two types of fuel nozzle used are atomizers and vaporizers. Fuel is carried
from the low pressure fuel system through an engine fuel control and pump system and
delivered to a fuel manifold which then supplies the nozzles. Fuel atomizers create a highly
turbulent flow so that the fuel flow disintegrates into tiny droplets of 20 to 200 microns in
diameter. Thus they present a large surface area. The turbulence at the outlet is created by
providing a large pressure difference at the orifice. Below shows the cross-section of a typical
atomizer and the development of the fuel swirl motion. These swirl type nozzles are used to
give rapid burning and multiple nozzles fitted to a manifold can handle large volumes of fuel.

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Fuel vaporizers employ J-shaped tubes, which protrude into the combustion chamber. Fuel
passes down the tube and encounters the main airflow head on. Mixing is normally achieved
prior to leaving the tube. Vaporizers have the advantage of achieving a very complete burn
and can be used with less fuel pressure. However, problems with excessive fuel heating in
the J tube can lead to mixing/burning problems. Vaporizers are used on some large engines,
such as the RB-211, but in many cases are used in conjunction with atomizers.
For large engines a primary and a secondary fuel manifold is sometimes used. The primary
manifold provides fuel for low thrust operation and when thrust demand is increased, the
secondary manifold becomes operational. Such a system allows even burning in a big area
when very large quantities of fuel are needed.
Turbines
The turbines of a gas turbine engine have the task of providing the power needed to drive the
compressor(s) and mechanical accessories in addition to providing gases for jet propulsion.
In the case of a turboprop engine, one or more turbines will also furnish the power needed to
rotate the propeller shaft. The turbines achieve their goal by extracting energy from the hot
gases released from combustion and expanding them to a lower temperature and pressure.
Extremely high stresses are associated with the turbine, which may have tip velocities of
1,300 ft per second. The airflow entering the turbine may have an entry temperature as high
as 1,200C.
About 75% of all the energy available from the combustion process is needed to drive the
compressor, or both compressors (and fan) in the case of a two spool engine. The remaining
energy is available for jet thrust. If the engine is a turboprop, the turbines are designed to
extract as much energy as possible from the gases, with very little residual jet thrust
available.
A turbine assembly consists of one or more stages of rotating turbine blades attached to a
shaft, each stage being preceded by a set of stationary nozzle guide vanes, which establish
the flow for the rotating assembly.

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Nozzle guide vanes (NGV)

While the pressure and velocity gradients through the fixed and moving blades in a turbine
assembly will depend on the type of blades used, the general objective of the fixed blades is
to achieve a significant pressure drop and velocity increase. The gas flow must be turned
through a relatively large angle of deflection from the axial direction and, at the same time,
undergo expansion from low velocities to sonic or supersonic speeds. Since the rotating
centrifugal stresses are not present with the stationary blades, better profiles can be used
than turbine blades. However, the nozzle guide vanes are subject to higher temperature
stress.
Shrouds are commonly fitted to avoid tip leakage and to permit a thinner blade section. The
inner ring may be either manufactured as a single unit or built up in segments of three and
connected together. A small amount of radial movement must be provided to allow for
expansion. The outer shroud ring generally forms part of the engine casing and is normally
extended to protect the turbine blades.
Turbine blades
The environment within which the turbine blades operate is characterized by a progressively
reducing pressure gradient. Consequently, the profile of turbine blades is not critical since
they do not have to accept gas flow at a particular angle or velocity. For this reason, turbine
blades generally have a more rounded leading edge. Since turbine blades operate within a
moving gas flow, they can be considered in the same way as an aerofoil section. The crosssection of the blade and the angle it makes to the on-coming flow will of course determine the
resultant force that acts on the blade. The cross-section of a typical blade will normally vary
with increasing distance from the root. Two types of blade and matching NGV design are
used: impulse type, and reaction type, which are both shown next.

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With the impulse type the area between the NGV blades is convergent which results in an
increase in velocity and reduction in pressure. The high velocity gas then enters a constant
cross-section area between the impulse blades, which result only in a change of flow
direction with little pressure and speed change. This change in direction causes the turbine
blades to rotate as shown.
Reaction blades operate in almost the opposite sequence. NGV area does not change but as
the flow passes through the turbine blades, a reduction in pressure and increase in velocity is
achieved by creating a convergent duct between the blades. This arrangement is shown.
Although there are two different types of blade design, a combination of the two is commonly
used in practice. Many blade designs are near pure impulse at the root and gradually change
to a reaction design closer to the tip. This changing blade profile, known as blade twist, is
shown below along with a graph, which shows the increasing reaction design as distance
from the root increases. The need for a changing blade design is largely due to the need to
maintain a high level of blade efficiency as the speed increases from root to tip.
Blades must also be manufactured from materials that are resistant to sudden temperature
changes (thermal shock) associated with engine start and shut-down. They must also be
resistant to corrosion and have a satisfactory creep stress life. The next diagram shows a
typical creep stress graph for turbine material. The primary creep stage, during which the
material changes shape by a considerable amount over a short period of time whilst
subjected to high thermal/load stress, is conducted before the material is used for blade
manufacture. The tertiary stage, which the graph shows is also rapid, leads to fracture.
Consequently, the engine manufacturer must use materials that are safely within the
secondary, relatively stable area. Since this area can only be defined by time (engine hours),
it is vital that engine speed (load stress) and engine temperature (thermal stress) be limited to
approved values for the life of the engine. Operating above those limits will clearly reduce the
time of the secondary stage and eventually lead to premature blade failure.

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Turbine installation
Turbine blades are fixed to the rotating shaft by means of a turbine disc. Since the turbine
assembly must rotate at high speed in a high temperature gas flow they must be designed to
withstand these combined stresses.
The turbine must be designed with sufficient ability to extract enough energy from the gas
flow to drive the compressor such that sufficient air is processed through the engine. If
possible, this should be done with as few stages on a given shaft to reduce weight. However,
with high mass flow engines a number of turbine stages per shaft are normally needed. The
low pressure shaft which drives the larger fan or low pressure compressor will always need
more than one stage since apart from driving a large fan or compressor, the gas energy
available will have been reduced through the high pressure compressors turbine.

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The relative position of high and low-pressure turbines in a typical installation is shown next:
Turbine blade cooling

The extremely high temperature environment of turbine blades is outside the capacities of
most metals without some form of cooling. Although various forms of cooling such as fuel,
water and sodium have been used in the past, air is the accepted method of cooling modern
turbine blades.
Research over the years has determined that transpiration of air through a multitude of
extremely small holes on the blade surface is likely to be the optimum method of cooling.
However, at present the limitations of blade material prevent this technique from being used
properly. Consequently convective cooling, where air is passed through a small number of
manufactured holes is widely used. The cooling air is tapped from a stage of the compressor
to give appropriate initial temperature of the cooling air. Following passage through the
blades, the air merges with the main gas flow. The next diagram shows a typical NGV and
turbine blade convective cooling arrangement.
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Exhaust Nozzles
Having passed through the turbine assembly of the engine, the gases then flow through an
exhaust system. In a simple turbojet the exhaust system consists of the turbine exhaust,
jetpipe and propelling nozzle. In a by-pass engine (turbofan), the hot and cold gases may be
combined in a mixing stage to the exhaust system as shown below.

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Alternatively, the gas streams may remain separate until reaching the end of the respective
nozzles as shown below. The separate nozzle system is common on high by-pass ratio
turbofans.

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For a turbojet, and the hot gas exhaust of a turbofan, a larger total thrust can be achieved by
increasing the gas velocity to a higher value than that allowed at the turbine exhaust.
Increasing the velocity of the gases increases the momentum of the gas, which increases
thrust. Since the velocity of the gas flow will be determined by the exhaust cross sectional
area, an increase in velocity can be achieved by using a convergent duct. An example of this
design is shown. Clearly, the precise size of the duct will determine thrust and must be
regulated at the factory very carefully to avoid overstressing other engine components.
Exhaust velocity in a convergent duct is normally held to a subsonic value. This type of
exhaust system is common on all subsonic aircraft.

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For aircraft that travel at transonic and supersonic speeds, the pressure ratios across the
exhaust nozzle are sufficient to produce a supersonic flow. In such a case, the nozzle must
be designed to accommodate the faster gas flow and the benefits to thrust that result. For this
reason a convergent-divergent duct is used. The gas flow accelerates along the initial part of
the duct, which is convergent. As the flow reaches sonic speeds, the cross-sectional area
must now increase to handle the greater volume of flow that results from higher speed.
Although this duct provides an increase in thrust capacity by increasing exhaust velocity, it is
limited in its use since the velocities must fall within a narrow design band for the unit to
operate effectively. Outside this band flow separation can occur, and if operated at too slow a
speed, the divergent duct will decrease thrust by slowing a subsonic flow to even slower
speeds.

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Gas Turbine Engine Questions

1.
The greatest disadvantages of a turbo jet engine is:

a)
b)
c)
2.
The maximum operating TAS of a turbo-prop engine design is approximately:

a)
b)
c)
3.
6.
the turbo prop has the lowest TSFC;

the high-bypass turbo fan engine has the highest TSFC;
the turbo-prop engine has the highest TSFC.
The turbo-fan engine is considerably more effective than the turbo-jet engine at
speeds up to:
a)
b)
c)
5.
400 kts;
250 kts;
600 kts.
When comparing the TSFC of all the types of gas turbine engines then:
a)
b)
c)
4.
low thrust at low speeds and high noise levels;

large frontal area;
heaviest type of jet engine.
Mach 2;
Mach 1;
400 kts.
The value of thrust horse power can be determined by the formula:

a)
Net thrust Velocity (F.P.S.)

550
b)
Net thrust Velocity (F.P.S.)

375
c)
Net thrust Velocity (M.P.H.)

550
The thrust for a gas turbine engine can be calculated by the following formula:
a)
b)
c)
T = M(Vgas - Va)
T = M(Vgas + Va)
T = MVgas - (Va)

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7.
Which of the following factors affected the production of thrust from a turbine engine,
but is not allowed for in the calculations to determine the amount of thrust:
a)
b)
c)
8.
Air speed effects the gas turbine engine in the following manner:
a)
b)
c)
9.
15C;
at specified temperature below 15C;
at a specified temperature above 15C.
Altitude effects thrust in the following manner:

a)
b)
c)
13.
10C;
15C;
25C;
A "Flat Rated" Turbine engine will produce its rated thrust at:
a)
b)
c)
12.
directly proportional to the rise in pressure;

inversely proportional to the rise in temperature;
directly proportional to the rise in temperature;
The temperature assumed for power rating of gas turbine engines is:
a)
b)
c)
11.
Thrust increases steadily for a while after RAM recovery has taken place at
about 500 kts after which thrust decreases steadily tends towards zero at
about M 3.0.
Thrust decreases with increase in speed because T = M (Vse - Va).
Forward airspeed has no effect on thrust in a turbo jet engine.
The weight of air entering a turbine engine, due to speed is:

a)
b)
c)
10.
air temperature;
air pressure;
humidity.
Thrust decreases while efficiency increases.

Efficiency decreases while thrust is unaffected.
Thrust remains constant until 37 000 feet, then decreases significantly.
An increase in density will have the following effect on thrust:

a)
b)
c)
increase thrust;
increase thrust until 36 000 feet;
decrease thrust.

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14.
Operating at speeds below 400 kts the best propulsive efficiency is obtained from:
a)
b)
c)
15.
The aircraft speed at which the rise in pressure in the intake overcomes the loss due
to friction is called:
a)
b)
c)
16.
More fuel on a hot day than on a cold day.

Less fuel on a hot day than on a cold day.
The same amount regardless of temperature changes.
The By-pass Ratio is:

a)
b)
c)
21.
Compressor.
Exhaust nozzle.
Turbine.
A jet engine burns:

a)
b)
c)
20.
10C and below in wet conditions.

0C and below in visible moisture.
below ISA.
Engine limiting temperature is measured at the:

a)
b)
c)
19.
Induction, compression, ignition, power, exhaust.

Induction, compression, combustion, expansion, exhaust.
Induction, compression, combustion, exhaust, expansion.
Turbine engine icing is likely to occur if the OAT is:

a)
b)
c)
18.
the duct pressure efficiency point;

the ram recovery point;
the duct deviation speed.
A gas turbine cycle is:

a)
b)
c)
17.
a fan engine;
a turbo-prop engine;
a pure jet engine.
The ratio of air entering the intake to the amount of air leaving the jet pipe.
The ratio of air leaving the compressor to the amount of air entering the
combustion chamber.
The ratio between the air by-passing the combustion chambers to the air
entering the combustion chambers.
With ram-effect due to increased air speed, efficiency of the gas turbine will:
a)
b)
c)
Increase.
Decrease.
Not change.

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22.
The rate of acceleration of a Gas Turbine Engine is:

a)
b)
c)
Greater at high RPM.

Greater at low RPM.
Constant.

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AIR INTAKE QUESTIONS

1.
The function of the intake of a gas turbine engine is to provide:

a)
b)
c)
2.
The airflow in the gas turbine engine of a normal commercial airliner is:
a)
b)
c)
3.
subsonic throughout the engine;

subsonic in the compressor but supersonic through the turbine;
subsonic through compressor and turbine and supersonic in the exhaust.
For a/c flying at supersonic speeds the air entering the engine is decelerated to
subsonic speeds by means of:
a)
b)
c)
4.
hot energised air to the compressor;

cold air at the highest possible pressure to the compressor;
air at ambient temp at highest possible velocity to the compressor.
an oblique shock wave;

either an oblique or normal shock wave;
a normal shock wave.
The purpose of the inlet to a jet engine is to provide a flow of air to the compressor at:
a)
b)
c)
maximum possible pressure at lowest possible temp;

maximum possible velocity at lowest possible pressure;
increasing velocity and increased density.

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COMPRESSOR QUESTIONS
1.
When centrifugal and axial flow compressors are used together in the same engine
the order of compressors front to back of the engine, to produce the best results
would be as follows:
a)
b)
c)
2.
The greatest advantage of the centrifugal compressor is:

a)
b)
c)
3.
the pressure of the air entering the compressor;

the velocity of the air entering the compressor;
both the velocity and the pressure of the air in equal relationship.
Which type of compressor is less susceptible to damage due to the foreign bodies:
a)
b)
c)
7.
the axial flow compressor;

either the axial flow or centrifugal depending on speed;
the centrifugal compressor.
The impeller of a centrifugal compressor increases:

a)
b)
c)
6.
air temperature;
air pressure;
humidity.
The type of compressor providing the greatest increase in pressure in one stage is:
a)
b)
c)
5.
the small frontal area;

the compression ratio per stage;
the direct flow pattern.
Which of the following factors affected the production of thrust from a turbine engine,
but is not allowed for in the calculations to determine the amount of thrust:
a)
b)
c)
4.
Centrifugal, axial, axial.

Axial, centrifugal, axial.
Axial, axial centrifugal.
centrifugal;
axial;
both types of compressor are equally susceptible.
The term N1 r.p.m. refers to:

a)
b)
c)
the high pressure compressor r.p.m. as a percentage;

the low pressure compressor r.p.m. as a percentage;
the low pressure compressor r.p.m. as an r.p.m. reading.

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8.
The maximum pressure increase that can be achieved by one stage of an axial flow
compressor is:
a)
b)
c)
9.
In the thirteen-stage compressor the greatest increase in pressure in any one stage
occurs at:
a)
b)
c)
10.
Prevent compressor stall.

Prevent under fuelling.
Prevent excessive air entering the compressor.
When a compressor stalls, you get:

a)
b)
c)
15.
To overcome the compressor surge tendency at maximum RPM.

To prevent overspeeding of the compressor after sudden throttle openings.
To overcome the compressor surge tendency in the low RPM range.
Bleed valves are used to:

a)
b)
c)
14.
In the turbine section and ducted to the entry guide vanes.

In the combustion section to the entry guide vanes.
In the compressor section to the entry guide vanes.
What is the function of the bleed valves when fitted to axial flow compressors:
a)
b)
c)
13.
the inlet pressure compared the total compressor delivery air;

N1 pressure compared to N2 pressure;
Power turbine pressure compared to combustion pressure.
Air for anti-icing is taken from a bleed valve:

a)
b)
c)
12.
the pressure gain in 1.2 percentage throughout the engine;

the greatest pressure gain will occur in Stage 1;
the greatest pressure gain per stage will occur in stage thirteen.
The term EPR (engine pressure ratio) refers to:

a)
b)
c)
11.
1 to 1.2;
1 to 7;
1 to 1.7
Increased fuel flow and increased JPT.

Increased JPT and vibration.
Decreased JPT and decreased fuel flow.
The Compression Ratio of a jet engine is:

a)
b)
c)
the ratio between compressor discharge and inlet pressures.

the ratio between intake air pressure and jet pipe pressure.
the ratio between outside air pressure and annular can pressure after burning.

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16.
What is the purpose of the variable inlet guide vanes?

a)
b)
c)
17.
To minimise the stalling of the front stage compressor.

To prevent surge.
To ensure that air strikes the first stage of the compressor at the correct angle.
Give one method of obviating stall in a normal axial flow compressor:

a)
b)
c)
Use fixed incidence guide vanes and bleed valves.

Use controlled airflow by means of blade angle of attack.
Use of variable incidence guide vanes and bleed valves.

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COMBUSTION QUESTIONS
1.
For the gas turbine engine to operate efficiently it is essential:

a)
b)
c)
2.
During the combustion part of the turbine engine cycle the pressure will:
a)
b)
c)
3.
50 %;
25 %;
75 %.
Which of the following properties will improve the starting characteristics of an engine:
a)
b)
c)
7.
divergent;
increasing the pressure;
convergent.
The percentage of air entering the combustion chamber and used in the combustion
process is:
a)
b)
c)
6.
a divergent flow;
convergent flow;
an increase in velocity.
The nozzle prior to the turbine will have a flow of gases which is:
a)
b)
c)
5.
increase slightly due to the combustion process;

decrease slightly due to design features;
vary in the same way as a piston engine by increasing to produce power.
The diffuser controls the flow from the compressor to the combustion chamber and will
increase the pressure by using:
a)
b)
c)
4.
for the ignition timing to be accurately adjusted;

the fuel flow must be accurately adjusted for altitude;
ignition is only essential for starting, but is often also used in icing conditions
for safety reasons.
low pressure around the burner area;

high flow velocity around the burner area;
high pressure around the burner area.
Which of the combustion chamber designs provides the greatest strength and best
control over airflow and fuel:
a)
b)
c)
can type;
annular type;
can-annular type.

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8.
A balance tube is necessary with the following type of combustion chamber:

a)
b)
c)
9.
Swirl vanes in the combustion chamber:

a)
b)
c)
10.
15 to 1.
45 to 1.
165 to 1.
Turbine engine ignition is:

a)
b)
c)
12.
Stabilize primary airflow and fuel for burning to take place.

Mix secondary air with fuel.
Mix primary and secondary air to increase rate of combustion.
The overall Air/Fuel ratio for a gas turbine is about:

a)
b)
c)
11.
the can type;

the annular type;
the can annular type.
Timed to occur at the correct time in the cycle by a contact breaker.

Not timed and is normally in operation when the engine is running.
Not timed and is normally not in operation after start.
The reason for pre-heating fuel is to:

a)
b)
c)
Improve thermal efficiency.

Prevent icing in the low pressure fuel filter.
Provide the correct mixture

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CHAPTER 4
THE TURBOFAN ENGINE
Turbofan engine layout
The turbofan is the most common derivative of the gas turbine and is almost exclusively used
for jet transport aircraft. The other major derivative of the gas turbine, the turboprop, is used
on aircraft where sector length, passenger loads and runway lengths are smaller.
The turbofan is of course, a by-pass engine, where part of the intake air is ducted around the
hot core of the engine. The by-pass air is compressed by the fan to a lesser extent than air
destined for the combustion chamber, but it is generally of a larger relative volume,
depending on engine design. Below shows the general arrangement of turbofan airflow, with
the primary airflow being that used for combustion.
The fan of a turbofan engine may rotate as a separate, stand-alone stage at the front of the
engine being driven by one or more turbines at the other end of that shaft. More commonly, a
number of axial compressor stages are attached to the fan shaft and process air in the
primary gas path. In such a configuration the compressor is called the low-pressure
compressor. Due to the combined mass of the fan and the low-pressure compressor, this
type of configuration will always need a number of low-pressure turbines at the other end of
the shaft to provide the necessary rotation.
The fan consists of blades, which are significantly larger than the blades of the low-pressure
compressor. Braces between the blades, called part-span shrouds, may be used to
strengthen the structure and thus prevent vibration and flutter. Later model engines generally
have larger chord fan blades, which eliminate the need for part-span shrouds. The use of
such large blades at the front of the engine provides better damage protection from foreign
objects.

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The by-pass air is either directed to the atmosphere through an annular exhaust duct or
rejoins the primary flow in the main exhaust. In both cases, the result is an overall reduced jet
velocity than a pure turbojet, which gives better propulsive efficiency at lower aircraft speeds.
In addition, the relatively cooler by-pass air may be used for engine cooling. Of the two bypass exhaust methods, the separate annular design is the most common in large jet transport
aircraft.

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By-pass ratio
All turbofan engines have a defined by-pass ratio which compares the mass flow of air that
passes through the by-pass duct to the mass flowing through the primary gas path. The
magnitude of each mass flow is clearly a function of the size of the by-pass duct and the
primary flow intake. By-pass ratio (BPR) is expressed as:
BPR =
duct mass flow

primary path mass flow
Earlier by-pass engines had very low ratios, often less than unity, where the duct mass flow
was less than the primary flow. Modern turbofans have ratios in excess of 2:1 and in the case
of large jet transport engines 5:1 is common.
Turbofan engines have been found to be far more efficient than earlier turbojets and can
produce much lower specific fuel consumptions. This improvement in fuel efficiency is
primarily due to the ability to provide thrust from some of the airflow without the need to
process that air through the combustion chamber and turbines. Turbofans can also provide
more thrust for a given mass flow of air, since mathematically it has been shown that thrust
increases by a factor of:
1 + BPR
Thus, for an engine with a BPR of 3:1the maximum thrust will be:
1+3
=4
= 2 times the maximum thrust of a pure turbojet
with the same mass flow
Turbofan engine performance
In some ways, the turbofan derivative of the gas turbine may appear the same as a turboprop
engine, since both have a large propeller or propeller like assembly which produces most of
the thrust. Unlike the turboprop, however, the turbofan engine is equipped with a divergent
inlet duct which allows the airflow to be unaffected by aircraft speed. The provision of an inlet
eliminates the loss in operational efficiency at high airspeeds, which limits the airspeed
capability of turboprop aircraft.

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A turbofan accelerates much greater amounts of air than a turbojet, which enables the
turbofan to produce more thrust than a turbojet at low speeds. This feature makes turbofans
far more efficient than turbojets during the take-off and climb phases of flight. At very high
airspeeds the turbofan engine still has more thrust capability, although the margin is reduced.
Above shows the relative thrust capabilities of turboprop, turbofan and turbojet engines at sea
level and also at higher altitude. Large turbofans such as the RB-211 series of engines
produce up to 60,000 lb static thrust at sea level.
Like the turboprop, the turbofan engine accelerates a relatively large mass of air to a
relatively low velocity. When large masses of air are accelerated to reduced velocity, the
propulsive efficiency of an engine is improved. Therefore, a turbofan operates more efficiently
than a turbojet and provides significantly reduced specific fuel consumption. Although the
high by-pass ratios of modern turbofans have provided much of the thrust and SFC
improvement, internal design improvements of the engines has also been very important.
Higher internal compression ratios greater internal aerodynamic efficiency and an increase in
the turbine inlet temperatures (due to material improvement), have all made significant
contributions.

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CHAPTER 5
TURBOPROPS
Principle of operation
In a turboprop engine, propulsion is achieved by the gas turbine driving a propeller, which
then acts on the air in the same way as propellers of reciprocating engines. The majority of
the engines gas stream energy is converted into mechanical energy to drive the compressor,
accessories and of course, the propeller. Only a small amount of jet thrust is available
(normally less than 10% of available energy), in the relatively low pressure, low velocity gas
stream created by the additional turbine stages that are needed to drive the extra load of the
propeller.
Since the propeller wastes less of its kinetic energy in its slipstream than a turbojet or
turbofan wastes in its exhaust, the turboprop is the most efficient form of gas turbine at low
speeds. This can be seen by comparing the propulsive efficiencies of different engine types
as shown. At higher speeds the propulsive efficiency of the turboprop deteriorates due to
compressibility effects at the propeller tips.

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Types of Turboprop Engines

Like most modern systems, specific operating criteria demands various changes to a basic
design so that optimum performance can be achieved. For this reason there are a number of
different turboprop configurations.
Direct-drive turboprops
Direct-drive turboprops are also known as coupled turboprops. In this configuration the
propeller is driven directly from a single compressor drive shaft, through appropriate reduction
gearing. Below shows a direct drive turboprop layout. Most early models of turboprop were
this type of configuration.
Free turbine turboprops

This type of configuration is the most common of modern turboprop engines. In this design,
the propeller is driven from an independent turbine through reduction gearing. The core of the
engine acts as a gas generator, which supplies high-energy gases to the independent free
power turbine. The free turbine arrangement has given engine designers more flexibility in
engine layout. One common design (Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6) used on smaller aircraft
has a rear to front gas flow direction which gives great flexibility in engine nacelle design
since the space behind the engine does not have to be used for exhaust processing. The free
turbine is easy to start due to the absence of propeller drag. Once started, the gas generator
shaft and propeller shaft can assume their optimum speeds independently since they are not
mechanically linked.
Compound turboprop
The compound turboprop is a variation on the earlier direct-drive configuration, but with two
spools. In this layout there is a separate high-pressure gas generator shaft and a lowpressure spool, which drives the propeller as well as serving its normal function. The
connection from the low-pressure spool to the propeller is made through a reduction gearing.
This type of layout is shown.

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Turbo shaft engines

A turboshaft engine is a variation on the free turbine concept except that the free turbine
drives something other than a propeller aligned with the engine axis. Turboshaft engines
have many industrial applications but in aviation they are used to power helicopters. Many
turboshaft engines used for rotary wing aircraft use the same engine core as a free turbine
turboprop, but with different gearing attached to the power turbine shaft.
Turboprop reduction gearing

All turboprop engines feature reduction gearing to reduce rotational speed of the propeller
drive shaft from the very high turbine speed values. Turbine rotational speeds in excess of
10,000 rpm are common, but due to the limiting effects of propeller tip speeds, this must be
reduced to about 2,000 rpm or less. Reduction ratios of 5:1 to 20:1 are common. The process
of reducing shaft speed by this magnitude is a complex one and necessitates the use of
multiple gear wheels, made of heavy and strong material. Reduction gears may form up to
20% of the total engine weight. In addition to adding weight to the engine, reduction gears
normally account for power losses of about 4% of total engine output.
Propeller and engine control

The gas generator element of the turboprop engine operates at high speed for maximum
efficiency. In practice, many turboprops have gas generators that run at 100% rpm with
different methods being used to control the propeller driven by its own turbine. These
methods are:
integrated control of both fuel flow and rpm;
direct control of gas generator fuel flow; and
direct control of propeller blade angle.

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The integrated control method is suitable for coupled and compounded turboprops where
propeller rpm is selected by a power lever, which simultaneously adjusts fuel flow to the
correct figure for that rpm. The direct control of fuel flow method is suitable for free turbine
engines. In this system the gas generator behaves much the same as a turbojet and the
power available to the free turbine is governed by fuel flow. The propeller rpm is maintained
at constant rpm by a constant speed unit. The direct control of blade angle method is
sometimes called Beta control. In this system the cockpit power lever selects a required blade
angle for the thrust demanded. Automatic functions then adjust fuel flow to achieve the
required propeller rpm.
Control of the propeller outside the normal flight range, particularly ground idle and reverse
thrust is almost universally by the Beta method. That is the power lever directly controls
propeller blade angle. Most aircraft have appropriate lever detents or lever locks to suitably
identify these positions. Within the operating ranges for ground and reverse thrust, a small
segment of power lever movement is available. Different settings within these specific
operating ranges demand predetermined gas generator speeds and fuel flows from a fixed
schedule as blade angle is changed. Below shows a representative power lever movement
arc with typical blade angles for each operating mode.
At power lever positions above the ground Beta range a separate propeller control lever
(fitted to many direct fuel flow control engines) operates the propeller control unit and thereby
determines and limits the rpm range to which the propeller is governed. As the free turbine in
the engine and the propeller are mechanically connected through the reduction gearing, this
means that the propeller control lever also determines and limits the rpm governing range of
the free turbine. Under normal flight conditions, the propeller control unit therefore acts as a
constant speed-governing unit to match propeller torque to engine torque in response to
changing flight conditions.

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In some direct fuel control installations, control of the propeller in the Beta range is possible in
flight, normally to achieve steep descent angles that follow as a result of the high drag. Below
shows a representative turboprop control system together with the aircraft fuel system for a
direct fuel control system.
In-flight power settings are normally achieved by using a torque gauge rather than a specific
engine speed or pressure ratio as in the case of a turbojet/turbofan, since torque is the only
parameter that is common to both engine and propeller. The appropriate torque setting for
cruise will depend on ambient conditions (altitude, temperature, etc) as well as propeller rpm
and airspeed. Aircraft operating manuals contain appropriate tables for this purpose.

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During an approach to land, the power lever is placed at the low end of the flight range while
the propeller rpm is still governed to the demanded value as set by the propeller lever (if
fitted). Movement of the power lever back into the Beta range allows direct control of blade
angle and as a consequence will vary propeller rpm without the use of the propeller lever. A
number of modern installations have dispensed with the propeller lever and all functions are
controlled through the power lever.
Turboprop performance
The turboprop engine performs best at low airspeed before the effects of high propeller tip
speeds reduce propulsive efficiency. It is also extremely capable in its production of thrust at
low airspeeds as shown. This is because the turboprop develops propulsive force by
imparting less acceleration to a relatively large mass of air. The power supplied to the
propeller is measured as shaft horsepower (SHP), to which must be added the effect of jet
thrust when the total power output or equivalent shaft horsepower (EHSP) is calculated.
The comparison of engines shown assumes engines operating at about the same fuel flow.
Because the turboprop can produce more thrust from its propeller at low speeds with this fuel
flow, it follows that the thrust specific fuel consumption of the turboprop will be lower than an
equivalent sized turbojet or turbofan engine. The comparison is illustrated which also shows
that a turboprop is a more efficient powerplant at all speeds at which it is likely to be
operated, assuming similar engine size.

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QUESTIONS
1.
The type of turbine blades most commonly used in jet engines are:
a)
b)
c)
2.
The pressure rise per compressor stage is higher in a:

a)
b)
c)
3.
most of the speed range;

high speed;
a narrow speed band.
In the turbofan engine, the majority of the air passing through the fan:
a)
b)
c)
7.
is used to power the compressor;

is used to provide thrust;
is dissipated when it is cooled by the unburnt gasses.
The turbojet engine is efficient at:

a)
b)
c)
6.
drives the turbine;

is driven by the turbine;
is not connected directly to the turbine.
The majority of the energy of the total gas flow after combustion:
a)
b)
c)
5.
centrifugal compressor;
axial compressor;
combination axial/centrifugal flow compressor.
The compressor in the turbojet engine:

a)
b)
c)
4.
impulse;
reaction;
impulse/reaction.
is used in the combustion process;

is used to cool the burnt gasses;
is used to provide thrust.
Turboprop engines use extra turbine stages to extract more energy from the
combustion gasses:
a)
b)
c)
because the power required is too high for a single stage to handle within the
speed of the engine;
to improve efficiency over the airspeed range;
to provide power for ancillary services.

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8.
The efficiency of a turbojet engine increases with:

a)
b)
c)
9.
One source of inefficiency in a turbojet engine is:

a)
b)
c)
10.
under no circumstances;
in emergency only;
under certain defined circumstances only.
Select the correct statement:

a)
b)
c)
15.
air which is induced into the engine by the rotation of the turbine;
the turbine;
the gearbox which is driven by the turbine.
Avgas may be used in a turbojet engine:

a)
b)
c)
14.
increases from sea level to high altitude;

decreases from sea level to high altitude;
remains constant at all altitudes.
The compressor is driven by:

a)
b)
c)
13.
+- 1 800 to 2 000 C;
+- 1 000 to 1 500 C;
+- 800 to 1 200 C.
The combustion efficiency of a normal gas turbine engine:

a)
b)
c)
12.
high exhaust velocity relative to the TAS;

a large mass of air is accelerated to a low velocity to the airframe;
too large a gap between the compressor blades and the engine shroud.
The initial temperature of the combustion gasses after initial exit from the burners is:
a)
b)
c)
11.
a lower rotational speed of the compressor impeller;

a higher rotational speed of the compressor impeller;
operation of the impeller within a specified range.
two igniters are required for starting a turbojet engine;

one igniter is sufficient for starting a turbojet engine;
some turbojet engines are not equipped with igniters.
Engines can be re-started in flight:

a)
b)
c)
at any altitude;
if fitted with the correct equipment;
so long as certain parameters are met.

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Chapter 6
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Electrical Terms
It is necessary to understand the basic terms used in electrics and the relationship between
them. It is also necessary to understand a basic electrical circuit and what causes electricity
to flow, what materials enable it to flow and what materials will not allow it to flow.
Electricity is produced to do work. It is therefore necessary to know:
how to control a circuit to make the electricity do work,

how to interpret from instruments the amount of electricity available to work
how much work it is doing and
what the limit of its capacity to work might be in a given circuit
Voltage.
Voltage is represented by the letter V. The unit is the volt and this is the basic unit of
electrical pressure. The definition of a volt is that 1 volt is the amount of pressure required to
force 1 amp of current to flow through 1 ohm of resistance
Current.
Current indicates the flow of electricity. It is represented by the letter I and is measured in
amperes (amps).
Resistance.
Resistance is represented by the letter R. The unit is the ohm. Resistance is the opposition
to the flow of current and causes the voltage to be reduced. In this sequence heat is
produced and power is consumed.
Ohms Law.
Ohms law states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional
To the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance through which the current
flows. The higher the voltage the higher the current. The higher the resistance the lower the
current. Ohms Law may be stated by the formulae:
R = V ohms, V = IR volts or I = V amps
I
R
Electrostatic Field.
All electrical devices are surrounded by magnetic fields. These are electrical forces caused
by either a negative or positive charged field of electrons

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Electromagnetic Induction.
When a conductor is moved through or crossed by a magnetic field, electrical current is
produced. This process is called electromagnetic induction.
Conductor.
A conductor is an object or metal through which electricity can easily flow. Examples are
metals such as brass and copper
Semi-conductors.
Semi conductors are items through which electricity can flow but not as freely as through
conductors because there is some resistance.
Resistor.
A resistor, as its name suggests, is resistant to the flow of electricity and these materials are
used as insulators. These prevent conductors coming into contact with other objects which
could be harmed or damaged. Resistors are also used to reduce current flow as stated
previously. Rubber is an example of a good resistor but it could not be used easily as a
means of reducing flow, it would stop it altogether.
Electrical Power.
The symbol for power is P and the unit of power is the Watt. Electrical power is the ability of
an electrical device to produce work. Watts are the product of current x the voltage that
causes the current to flow and may be represented by the formula P=VI.
Electric Work.
This is defined by the product of force x the distance an object moves under the influence of
electrical power.
These and other terms will be used in this chapter and should be remembered
Electrical components.
Certain electrical components are common to may aeroplane electrical systems and layouts
and are explained in the following paragraphs.
Busbar.
A busbar, sometimes called a bus, is a distribution point from which individual circuits take
their power for their systems. In general terms it is nothing more than a strip of metal which is
supplied with a voltage from the main power generating system or one particular element
thereof. Busbars are sub divided by name to indicate their power source or their importance
in the overall system. For example a battery bus is supplied direct from the aeroplane battery
and supplies power to the vital systems that may be required in a crash situation, e.g. fire
extinguishers and fuel shut off valves.
Electrical Generator.
This is a mechanical device that changes mechanical energy into electrical energy by using
permanent magnets or electromagnets with moving conductors. Generally engine driven
generators produce voltage which causes current to flow. The construction and principal of
operation of a generator is described later.

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Electrical alternator.
An alternator, sometimes called a dc generator, produces alternating current as its source
output. The final output of an alternator may be dc by changing the ac within the alternator
Electrical motor.
This is an electrical or mechanical device that changes the electrical energy back into
mechanical energy. Electrical motors appear in many aeroplane systems.
Electrical fuses
A fuse is a circuit protection device which opens the circuit when excessive current flows and
could damage either the circuit itself or the system to which it is connected. It is mad from a
strip of metal that melts when excessive current flows. Fuses have to be replaced when they
"blow" to re-establish the circuit. In many aeroplane systems it is only permissible to replace a
fuse once. If it blows a second time this is usually indicative of an electrical or mechanical
fault which is causing the excess current and should not be replaced a second time. National
and company regulations must be followed in this respect.
Circuit breakers.
A circuit breaker has the same function as a fuse but the circuit breaker can restore a circuit
when it is reset. It does not have to be replaced and is said to "trip" when it opens the circuit.
In many cases the same restrictions apply to the resetting of circuit breakers as to replacing
fuses because they are protecting a circuit that has become overloaded due to excess
current indicating a fault in the circuit causing the circuit breaker to overheat.
To reset a circuit breaker it is normally only necessary to press the button that protrudes
when the breaker trips.

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Capacitor.
A capacitor is a component used in electrical circuits to store electrical energy in an
electrostatic field. It consists of two conductors called plates, one negative and one positive,
which are separated by a dielectric insulator. This dielectric can be solid, liquid or a gas.
When the electrons in a closed electrical circuit reach the negative plate of the capacitor they
attempt to pass through the dielectric to the positive plate. Since they cannot pass through
the dielectric they accumulate on the negative plate thus charging the capacitor. When the
voltage difference across the two plates is the same as the voltage across the terminals of
the power source the capacitor is fully charged and the electrons flow from the negative to the
positive plate discharging the capacitor.
There are various symbols for capacitors in circuit diagrams and the most common ones
The safe working voltage is the maximum dc voltage that can be safely applied to a capacitor
without causing the dielectric to break down. If this value is exceeded for a given capacitor
separator
Oxide
the electric field becomes strong Gause
enough
to break
down the insulation of the dielectrics and
film
cause a spark to pass across the plates and ruin the capacitor.
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To withstand higher voltages the thickness of the dielectric is increased but since greater
insulation between the plates reduces the capacitance a larger plate area becomes
necessary to maintain the capacitance value. Capacitors of higher voltage rating are
therefore larger than those for smaller voltage rating but the same capacitance.
Capacitor Connections
Capacitors in series may be considered to be increasing the separation of the outer plates of
the combination. Thus the total capacitance (CT) is less than the smallest capacitance of the
individual capacitors and so the relationship is similar to that for resistors in parallel.
Capacitors in parallel may be considered as effectively increasing the area of the plates.
Therefore, since single capacitance increases with plate area, the total capacitance (CT) is
equal to the sum of the individual capacitance. Thus the relationship for CT is similar to that
for resistors in parallel.
Resistors
It has been stated that resistance opposes the flow of electricity. The item that achieves this
is a resistor. This is made of a material that reduces the electrical flow in a circuit. The
magnitude of resistance depends on factors such as, the nature of the conductor material, its
physical state, size, temperature and thermal properties. Frequency and magnitude of the
current also affect the magnitude of the resistor.
Resistors can be of a fixed or variable value. The fixed resistor is obvious but an example of
a variable resistor is a rotary switch controlling the intensity of a lighting circuit.
The effect of an increase in temperature is to reduce the resistance in a standard resistor
which is said to have positive temperature co-efficient (PTC). Another form of resistor is a
thermister and the effect of temperature change is the opposite to that in a standard PTC
resistor. The thermister is a negative temperature co-efficient (NTC) device and both types
are used in aeroplanes for temperature measurement.
Applications of Ohms Law
The following table shows the applications of Ohms Law in both parallel and series circuits,
followed by an example of a series parallel circuit.

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Transformer
A transformer is a device for converting ac at one frequency and voltage to ac at the same
frequency and different voltage. It consists of three parts;
An iron core, which provides a circuit of low reluctance for an alternating magnetic
ield created by the second part,
A primary winding which is connected to the main power source and thirdly,
A secondary winding which receives electrical energy by mutual induction from
he primary winding and delivers it to a secondary circuit.
The voltage produced in the secondary winding is controlled by the number of turns in each
winding. For example, if the primary winding has 200 turns and the secondary has 1000
turns, the voltage in the secondary is five times that of the primary. The ratio of turns (N2) in
the secondary to the number of turns (N1) in the primary is called the turns or transformation
ratio (r) and is expressed by the equation:
R = N2 = E2
N1 E1
where E1 and E2 are the respective voltages of the 2 windings.
Switches
In aeroplane electrical installations, the function of installing and controlling the operating
sequences of circuits is performed principally by switches and relays. Circuit breakers,
though they control the flow of current to and within systems, are regarded as circuit
protection devices.
In its simplest form, a switch consists of two contacting surfaces, which can be isolated from
each other or brought together by a moveable connecting link, called a pole. When a switch
has only one operating toggle it is a single pole switch but a switch where two or three
toggles have been grouped together in known as double or triple pole switch. Switches may
be 2 or 3 position switches, may be fitted with guards or latches to hold them in normal
operating positions with cover plates, spring loaded sliding guards or physical restraints, all of
which have to be moved to operate the switch.
Several typical types of switch are described in this section.
Toggle switches, or tumbler switches as they are known, are general purpose switches and
use extensively. These have simple ON/OFF functions, may be gauged, may be guarded
and may be 2 or 3 position devices.

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Push switches are used for short duration operations. ie. when a circuit is to be completed or
interrupted for a short duration. Other types are designed to close one or more circuits
(through separate contacts) whilst opening another circuit. They may be designed for either
push to make or push to break operation. Some contain small lamps to illuminate legends.
They are used in turbo-prop engine start and stop circuits, are manual or electromagnetic in
operation.
In the start circuit the button is held latched in place until the start sequence is complete
whilst in the stop circuit the button operates the circuits to stop the fuel supply, remove
electrical power from other engine systems and shuts down the engine.
Rocker button switches combine the action of both toggle and push button switches, e.g.
generator on, off (selectable) and reset (spring loaded) selections on the one switch.
Rotary switches are manually operated and are often used in place of toggle switches. A
typical use is the selection of a single voltmeter between several busbars, generators or
batteries.
Micro-switches are a special type of switch and the most extensively used in aeroplanes. It is
a switch in which the travel between make and break is in the order of a few thousandths of
an inch. Activation of micro switches varies with the designs of the system but is usually by a
lever, roller or cam. They are used in various applications such as:
Landing gear systems to indicate the position to the indicator lights,
Door warning systems,
Power lever sequencing of system operation (arming of power augmentation
systems)
Nose wheel or main wheel weight switches to ensure that systems do not operate
on the ground.
Rheostats contain a resistance that is variable and can be used to adjust the current in the
circuit, for example, varying the intensity of panel or cockpit lighting. They normally contain
an off position to completely remove the current.
Time switches are required to operate pre-determined controlled time sequences. It is
usually linked to and controlled by an electric motor. An example is the switching of power
between heater mats on propellers or between pairs of propeller blades to achieve de-icing.
In some sequences the time switch operations can be varied. This is done by a rocker or
toggle switch which, in a continuous operating time switch, selects power to different time
sequences
Mercury switches are glass tubes into which stationary contacts and a pool of loose mercury
are hermetically sealed. Tilting the tube causes the mercury to flow to close or open a gap,
thus make or break a circuit. A typical application is in torque motor circuits of gyro horizons
in which the gyros must be pressured to and maintained in the vertical position.
Pressure switches are used to indicate high and low pressure in systems where pressure
measurement is involved, for example, hydraulic power generation systems. They are
usually linked to warning captions to indicate high or low pressure outside normal limits.
They are also installed in cabin pressurisation systems to indicate high differential pressure
and cabin altitude above the limits.

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Thermal switches are used in systems where warning of excessive heat is required, for
example, engine fire and over-heat warning systems.
Proximity switches are used in some aeroplanes to give warning of whether or not passenger
doors, freight doors, etc. are fully closed and locked. They have certain advantages over
micro switches in that they have no moving parts to break or malfunction.
Bi-metallic switches are again used in temperature sensitive areas but where smaller devices
than thermal switches may be required. Two different metals with different co-efficient rates
of expansion are fastened together. The different metals cause the combined plates to bend
and make or break contacts. They may be used in instruments, especially electronic
instruments, to operate cooling fans that maintain internal temperatures within limits.
Relays
Relays are, in effect, electromagnetic switching devices by means of which one electrical
circuit can be indirectly controlled by a change in the same or another electrical circuit. In the
basic form, a relay can be considered as being made up of two principal elements, one for
sensing the electrical changes and for operating the relay mechanism and the other for
controlling the changes. The sensing and operating element is a solenoid and armature and
the controlling element is one or more pairs of contacts.
In many applications the solenoid is energised directly from the aeroplane power supply. In
others it may be energised by signals from an automatic device such as:
A fire detector unit,
Speed sensitive switch in an engine start circuit or
Generator control circuit where a coil is energised to pull in the switch to fulfil a
fire warning, ignition or
Generator cross-tie circuit to link busbars to a remaining generator after a failure
or for normal operation depending on the overall circuit design.
In addition to the contact assembly designations, relays are also classified by the
order of making and breaking of contacts, whether normally open (NO) or
normally closed (NC) in the de-energised state, rating of the contacts in amperes
and the voltage of the energised supply.
On a broad basis grouping of relays is usually related to the basic form of construction e.g.
attracted core, attracted armature, polarised armature and slugged and the current carrying
ratings of the controlling element contact.
A changeover relay allows for the automatic change of the power supply from one system to
another when a given event in a sequence has taken place.

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Aeroplane Batteries
Role of the Battery

In almost all aeroplane electrical systems a battery has the following principal functions
To help maintain the dc system voltage under transient conditions. The starting of large dc
motor-driven accessories, such as inverters and pumps, requires high input current. This
would lower the busbar voltage momentarily unless the battery was available to assume a
share of the load. A similar condition exists should a short circuit develop in a circuit
protected by a heavy-duty circuit breaker or current limiter. This function possibly applies to a
lesser degree on aeroplanes where the electrical system is predominantly ac, but the basic
principle still holds true.
To supply power for short-term heavy loads when generator or ground power is not available,
e.g. internal starting of engine.
Under emergency conditions, a battery is intended to supply limited amounts of power.
Under these conditions the battery could be the sole remaining source of power to operate
essential flight instruments, radio communication equipment, etc., for as long as the capacity
of the battery allows.
A battery is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy and is made up of
a number of cells which, depending on battery utilisation, may be of the primary type or
secondary type. Both types of cell operate on the same fundamental principle, i.e. the
exchange of electrons due to the chemical action of electrolyte and electrode materials. The
essential differences between the two lies in the action that occurs during discharge. In the
primary cell this action destroys the active materials of the cell, thus limiting its effective life to
a single discharge operation, whereas in the secondary cell the discharge action converts the
active material into other forms, from which they can subsequently be electrically
reconverted, into the original materials. Thus, a secondary cell can have a life of numerous
discharge actions, followed by the action of re-conversion more commonly known as
charging. The batteries selected for use in aeroplanes, therefore, employ secondary cells
and are either of the lead-acid or nickel-cadmium type.
Capacity of Batteries
The capacity of a battery, or the total amount of energy available, depends upon the size and
number of plates. More strictly, it is related to the amount of material available for chemical
action
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The capacity rating is measured in ampere-hours and is based on the maximum current, in
amps, which it will deliver for a known time period, until it is discharged to a permissible
minimum voltage of each cell. The time taken to discharge is called the discharge rate and
the rated capacity of the battery is the product of this rate and the duration of discharge (in
hours). Thus, a battery which discharges 7A for five hours is rated at 35 ampere-hours
capacity.
Lead Acid
Each positive plate of a fully charged cell consists of the lead-antimony alloy into which lead
peroxide paste has been forced under pressure. The negative plates are of similar basic
structure, but with pure spongy lead forced into the grid. The electrolyte consists of two
constituents, sulphuric acid and water, which are mixed in such proportions that the relative
density is generally about 1.25 to 1.27.
During discharge of the cell, that is, when an external circuit is completed between the
positive and negative plates, electrons are transferred through the circuit from lead to lead
peroxide and the net result of the chemical reaction is that lead sulphate forms on both
plates. At the same time molecules of water are formed, thus weakening the electrolyte. For
all practical purposes, the cell is considered to be discharged when both plates are covered
with lead sulphate and the electrolyte has become quite weak.
The cell may be recharged by connecting the positive and negative plates, respectively, to
the positive and negative terminals of a dc source of slightly higher voltage than the cell. All
the foregoing reactions are then reversed; the lead sulphate on the positive plate being
restored to lead peroxide, the negative plate restored to spongy lead and the electrolyte
restored to its original relative density.
Ni Cad
During charging, the negative plates lose oxygen and become metallic cadmium. The
positive plates are brought to a higher state of oxidation by the charging current until both
materials are completely converted; i.e. all the oxygen is driven out of the negative plates and
only cadmium remains. The positive plates pick up the oxygen to form nickel oxides. The
cell emits gas towards the end of the charging process and during overcharging; the gas
being caused by decomposition of the water component of the electrolyte into hydrogen at
the negative plates and oxygen at the positive plates. A light amount of gassing is necessary
to completely change the cell and so it therefore loses a certain amount of water.

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The reverse chemical action takes place during discharging, the negative plates gradually
gaining back the oxygen as the positive plates lose it. Due to this interchange there is no
gassing on a normal discharge. In this way, the chemical energy of the plates is converted
into electrical energy and the electrolyte is absorbed by the plates to a point where it is not
visible from the top of the cell. The electrolyte does not play an active part in the chemical
reaction; it is used only to provide a path for current flow.
The chemical reaction of a nickel-cadmium cell is summarised in the table and may be
compared with that taking place in a lead-acid battery cell.
Chemical Reactions of Batteries
Battery Type
State
Charge
Charged
Lead-acid
of Positive Plate
PbO2
Dioxide)
Negative Plate
(Lead Pb (Lead)
Discharged
NickelCadmium
Charged
PbSO4(Lead
PbSO4
(Lead Sulphate)
Sulphate)
Ni2O2 and Ni2O3 Cd (Cadmium)
(Nickel Oxides)
Discharged
Ni(OH)2
(Nickel
Hydroxide)
Cd(OH)2
(Cadmium
Hydroxide)
Electrolyte
H2SO4
Concentrated
Sulphuric Acid
H2SO4
Weak
Sulphuric Acid
KOH
(Potassium
hydroxide)
Unaffected by
state
of
charge.
State Of Charge
All batteries display certain indications of their state of charge and these are of practical help
in maintaining operating conditions.
When a lead-acid battery is in the fully charged condition each cell displays three distinct
indications: the terminal voltage reaches its maximum value and remains steady; the relative
density of the electrolyte ceases to rise and remains constant; the plates gas freely. The
relative density is the sole reliable guide to the electrical condition of the cell of a battery that
is neither fully charged nor yet completely discharged. If the relative density is midway
between the normal maximum and minimum values a cell is approximately half charged.
Checks on the relative density of batteries that do not contain free electrolyte cannot be
made, the state of charge being assessed only from voltage indications.
The electrolyte in the cells of a nickel-cadmium battery does not chemically react with the
plates as the electrolyte does in a lead-acid battery. Consequently, the plates do not
deteriorate, nor does the relative density of the electrolyte appreciably change. For this
reason, it is not possible to determine the state of charge by checking the relative density.
Neither can the charge be determined by a voltage test because of the inherent characteristic
that the voltage remains constant over a major part of the discharge cycle. The only possible
check that a battery is fully charged is the battery voltage when on-charge; additionally, the
electrolyte should be at maximum level under these conditions.

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Formation of white crystals of potassium carbonate, on a properly serviced nickel-cadmium

battery, indicates that it is being overcharged. The crystals form as a result of the reaction of
expelled electrolyte vapour with carbon dioxide.
The indication of voltage available from a battery is normally higher when fully charged than
the stated battery voltage. For example, a generator will output 27.5 to 28.5 volts dc and is
used to charge 24 volt dc batteries. When the battery is fully charged and used to power a
busbar the voltage on the busbar is usually 25.5 to 26.0 volts dc.
The effect of temperature on battery operation is described in the section on thermal
runaway.
Because of the chemical reaction in batteries, fumes and gases generated have to be
extracted by the difference in pressure across the aeroplane. To achieve this and for safety
reasons batteries are normally located outside the cabin and in the case of pressurised
aeroplanes, outside the pressurised areas. The batteries are then vented to atmosphere
through rubber or other non-corrosive pipes to the fuselage skin.
Multi battery systems may be connected in series or in parallel. Parallel connection increases
the length of time a battery set will operate at normal voltage. For example, 4 x 24 volt dc.
40 ah batteries in parallel will provide 24 volts dc for 160 ah operation. If they are
connected in series they are stacked to provide increased voltage so in the above example
they would provide 96 volts dc at 40 ah whilst in series. In some installation batteries are
placed in series for short periods to maintain minimum voltage during high current operation.
In a twin 24 volt dc 40 ah installation the load during a battery engine start could lower the
voltage of batteries in parallel to below 18 volts in the initial start period. However, certain
systems such as ignition, EGT measurement, computers and EFIS require the voltage to be
maintained above 18 volts dc at all times and the two batteries are automatically switched to
series operation during the engine start. If the engine is being started from ground power this
series coupling is not required and the batteries continue to operate in parallel.
Thermal Runaway
Batteries are capable of performing to their rated capacities when the temperature conditions
and charging rates are within the values specified. In the event that these are exceeded
thermal runaway can occur. This is a condition that causes violent gassing, boiling of the
electrolyte and finally melting of the plates and casing, with consequent danger to the aircraft
structure and jeopardy of the electrical system.
Since batteries have low thermal capacity heat can be dissipated and this results in lowering
of the effective internal resistance. Thus, when associated with constant voltage charging a
battery will draw a higher charging current and thereby set up the runaway condition of
ever-increasing charging currents and temperatures.
In some aircraft, particularly those employing nickel-cadmium batteries, temperature-sensing
devices are located within the batteries to provide a warning of high battery temperatures and
to prevent overcharging by disconnecting the batteries from the charging source at a
predetermined temperature.

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Magnetism
Magnetism is so closely allied with electricity that without it the means of creating electrical
power would be greatly reduced. It is known that a magnet attracts small pieces of iron or
steel. A region of influence, called a magnetic field, extends outside a magnet into the
surrounding space, which is made up of invisible lines of magnetic force, or magnetic flux.
This is best demonstrated by sprinkling iron filings on a piece of paper covering a magnet.
This shows that magnetism is concentrated at two points at a magnets extremities, called
poles. A freely suspended magnetised rod will always align itself approximately in a northsouth orientation (figure 11.7).
The same pole will always point north, called the north-seeking or red pole; and the other
pole will point south, called the south-seeking or blue pole.
The earliest known form of magnetism is the lodestone, which is a natural mineral found in
Asia. If a piece of this ore is suspended horizontally by a thread, or floated on wood in water,
it will align itself in a north-south direction.

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This characteristic led to its use as a compass and the name lodestone, meaning leading
stone. This is because the earth itself is a huge magnet with its own magnetic field
The fields interact with each other and the lodestone aligns itself according to the
fundamental laws of magnetism. Other than the earth itself, lodestone is the only natural
magnet and all other magnets are produced artificially. For example, magnetism can be
induced in an iron bar by stroking it with a piece of lodestone. Another type of magnet is the
electromagnet, where its magnetic field is produced by an electric current. Magnets are also
often classified by their shape. They can exist as horseshoe, bar or ring magnets.

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Theory Of Magnetism
Similar to the theory of electricity, the theory of magnetism begins with the electron. As seen
previously, electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom and they also spin around their own axis in
much the same way as planets orbit the sun .
An electrostatic field also surrounds electrons at rest and in nature a moving electrical charge
produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field produced by a spinning charge exists as rings
around the electron. The direction of spin dictates the direction of the magnetic field and at
any given point the electrostatic field is at right angles to the magnetic field. These fields
combine to form an electromagnetic field
Iron, nickel and cobalt are natural magnetic elements, each having two valence electrons. In
these elements, the electrons tend to pair with electrons of the same spin direction and form
resultant fields. In other materials the valence electrons pair with electrons spinning in
opposite directions and their fields cancel out. Atoms of iron, nickel or cobalt therefore have
a net magnetic field and small groups of these atoms tend to form tiny permanent magnets
called domains

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Outside the influence of a magnetic field, these domains are arranged haphazardly and the
overall field is zero. A piece of metal such as this can, however, be magnetised by subjecting
it to a strong magnetic field. This causes the domains to line up and the metal becomes a
magnet. This is verified by the fact that if a magnet is cut into several pieces, each piece will
form a complete magnet, with north and south poles
A magnet can be demagnetised, by heating it to a temperature known as its Curie Point or

hitting it with a hammer or by degaussing it with an alternate magnetic field.

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Fundamental Laws Of Magnetism

The following fundamental laws of magnetism exist:
red (North seeking)or blue poles cannot exist separately

like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract
the line joining the poles is called the magnetic axis
Characteristics Of Lines Of Magnetic Flux

Lines of magnetic flux have the following characteristics:
They have direction or polarity
They always form complete loops

They never cross each other; like poles repel

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They tend to form the smallest possible loops; unlike poles attract
They can be distorted by interacting with other flux lines\\
Classification Of Magnetic Materials

Theoretically, all materials are affected to some extent by a magnetic field and can be placed
in one of the following categories:
Ferromagnetism is the property of a material that enables it to become a permanent magnet
i.e. ferromagnetic materials placed in a magnetic field develop a very strong internal field and
retain some of it when the external field is removed. The most common ferromagnetic
substances are iron, cobalt, nickel and alloys of these metals. Above the Curie temperature,
thermal agitation destroys the domain structure and the substance becomes paramagnetic.
In practice, it is convenient to sub-divide ferromagnetic materials into two classes:
Hard Iron is material, which is difficult to magnetise, but once magnetised, retains its
magnetism unless subjected to a strong demagnetisation force. This is known as a
permanent magnet.
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Soft Iron is easily magnetised but also easily loses its magnetism when not subjected to a
strong magnetising force. This is known as temporary or transient magnetism.
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism which occurs in materials which, placed in a magnetic
field, have an internal field proportional to, but less than, that outside. Some of these
materials are copper and bismuth.
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux is considered to be produced by a force known as the magneto-motive force
(mmf) The mmf acting in a circuit is the product of the current and the number of turns of wire
which link together the magnetic circuit. It is expressed in ampere-turns (At).
The greater the current and the greater the number of turns, the greater the resulting flux ().
The Weber (Wb) is the unit of magnetic flux.
Flux Density
Flux density is the number of Webers per square metre, and is given the unit Tesla ().
=
area
Reluctance
Reluctance is the opposition to magnetic flux, and is similar, in nature to resistance m an
electrical circuit. It is the ratio of the magneto-motive force acting on a magnetic circuit to the
magnetic flux.
Reluctance = mmf
Permeability
Permeability () is the ease by which magnetic flux may be induced into a material and can
be compared to conductance in an electrical circuit. It is the ratio of B/H, where B is the
induced magnetic flux, and H is the magnetising force.
Hysterisis
It is possible to take an iron ring, completely de-magnetised, and measure the value of flux
density (B) with respect to increasing values of magnetising force (H). This relationship is
expressed by the curve OC in figure 11-20

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If the magnetising force is reduced from this maximum value the flux density will follow the
curve CD. The flux remaining in the iron is called the Remnant Flux. To totally remove the
remnant flux the magnetising force needs to be reversed, in this case to a value of OE. This
value is called the coercive force. Further negative increases in H cause B to grow in the
reverse direction until saturation occurs, EF. Decreasing the value of H, and subsequently
increasing H in a positive direction completes a symmetrical figure, CDEFGC. This is termed
the hysterisis loop.
The word hysterisis means to lag behind and this is what happens to flux density as it lags
behind the changing values of magnetising force.
Hysterisis Loss
In reality, residual (remnant) flux is probably due to the alignment of electron axes. Energy is
expended in forcing the electrons to change the direction of their axes. This energy appears
as heat, and is referred to as hysterisis loss.
Saturation
Saturation plays an important role in ferro-magnetic circuits. In general the induced
magnetism in iron is proportional to the current creating it, but if the current is increased
beyond a certain point, no further appreciable increase in magnetism will occur. In this
condition the iron is said to be saturated. Saturation is a very important property in the
operation of magnetic amplifiers.
Magnetism Produced by Current Flow
When cunent flows through a conductor a magnetic field is produced around the conductor,
and its magnitude is proportional to the cunent flow, figure 11.21
The direction of the field depends on the direction of current flow. In order to determine the
direction of the field, using conventional current flow, the Right Hand Grasp Rule is used.

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The thumb points in the direction of current flow, and the fingers point in the direction of the
magnetic field.
In explaining some aspects of electromagnetism, it is helpful to show current flow in a third
dimension. To do this, two further symbols are necessary. If a wire is viewed from the end,
the tail of the arrow indicates current flowing into the wire and a dot on the point of the arrow
indicates current flowing out of the wire.
As long as the conductor is a straight piece of wire, the magnetic field produced is of little
practical use. It has direction, but no north or South Pole and, unless the current is extremely
high, the magnetic field will have little useful strength. By altering the shape of the wire into a
loop its magnetic characteristics can be greatly improved
Lines of flux are closer together.

The majority of lines of flux are concentrated in the centre of the loop.

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North and south poles are created at the ends of it and it assumes the same
magnetic characteristics as that of a permanent magnet; lines of magnetic flux
come out of the north pole and return via the south pole
The Electromagnet
As shown previously when current passes through a loop of wire, a magnetic field is
established. This is the principle of an electromagnet. By increasing the number of turns in
the wire to form a coil, the individual fluxes add together to produce a strong magnetic field,
This is more commonly known as a solenoid. Also the more current that flows through a coil,
the greater the number of lines of flux. The strength of a magnetic field is therefore directly
proportional to both the number of turns in a coil and the amount of current flowing through it.
It follows that the strength of the magnetic field around a coil (electromagnet) increases with
either an increase in current, or an increase in the number of turns.
Another extremely effective method of increasing the strength of the magnetic flux around a
coil is to insert a bar of ferromagnetic material into the coil, i.e. soft iron

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This has the effect of concentrating the magnetic lines of flux because an iron core is much
more permeable than air. The polarity of a coil can be determined if the direction of current
through the coil is known, using the Right Hand Grasp Rule
The fingers of the right hand wrap around the coil in the direction of current flow, whilst the
thumb points in the direction of the North Pole.

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The Relay
A relay uses the principle of the electromagnet (solenoid) and is used when it is desirable to
have one circuit remotely control another
High current or high voltage circuits commonly use relays for remote switching.
Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction is the action that causes electrons to flow in a conductor when it is
moved in a magnetic field. A conductor moving in a magnetic field causes the electrons to
move towards one end, and as a result a potential difference is developed between the two
ends. When a conductor moves out of a magnetic field the electrons return to their original
positions and the potential difference disappears. The potential difference also disappears if a
conductor is stopped in a magnetic field. A conductor must therefore move with respect to the
flux lines before a potential difference is developed. Motion is therefore instrumental to
electromagnetic induction and an outside force must be applied to cause a conductor to move
through a magnetic field. This mechanical force is converted to an electromotive force (EMF)
by electromagnetic induction, in other words an EMF is induced into a conductor. The amount
of EMF induced into a conductor is determined by the following factors:
The strength of the magnetic field.

The speed of the conductor with respect to the field.
The angle at which the conductor cuts the field.
The length of the conductor in the field.

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All of these factors are a natural consequence of a basic law of electromagnetic induction.
This law is called Faraday's law. It states that the voltage induced in a conductor is directly
proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts the magnetic lines of force. This principle
is used in generators. The polarity of the induced EMF can be found using Flemings Right
Hand Rule for generators. It involves the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand
placed at 90 to each other,
The thumb points in the direction of motion of a conductor, the index finger points in the
direction of the lines of magnetic flux, and the middle finger points to the positive end of a
conductor. The middle finger also shows the direction of current flow, when an external circuit
is connected across the two ends of the conductor.
Generators
A generator, which may be of the direct current (dc) or alternating current (ac) type, supplies
energy for the operation of most electrically operated equipment in an aeroplane.
A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by the
process of electromechanical induction. In both dc and ac types of generator the voltage
induced is alternating, hence generators are often called alternators. The major difference
between them is the method by which the electrical energy is collected and applied to the
circuit externally connected to the generator.
In its simplest form, a generator is a single loop of wire arranged to rotate between the pole
pieces of a magnet. The ends of the wire are brought together to form a circuit via slip rings,
brushes and the externally connected load. When the plane of the loop lies at right angles to
the magnetic field, no voltage is induced in the loop. As the loop rotates through 90 the
wires cut the lines of force at right angles until the induced voltage is at a maximum. As the
loop approaches the vertical position again the voltage decreases because the rate at which
the lines of force are cut diminishes. As the loop continues to rotate in the lines of force and
alternating voltage is produced.

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To convert the ac produced into unidirectional or dc it is necessary to replace the slip rings by
a collecting device called a commutator. It consists of two segments insulated from each
other and connected to the ends of the loop. The brushes are set so that each segment
moves out of contact with one brush and into contact with the other brush at the point where
the loop passes through the position at which induced voltage is at its minimum.
A pulsating current increasing to maximum in only one direction is produced.

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In order to smooth out the pulsations and produce a constant output, additional wire loops
and commutator segments are provided. They are connected and spaced about the axis of
rotation so that several are always in a position of maximum action and the pulsating output is
reduced to a ripple.
There are several classifications of generators but in aeroplane dc powered supply systems,
self-excited shunt wound generators are employed and this is the only type of generator
discussed in this section.
Generator Characteristics
The characteristics of a generator refer to the relationship between voltage and the current
flowing in the external circuit connected to the generator, i.e. the load current.
The fixed portion of the armature circuit consists of the four brushes to the terminals A and
A1. The four field coils are of high resistance and connected in series to form the field
winding. They are wound and connected in such a way that they produce alternate North and
South poles. The ends of the windings are brought out to the terminal block Z and Z 1
position.
Power Factor
The power factor is a means of indicating the amount of true power consumed in an AC
circuit when given the apparent power V.A. The formula is:
True power
Power Factor = apparent power
Resonance
When a D.C. voltage is applied to a parallel circuit containing both inductance and
capacitance, the capacitor will act like an open circuit, and the inductor like a short circuit.
This means XC will be infinite while XL will be zero. If now a very low frequency AC is now
applied instead of DC and the frequency gradually increased XL will increase and XC will
decrease. A point will eventually be reached where the value of XL is the same as XC. It
follows that for any combination of L and C, there will be a frequency at which X L equals XC.
This is true whether the two components are connected in series or parallel. The condition
where XL equals XC is known as resonance and the frequency at which this occurs is known
as the resonant frequency (fo).
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Resonant frequency can be calculated from the formula:

fo
Where:
1
2 LC
f = frequency in hertz
L = inductance in Henries
C = Capacitance in Farads
Series Resonance.
As previously stated circuit is at resonance when XL equals XC. When current flows in a series
circuit containing, a resistor, a capacitor and an inductor, a voltage is developed across each
component. At resonance the voltage drop across the capacitor will be equal and opposite to
the voltage drop across the coil, these voltages cancel each other, leaving only the voltage
across the resistance, which will now equal the supply voltage. The supply is therefore not
affected by the capacitor or coil since no opposition to current flow occurs at resonance. It
would also be apparent by calculation, that the voltages across the individual reactive
components can be many times higher than the supply voltage.
A series resonant circuit at resonance is also known as an acceptor circuit, because it offers
minimum impedance. A series resonant circuit possesses the following characteristics:
Q Factor
The Q or magnification factor is very important in a series resonant circuit and
is defined as the ratio of the reactance to resistance.
Q = XL or
XC
R
R
This is the reason why the voltage across the reactive components can be very much larger
than the supply voltage.
Series circuits are sometimes said to magnify voltage, by the factor of Q.
Bandwidth
Resonant circuits are selective and respond more readily to their resonant frequency (f o ) than
to other frequencies. Whilst the resonance effects are greatest, at (f o), the same effects exist
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to a smaller extent at frequencies above and below this frequency. The range of frequencies
over which it is selective is called the bandwidth of the resonant circuit. By convention the
bandwidth of a circuit is the separation between two frequencies either side of the resonant
frequency, at which the output power falls to half its maximum value. The bandwidth may be
determined from the formula:
Bandwidth = fo
Q
Parallel Resonant Circuit (Tank Circuit)
In an ideal parallel resonant circuit containing only pure capacitance and inductance, X L is
equal to XC. Under these conditions an equal amount of energy would be firstly stored in the
capacitor in an electrostatic field, then passed to the inductor, to be stored as an electromagnetic field. This is known as the flywheel effect, and because there is no resistance in the
circuit, the oscillation of energy between the capacitor and inductor would continue
indefinitely. It follows that since no energy needs be replaced in the circuit, then none is
drawn from the AC supply other than the initial amount of energy required to start the
oscillation. The circuit therefore appears to the supply to be an open circuit.
In reality practical parallel inductive-capacitive circuits have resistance, and unlike the
hypothetical circuit shown, which only stores energy, resistance dissipates it in the form of
heat. In a practical tank circuit, the oscillation will therefore quickly die away unless the lost
energy is replaced by the supply. If the resistance in the circuit is high, oscillations will quickly
drop because the energy is rapidly dissipated. At resonance, a practical tank circuit is known
as a rejecter circuit because it offers maximum impedance to the supply.
Q in a Parallel Resonant Circuit.
In a series resonant circuit the voltage is magnified by a factor of Q, but this does not occur in
a parallel resonant circuit, since the supply is applied directly across both C and L. In a
parallel resonant circuit it is current rather than the voltage which is considered and it is the
current, which is magnified. Q is therefore determined by dividing the tank current by the
source current.
Q = Tank
Source

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Bandwidth in a Parallel Resonant Circuit

Like the series resonant circuit, the parallel tank circuit responds to a band of frequencies
rather than a single frequency. The response curve shows that the current is minimum at
resonance (figure 11.36). As with the series resonant circuit the band of frequencies to which
the circuit responds is determined by the Q of the circuit. The formula for bandwidth is the
same as for the series circuit.
Bandwidth = fo
Q
Often a parallel resonant circuit is too selective, and responds only to a very narrow band of
frequencies. In these cases, connecting a relatively small value resistor across the tank circuit
can increase bandwidth.
Self Resonance of Coils
Every coil has a certain value of capacitance and therefore at some value of frequency the
coil will self resonate.
Generator Components
A DC generator consists of the following parts:
The yoke, a cylinder of cast iron which supports the pole pieces of the
electromagnetic field
The armature, driven by the aeroplane engine usually through the gearbox and
holding the windings into which the output voltage of the machine is inducted
The commutator which changes the ac induced in the armature into dc voltage
The quill drive has a weak point that will shear and protect the engine and
gearbox if the generator seizes
The brushes which are made of carbon and collect the dc voltage from the
moving armature and commutator
The suppressor which reduces radio interference which may be caused by
sparking between the brushes and the commutator

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A typical self-exciting shunt wound four pole generator which is used in a current type turboprop aeroplane is designed to provide an output of 9kw at a continuous current of 300 amps
over a speed range of 4,500 to 8,500 RPM. In its basic form, the construction follows the
above example.
Interpole And Compensating Windings
During operation on load, the current following through the armature winding of a generator
creates a magnetic field that is superimposed on the main field produced by field winding
current. Since lines of force cannot intersect, the armature field distorts the main field by an
amount that varies with the load. This distorting effect is called armature reaction. If
uncorrected, armature reaction produces two additional undesirable effects;
it causes a shift of the magnetic neutral axis, i.e. the axis passing through two points at which
no current is induced in the coil, setting up reactive sparking at the commutator
it weakens the main field causing a reduction in generator current.
The position of the brushes can be attuned to minimise these effects under varying load
conditions but a more effective method is to provide additional windings in the
electromagnetic system, these windings being referred to as interpole and compensating
windings.
In order to provide true correction of armature reaction, the effects produced by interpoles
must be supplemented, since alone they cannot entirely eliminate all distortions occurring at
the main pole faces.
Compensating windings are therefore connected in series with the interpole and armature
windings and located in slots cut in the faces of the main pole shoes.

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Ac Generators
AC generators (alternators) are the most important means in use for the large scale
production of electrical power.
The basic ac generator consists of a loop rotating in a magnetic field with its output brought
out to slip rings. This arrangement was described in dc generators. The rotating part of an
electrical machine is the rotor and the stationary part is the stator. In dc machines the rotor is
the armature and the stator carries the field windings. This arrangement does not always
apply to alternators which are usually designed the other way round, the rotor carrying the
field windings energised from a dc supply via slip rings and the coils in which the generator
voltage is produced are mounted in the stator. The two arrangements lend to two different
types of ac generator, rotating field and rotating armature types.
Three Phase Circuits
The majority of large modern aircraft now employ AC motors and generators because they
are more efficient than their DC equivalents. The most powerful of these are called threephase machines. The explanation of three-phase circuits is based on the simple three-phase
generator.
Simple Three Phase Generator
A three-phase generator consists of two main parts
The rotor, which carries the electromagnetic field, driven by the aircraft engine.
The stator, which carries three sets (pairs) of coils (phase windings).
These phase windings supply the output of the generator and can be connected in either a
star or delta configuration.

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Star Connection
In the star configuration one end of each phase winding is connected to a common point
called the neutral or star point. The other end of each phase winding is connected to output
terminals distributing AC power of different phases. 'The phases are coloured RED,
YELLOW, and BLUE or A, B and C respectively. 'A' phase is classified as the reference
phase.
In this configuration the output voltages are:
Phase Voltage
Line voltage = 3 X Phase Voltage
On most aircraft generators the output voltages are:
Phase Voltage = 115 VOLTS

Line Voltage = 200 VOLTS
LINE and PHASE currents also exist, but these are of the same value.
Line current = Phase Current
The vast majority of aircraft AC generators are connected in the star configuration with the
neutral point N connected to earth. The reasons for earthing the neutral point are to allow:
The generator to feed unbalanced loads.

Easy access to the phase voltages.

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When a three-phase star connected generator is feeding a balanced load (ABC phases
feeding the same current) the net current of all three phases is zero. In this case no cunent
flows in the neutral line. When unbalanced currents feed the load the resultant of these
currents will flow in the neutral line. It therefore follows that if the currents are always
balanced there is no need for a neutral point to be fitted. On aircraft, although desirable, it is
however not practical for the generator to feed balanced loads all of the time. It is therefore
necessary on most aircraft generators to connect the neutral point to earth.
Three phase generators are preferable in most forms of industry as opposed to single-phase
machines for the following reasons:
Less conductor weight is required for the transmission of a given power.

They can produce a rotating magnetic field used to operate efficient three-phase
motors.
Three-phase AC gives smoother rectification than single phase AC
Delta Connection
In the delta configuration the phases are, connected in a triangular (delta) format, with no
common or neutral point.
Again the phases are coloured RED, YELLOW, BLUE or alphabetically A. B. C., 'A' being the
reference phase.
Unlike the star connection the phase and line voltages in the delta connection are the same:
Line Voltage = Phase Voltage
But the line and phase currents differ:
Line current = 3 X Phase Current
Similarly most aircraft 3 phase A C. motors also use delta or star wound stators.
Voltage and Frequency of AC Generators
The voltage output of an AC generator is controlled by adjusting its field excitation by means
of a voltage regulator.

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The rotational speed and number of magnetic field poles control the frequency output.
Frequency = NP
60
Where:
N = SPEED (R.P.M.)
P = NUMBER of PAIRS of POLES
Phase Rotation
Three phase power supplies in an aircraft power system must have a positive phase
sequence, ie. A.B.C. The consequence of having a negative phase sequence would result in
3 phase motors running in the wrong direction.
Three-Phase Faults on AC Generators

There are two main faults that can occur to the output of an AC generator, i.e. earth, and
open circuit faults in the phases and lines.

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Generator Real and Reactive Load Sharing

As stated previously, AC loads consume apparent power (Volt-amperes (VA)) and therefore
most AC machines are rated in VA. On many large 3 and 4-engined aircraft the generators
are normally run in parallel, figure 11.44, and must share apparent power in terms of true
power (Watts) and reactive power (Volt amperes Reactive VAR). The pilot or engineer can
check the load sharing on WATT/VAR meter fitted to each generator system
Types of AC Generators
Two basic types of aircraft AC generator exist; the 'brush' and brushless type. The brush
type is mainly used on turbo-prop aircraft for frequency wild power generation. The brushless
type is a highly sophisticated machine, and is used on large jet aircraft for generating
constant frequency supplies.
Salient Pole Generator
One example of a brush type generator is the salient pole generator figure 11.45. This
consists of a rotor with electromagnets fitted to each salient pole and these magnets alternate
in polarity around the circumference of the rotor. The supply for electromagnetic field
excitation is D.C., which is fed into the machine by way of carbon brushes and slip rings. The
outer shell of the machine holds the stator, which consists of the three fixed star-connected
windings that supply an output. The generator is cooled by ram air.

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Brushless Type Generator

The brushless generator has the advantage over the brush type since it requires less
maintenance and is also more reliable. It is driven by the aircraft engine by means of a device
known as a constant speed drive unit (CSDU). The CSDU keeps the generator at a constant
speed for varying engine speeds giving a constant frequency output of 400 Hz. In older types
of aircraft the CSDU and generator were separate items, but on modern aircraft the CSDU
and generator are now combined as one unit known as integrated drive generator' (I.D.G.).
I.D.G.s are oil-cooled whereas separate generators are air-cooled.
Operation
When the brushless generator's rotor is initially driven by the CSDU a permanent magnet
generator (P.M.G.) induces an AC voltage into the pilot output.
The AC voltage is then full-wave rectified and fed to the main exciter by way of the voltage
regulator. The three-phase winding on the rotor now has a voltage induced in it which is fed
to the D.C. main field by way of a three-phase rectifier network. The D.C. main field rotates
and induces a voltage in the AC output windings, which at the same time increases the output
of the pilot exciter. This sequence of events continues until the generator reaches its
regulated output voltage. The output of the machine is 200/115 Volts three phase 400 Hz.
Constant Speed Drive Unit
The constant speed drive unit figure 11.47 is a mainly mechanical device positioned between
the aircraft engine and the brushless generator. It keeps the generator running at a constant
speed, usually 8,000 R.P.M. for varying engine speeds, giving a constant 400 Hz output. The
device consists of a self-contained oil system and pump assembly, which provides high
pressure oil to control the pumping action of a pump/motor assembly by way of a centrifugal
governor.

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Operation
Consider an aircraft in normal flight with the CSDU driving the generator to produce a 400 Hz.
output. If the pilot increases the throttle setting the pumping action will be increased; as will
the motoring action of the hydraulic pump/motor assembly. This will cause the generator
initially to speed up, giving an increase in frequency. The governor will sense this increase
and will port oil to the servo piston, which will move the swash plate on the pump to
underdrive, thus reducing the pumping action. The motor will drop back to its normal speed
and will bring the frequency of the generator back to 400 Hz. The opposite will occur with a
reduction in throttle setting. The governor is a mechanical device and is not sensitive enough
to give the fine speed trimming required to control the frequency within close limits, 395-425
Hz. To achieve this fine trim, an electromagnetic coil receives signals from the electrical
system that modifies the position of the flyweights in the governor.
To guard against mechanical failure the CSDU has its oil pressure and temperature
monitored on the flight deck and if the pilot has an indication of imminent failure he can select
CSDU disconnect. Once the pilot has elected to disconnect the CSDU, the drive between the
engine and CSDU is broken and cannot be reset until the aircraft is on the ground with its
engine shut down. If the CSDU fails mechanically it causes an overspeed or underspeed
(over frequency/under frequency) and the reactive components in the aircraft can be severely
damaged. Sensors are therefore fitted to detect speed change. These will automatically
disconnect the generator from the busbar.
AC Motors
AC motors are mainly used on the larger types of aircraft since they must run on a constant
frequency supply. These motors can be classified as follows:Large Motors with an output of 3 KW or more. These machines are invariably three
phase.

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Medium to small Motors in the range of 3 KW down to 50 W. Most of these machines

are designed for single-phase operation. Motors rated at less than 750W are often
referred to as fractional horsepower FHP machines.
Miniature Motors rated less than 50 W, such as used in instruments and
servomechanisms.
Stator-Produced Rotating Magnetic Field
When a magnet is rotated within a three-phase stator a three-phase voltage is produced.
When this process is reversed, by connecting a three-phase supply to a three-phase stator, a
rotating field is produced. If the stator windings are symmetrically arranged the magnetic field
produced will be of constant strength and will rotate at a uniform speed.
Induction (Squirrel Cage Motor)
The induction motor is one of the most widely used types of AC motor. It is used to drive fuel
pumps, actuators, and air conditioning.
Operation
The stator of a three-phase motor is almost identical to that of a three-phase AC generator.
When the stator of the motor is supplied by three-phase AC it will produce a rotating magnetic
field, and its speed will be proportional to the frequency of the supply. The rotor consists of a
cylindrical laminated-iron core having a number of longitudinal bars of copper or aluminium
evenly spaced around its circumference. These bars joined by end plates form what is called
a squirrel cage.
The rotating field induces a voltage in the squirrel cage, which causes current to flow in the
bars. A torque now exists between the rotor and the stator magnetic fields, causing the motor
to turn in the direction of the stator field. When the applied torque equals the load torque, the
motor will run at a speed slightly less than the stator field. The induction motor is therefore
said to be asynchronous. An induction motor has much the same characteristics as a D.C.
shunt wound motor. Induction motors have the following characteristics:
Slip Speed
Slip speed is the speed difference between rotor speed and synchronous speed.
Slip Speed = Synchronous Speed - Rotor Speed

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Reversal of rotation
A reversal of rotation will occur if any two phases are crossed.
Loss of a Phase
If a phase is lost when the machine is: Running - The motor will continue to run at a reduced torque.
Not running The machine will not start and fuses or circuit breakers will blow in
the other two phases causing possible damage to the motor.
Split Parallel Operation
Constant frequency ac alternators may be operated singly or in pairs (parallel operation).
The advantages of parallel operation are:
Continuity of electrical supplies, this is ensured in the event of failure of any
alternator
Load absorption. Because of the larger power capacity obtained by parallel
operation of the generator, large transient loads can be absorbed by the busbar
with a minimum of voltage fluctuations.
Generator life. Each alternator operates well below its maximum rated output. It
is able to carry the load of a failed alternator if required, leading to an extension of
alternator life.
The disadvantage of parallel operation is that unless adequate safeguards are provided in the
electrical system, a fault on one alternator could result in the remaining alternators being
affected, with a consequent risk of losing all the main electrical power supplies.
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Therefore, before alternators can be operated in parallel, the following conditions must be
met.
Alternator voltages must be equal

Alternator frequencies must be equal
Alternator phase displacement must be equal
Alternator phase rotation must be the same
A means must be provided for sharing real (watts) and reactive (VAR) loads
It should be noted that the power rating of alternators is always given in KVA, which is the
sum of the real and reactive power.
Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator maintains the output voltage to a present level. When two or more
alternators are operating in parallel the voltage regulators are joined together to form a loop,
so that the field excitation of all the alternators and thus the reactive load sharing is
maintained at the same level.
Frequency And Load Controller
This item monitors the frequency output of the supply and sends adjustments signals to the
CSDU so that the supply frequency is maintained at a constant value.
When two or more alternators are operating in parallel, the frequency and load controllers are
connected together in a loop so that supply frequency of all alternators and thus the real
load sharing is maintained at the same level.
Generator Control Relay (GCR)
The GCR connects the alternator magnetic field to the voltage regulator, providing generator
field excitation. If a fault occurs the GCR will OPEN, isolating the alternator by disconnecting
its magnetic field from the voltage regulator.
Generator Circuit Breaker (GCB)
The GCB connects the alternator to its load busbar during single or parallel operation. It will
also disconnect the alternator from the busbar during fault conditions.
Bus Tie Breaker (BTB)
The BTB connects synchronising busbars to the alternator load busbar. It will also operate
during fault conditions.
Synchronising Busbar
This allows a flow of information between alternators operating in parallel. It is not used as a
load busbar.
Alternative Power Supplies
Before engine start, it is necessary to provide some form of electrical power. This is normally
supplied by an external ground power unit (GPU) or aircraft mounted Auxiliary Power Unit
(APU). The GPU supplies its power through the external supply breaker and ground power
breaker (GPB) or relay, to the load busbars via the synchronising busbar. The APU does the
same through the GCB and GPB.
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Regulations, Control And Protection

The control of the output voltage of alternators is an essential requirement. From previous
paragraphs it will be recognised that the voltage regulator principles apply to both dc and ac
systems. This includes the automatic adjustment of voltage excitation current to meet
changing conditions of load and/or speed. Voltage regulators normally form part of the
alternator system control and protection units.
Frequency Wild Alternator
Below is a block functional diagram of the method used for the voltage regulators of a
frequency wild alternator. Regulation is achieved by a network of magnetic amplifiers or
transducers, transformers and bridge rectifiers interconnected as shown. In addition to the
control of load current delivered by the alternator, a further factor which will affect control of
the field excitation is the error between the line voltage desired and the actual voltage
obtained.
It will be seen from the diagram that the three-phase output of the alternator is tapped at two
points; at one by a three phase transformer and at the other by a three phase magnetic
amplifier. The secondary winding of one phase of the transformer is connected to the ac
windings of a single-phase error sensory magnetic amplifier and the three primary windings
are connected too a bridge signal rectifier. The dc output from the rectifier is fed through a
voltage sensing circuit. The two current signals, which are normally equal to the desired line
voltage, are fed in opposite directions over the ac output windings in the error magnetic
amplifier. When there is a change in the voltage level, the resulting variation in current
through the B arm unbalances the sensing unit. Since the circuit has the same function as the
dc control winding, it changes the reactance of the error magnetic amplifier ac output
windings and an amplifier error current is produced. After rectification, the signal is then fed
as a dc control current to the three-phase magnetic amplifier causing its reactance and ac
output to change as well. This results in an increase or decrease of the excitation current
flow to the alternator rotor field windings, continuing until the line voltage produces balanced
signal conditions once more in the error sensing circuit.
Below shows the circuit arrangement of a transistorised voltage regulator also used with
frequency wild alternators.

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ConstantFrequency Systems
The regulation of the output of a constant frequency system is also based on the principle of
controlling field excitation and some of the techniques described above are in many instances
applicable. In installations requirement of a multi-arrangement of constant-frequency
alternators, additional circuitry is required to control output under load sharing or parallel
operation conditions and since this control also involves field excitation, the overall regulator
circuit arrangement is of an integrated and sometimes complex form.
The circuit is comprised of three main sections: a voltage error detector, pre-amplifier and a
power amplifier. The function of the voltage error detector is to monitor the alternator output
voltage, compare it with a fixed reference voltage and to transmit any error to a pre-amplifier.
The output of the error detector is a dc voltage slightly lower than the average of the three ac
line voltages. It may be adjusted by means of a variable resistor to bring the regulator system
to a balanced condition for any nominal value of line voltage.
If the ac line voltage goes above the fixed value, the voltage across R1 and R2 of the bridge
drops. This causes unbalancing of the bridge circuit and a flow of current to the error control
winding of the pre-amplifier. The direction and magnitude of the error signal alters the total
flux in the cores of the amplifier establishing a proportional change in the amplifier output
which is applied to the signal winding of the power amplifier. The alternator output is thus
controlled to the pre-set value that, on being attained, restores the error detector bridge circuit
to the balanced condition.
Reverse Current Protection
In all types of electrical systems, the current flow is from the power source to the distribution
busbar system and finally to the power consuming equipment. This is achieved by automatic
and manual switching. If there is a fault in the system the current could flow in the opposite
direction and when the batteries are a part of the circuit, to be charged by the power source,
the batteries could be drained or damaged by reverse current flow.
To prevent this reverse current, protection devices are fitted into the circuits.
Reverse current circuit breakers (RCCB) are designed to protect power supplying systems
and associated circuits against fault currents of a magnitude greater than those at which cutout relays normally operate. They are designed to be locked out and remain in that
condition until the fault has been cleared.
The opening of the contacts in a RCCB is controlled by a latching mechanism actuated by a
magnetic unit under heavy reverse current conditions. In common with other circuit breakers,
re-setting after a tripping operation has to be accomplished manually.
A visual indication of a tripped condition is normally by means of a coloured flag, which
appears behind a window in the circuit breaker cover. Manual tripping is effected by a push
button adjacent to the re-setting lever.
Reverse current relays are used principally in dc generating systems either as a separate unit
or built into the voltage regulator.

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In both RCCBs and relays, if a generator is shut down whilst on line, or a fault occurs and the
output falls below that of the battery in the circuit, the flow of current from the battery to the
generator will cause the protection device to trip. This will protect the battery. The protection
devices must not be re-set until the fault has been cleared.
Load sharing has been discussed in parallel operations.
Self Resonance of Coils
Every coil has a certain value of capacitance and therefore at some value of frequency the
coil will self resonate.
Starter generators
Several types of turbine-powered aircraft are equipped with starter systems, which utilise a
prime mover having the dual function of engine starting and of supplying power to the
aircrafts electrical system. Starter-generator units are basically compound-wound machines
with compensating windings and interpoles and are permanently coupled with the appropriate
engine via a drive shaft and gear train. For starting purposes, the unit functions as a fully
compounded motor, the shunt winding being supplied with current via a field changeover
relay. When the engine reaches self-sustaining speed and the starter motor circuit is isolated
from the power supply, the changeover relay is also automatically de-energised and its
contacts connect the shunt-field winding to a voltage regulator. The relay contacts also
permit dc to flow through the shunt winding to provide initial excitation of the field,. Thus, the
machine functions as a conventional dc. Generator, its output being connected to the busbar
on reaching the regulated level.
Power Distribution
In order for the power available at the appropriate generating source, to be made available at
the terminals of the power-consuming equipment then clearly, some organized form of
distribution throughout an aircraft is essential. The precise manner in which this is arranged is
governed principally by the type of aircraft, its electrical system, number of consumers and
location of consumer components. For example, in a small light aircraft, electrical power
requirements may be limited to a few consumer services and components situated within a
small area, and the power may be distributed via only a few yards of cable, some terminal
blocks, circuit breakers or fuses. In a large multi-jet transport aircraft on the other hand,
literally miles of cable are involved, together with multiple load distribution busbars, protection
networks, junction boxes and control panels.

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Busbars
In most types of aircraft, the output from the generating sources is coupled to one or more
low impedance conductors referred to as busbars. These are usually situated in junction
boxes or distribution panels located at central points within the aircraft, and they provide a
convenient means for connecting positive supplies to the various consumer circuits; in other
words, they perform a "carry-all" function. Busbars vary in form dependent on the methods to
be adopted in meeting the electrical power requirements of a particular aircraft type. In a very
simple system a busbar can take the form of a strip of interlinked terminals while in the more
complex systems main busbars are thick metal (usually copper) strips or rods to which input
and output supply connections can be made. The strips or rods are insulated from the main
structure and are normally provided with some form of protective covering. Flat, flexible strips
of braided copper wire are also used in some aircraft and serve as subsidiary busbars.
Split Busbar Systems. The function of a distribution system is primarily a simple one, but it is
complicated by having to meet additional requirements which concern a power source, or a
power consumer system operating either separately or collectively, under abnormal
conditions. The requirements and abnormal conditions, may be considered in relation to three
main areas, which may be summarized as follows:
Power-consuming equipment must not be deprived of power in the event of

power source failures unless the total power demand exceeds the available
supply.
Faults on the distribution system (e.g. fault currents, grounding or earthing at a
busbar) should have the minimum effect on system functioning, and should
constitute minimum possible fire risk.
Power-consuming equipment faults must not endanger the supply of power to
other equipment.
These requirements are met in a combined manner by paralleling generators where

appropriate, by providing adequate circuit protection devices, and by arranging for faulted
generators to be isolated from the distribution system. The operating fundamentals of these
methods are described elsewhere in this book, but the method with which this Chapter is
concerned is the additional one of splitting busbars and distribution circuits into sections in
order to feed them from different sources.
In adopting this method it is usual to categorize all consumer services into their order of
importance and, in general, they fall into three groups: vital, essential and non-essential.
Vital services are those which would be required after an emergency wheels-up landing, e.g.
emergency lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers. These services are
connected directly to the battery.
Essential services are those required to ensure safe flight in an in-flight emergency situation.
They are connected to D.C. and a.c. busbars, as appropriate, and in such a way that they can
always be supplied from a generator or from batteries.
Non-essential services are those which can be isolated. in an in-flight emergency for load
shedding purposes, and are connected to D.C. and a.c. busbars, as appropriate, supplied
from a generator.

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The principle of dividing categorized consumer services between individual busbars. In this
example the power distribution system is one in which the power supplies are 28-volt DC
from engine driven generators, 115v 400Hz AC from rotary inverters, and 28 v DC from
batteries. Each generator has its own busbar to which are connected the non-essential
consumer services. Both busbars are in turn connected to a single busbar which supplies
power to the essential services. Thus, with both generators operating, all consumers requiring
d c power are supplied The essential services busbar is also connected to the battery busbar
thereby ensuring that the batteries are maintained in the charged condition. In the event that
one generator should fail it is automatically isolated from its respective busbar and all busbar
loads are then taken over by the operative generator. Should both generators fail however,
non-essential consumers can no longer be supplied, but the batteries will automatically
supply power to the essential services and keep them operating for a predetermined period
calculated on the basis of consumer load requirements and battery state of charge.
For the particular system the DC supplies for driving the inverters are taken from busbars
appropriate to the importance of the ac. operated consumers. Thus, essential ac. consumers
are operated by No.1 inverter and so it is driven by D.C. from the essential services busbar.
No. 2 and No. 3 inverters supply a.c. to non-essential services and so they are powered by dc
from the No. 1 and No. 2 busbars.
Figure 11.53 illustrates the split busbar method of power distribution, and is based on an
aircraft utilizing constant-frequency a.c. as the primary power source and D.C. via
transformer-rectifier units (TRU's).

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The generators supply three-phase power through separate channels, to the two main
busbars and these, in turn, supply the non-essential consumer loads and TRU's. The
essential a.c. loads are supplied from the essential busbar which, under normal operating
conditions, is connected via a changeover relay to the No.1 main busbar. The main busbars
are normally isolated from each other, but if the supply from either of the generators fails, the
busbars are automatically interconnected by the energizing of the "bus-tie" relay and serve as
one, thereby maintaining supplies to all a.c. consumers and both TRU's. If, for any reason,
the power supplied from both generators should fail the nonessential services will be isolated
and the changeover relay between No.1 main busbar, and the essential busbar, will
automatically de-energize and the essential busbar to an emergency static inverter. The
supply of D.C. is derived from independent T.RU. and from batteries. The No.1 T.R.U.
supplies essential loads and the No. 2 unit supplies non-essential loads connected to the
main D.C. busbar.
Both busbars are automatically interconnected by an isolation relay. The batteries are directly
connected to the battery busbar and this is interconnected with the essential busbar. In the
event of both generators failing the main dc busbar will become isolated from the essential
D.C. busbar which will then be automatically supplied from the batteries to maintain operation
of essential D.C. and a.c. consumers.
External power supplies and supplies from an auxiliary power unit can be connected to the
whole system in the manner indicated.
Wires and Cables
Wires and cables constitute the framework of power distribution systems conducting power in
its various forms and controlled quantities, between sections contained within consumer
equipment, and also between equipment located in the relevant areas of an aircraft. The
differences between a wire and a cable relate principally to their constructional features (and
indirectly to their applications also) and may be understood from the following broad
definitions.

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A wire is a single solid rod or filament of drawn metal enclosed in a suitable insulating
material and outer protective covering. Although the term properly refers to the metal
conductor, it is generally understood to include the insulation and covering. Specific
applications of single wires are to be found in consumer equipment; for example, between the
supply connections and the brush gear of a motor and also between the various components
which together make up the stages of an electronic amplifier.
A cable is usually made up of a conductor composed of a group of single solid wires stranded
together to provide greater flexibility, and enclosed by insulating material and outer protective
covering. A cable may be either of the single core type, i.e., with cores stranded together as a
single conductor, or of the multicore type having a number of single core cables in a common
outer protective covering.
In connection with power distribution systems in their various forms, such terms as "wiring
systems", "wiring of components", "circuit wiring" are commonly used. These are of a general
nature and apply equally to systems incorporating wires, cables or both.
Monitoring of Electrical Systems
Measuring Instruments, Warning Indicators and Lights
In order to monitor the operating conditions of the various supply and utilization systems, it is
necessary for measuring instruments and warning devices, in the form of indicators and
lights, to be included in the systems. The number of indicating devices required and the types
employed depend on the type of aircraft and the overall nature of its electrical installation.
However, the layout shown is generally representative of systems monitoring requirements
and can usefully serve as a basis for study of the appropriate indicating devices. .

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Ammeters And Voltmeters

These instruments are provided in dc and a.c. power generating systems and in most
instances are of the permanent magnet moving-coil type shown in basic form in figure.11.55.

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An instrument consists essentially of a permanent magnet with soft-iron pole pieces, between
which a soft-iron core is mounted. A coil made up of a number of turns of fine copper wire is
wound on an aluminium former, which in turn is mounted on a spindle so that it can rotate in
the air gap between the pole pieces and the core. The magnetic field in the air gap is an
intense uniform radial field established by the cylindrical shape of the pole pieces and core.
Current is led into and out of the coil through two hairsprings that also provide the controlling
force. The hairsprings are so mounted that as the coil rotates, one spring is unwound and the
other is wound. A pointer is attached to the spindle on which the moving coil is mounted.
When current flows through the coil a magnetic field is set up which interacts with the main
field in the air gap such that it is strengthened and weakened as shown in the diagram. A
force (Fd) is exerted on each side of the coil, and the couple so produced causes the coil to
be rotated until it is balanced by the opposing controlling force (Fc) of the hairsprings. Thus,
rotation of the coil and pointer to the equilibrium position is proportional to the current flowing
through the coil at that instant. This proportionality results in the evenly divided scale which is
a characteristic of the moving coil type of indicator. When the coil former rotates in the main
field, eddy currents are induced in the metal and these react with the main field producing a
force opposing the rotation, thus bringing the coil to rest with a minimum of oscillation.
Indicators of this kind are said to be "dead beat".
In order to protect the movements of these instruments against the effects of external
magnetic fields and also to prevent "magnetic leakage", the movements are enclosed in a
soft-iron case which acts as a magnetic screen. The soft iron has a similar effect to the core
of the indicator i.e. it draws in lines of force and concentrates the field within itself.
Moving coil instruments are also generally employed for the measurement of voltage and
current in an a.c. system. Additional components are necessary, of course, for each
measuring application; e.g. for the measurement of voltage, the instrument must also contain
a bridge rectifier while .for the measurement of current, a shunt and a transformer are
required in addition to the bridge rectifier.
All the instruments located on the control panel are of the circular scale type; a presentation
which is now adopted in many current types of aircraft. It has a number of advantages over
the more conventional arc-type scale; namely, that the scale length is increased and for a
given measuring range, the graduation of the scale can be more open, thus helping to
improve the observational accuracy.
In order to cater for this type of presentation, it is, of course, necessary for some changes to
be made in the arrangement of the magnet and moving coil systems, and one such
arrangement is illustrated.
The magnet is in the form of a block secured to a pole piece which is bored out to
accommodate a core which itself is slotted and bored to permit the positioning of the moving
coil. The coil former, unlike that of a conventional instrument, is mounted to one side of its
supporting spindle, and under power-off conditions it surrounds the core and lies in the air
gap at the position shown. The field flows from the magnet to the core, which in reality forms
a North pole, and then across the air gap to the pole piece forming the South pole. The return
path of the field to the South pole of the magnet is completed through the yoke, which also
shields the flux from distortion by external magnetic fields. When current flows through the
coil, a force is produced due to the interaction between the permanent magnetic field and the
induced field. Unlike the conventional instrument, the coil is rotated about the core by a force
acting on one side only, the opposite side being screened from the flux by the core itself.

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Voltmeters and ammeters are used in monitoring electrical circuits to respectively show the
current (volts) being produced by battery or other power generating system and the load
(amps) being drawn by the aircraft systems of the power generating systems.
The voltmeter is connected between the positive and negative terminals of the power
generating system. The ammeter is connected in line between the power source and the
systems using the power.
Wheatstone Bridge
A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure an unknown resistance and the output used
to supply a range of instruments with system operating data where the system has a range of
operating conditions.
If the meter shows no reading, then there is no current flowing between points B and C and
so these points have the same voltage. The bridge is then said to be balanced.

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For points B and C to be at the same voltage the voltage drop across R1 must be the same as
the voltage drop across R2. Also, the voltage drop across R3 must be the same as R4. By
working out these voltage drops in terms of I1 etc. and R1 etc (since E1 = I1 R1) we should be
able to work out that the meter reads zero and the bridge is balanced when
R1 = R2
R3 R4
The bridge can measure the unknown resistance when R1 and R2 are known as fixed values
while R3 is a calibrated variable resistor. The unknown resistance is inserted in the bridge at
R4 and R3 is adjusted until there is no reading on the meter and the bridge is balanced. If the
bridge is not balanced there will be a reading on the meter. The whetstone bridge is used to
measure the output of a strain gauge torque measuring system in some turbo-prop engines
where the voltage output from the unbalanced bridge is fed via compensating systems to a
calibrated torque gauge thus indicating the power output of the engine.
Power Meters
In some ac power generating systems it is usual to provide an indication of the total power
generated and/or the total reactive power. Separate instruments may be employed; one
calibrated to read directly in watts and the other calibrated to read in var's (volt-amperes
reactive) or, as in the case of the instrument illustrated in Fig.11.58, both functions may be
combined in what is termed a watt/var meter.
The construction and operation of the meter, not unlike the frequency meter described earlier,
is based on the conventional electrodynamometer pattern and its scale, which is common to
both units of measurement, is calibrated for use with a current transformer and an external
resistor. A selector switch mounted adjacent to the meter provides for it to be operated as
either a wattmeter or as a varmeter.

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When selected to read in watts the field coil is supplied from the current transformer which as
will be noted senses the load conditions at phase "B" of the supply. The magnetic field
produced around the field coil is proportional to the load. The moving coil is supplied at 115
volts from phase B to ground and this field is constant under all conditions. The currents in
both coils are in phase with each other and the torque resulting from both magnetic fields
deflects the moving coil and pointer until balance between it and controlling spring torque is
attained.
In the "var" position of the selector switch the field coil is again supplied from the current
transformer sensing load conditions at phase "B". The moving coil, however, is now
connected across phases "A" and "C" and in order to obtain the correct coil current, calibrated
resistor is connected in the circuit and mounted external to the instrument. The current in the
moving coil is then at 90 degrees to the field coil current, and if the generator is loaded at
unity power factor, then the magnetic fields of both coils bear the same angular relationship
and no torque is produced.
For power factors less than unity there is interaction of the coil fields and a torque
proportional to the load current and phase angle error is produced. Thus, the moving coil and
pointer are rotated to a balanced position at which the reactive power is indicated.

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D.C. Motors
The function and operating principle of D.C. motors is the reverse of generators, i.e. if an
external supply is connected to the terminals it will produce motion of the armature thereby
converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. This may be seen from Fig. 11.61 which
represents a motor in its simplest form, i.e. a single loop of wire "AB" arranged to rotate
between the pole pieces of a magnet. The ends of the wire are connected to commutator
segments that are contacted by brushes supplied with D.C. With current flowing in the loop in
the direction shown, magnetic fields are produced around the wire which interact with the
main field and produce forces causing the loop to move in a clockwise direction. When the
loop reaches a position at which the commutator reverses the polarity of the supply to the
loop. The direction of current flow is also reversed but, due to the relative positions of the field
around the wire and of the main field at that instant, the forces produced cause the loop to
continue moving in a clockwise direction. This action continues so long as the power is
supplied to the loop.
As far as construction fundamentals are concerned, there is little difference between D.C.
generators and motors; they both consist of the same essential parts, i.e. armature, field
windings, commutator and brush gear, the same methods of classifying according to various
field excitation arrangements. In the majority of motors the armature and field windings are
supplied from a common power source, in other words they are self-excited.
Motor Characteristics
The application of a motor to a particular function is governed by two main characteristics; the
speed characteristic and the torque characteristic. The first refers to the variation of speed
with armature current, which is determined by the back e.m.f. This is governed by the
mechanical load on the motor. The torque characteristic is the relationship between the
torque required to drive a given load and the armature current.
Types Of Motor
There are three basic types of motors and, as in the case of generators, they are classified
according to field excitation arrangements; series-wound, shunt-wound and compoundwound. These arrangements and certain other variations are adopted for a number of the
functions .

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In series-wound motors, the field windings and the armature windings are connected in series
with each other and the power supply. The currents flowing through both windings and the
magnetic fields produced are therefore the same. The windings are of low resistance, and so
a series motor is able to draw a large current when starting thereby eliminating building up
the field strength quickly and giving the motor its principal advantages: high starting torque
and good acceleration, with a rapid build-up of back e.m.f. induced in the armature to limit the
current flow through the motor.
The speed characteristic of a series wound motor is such that variations in mechanical load
are accompanied by substantial speed variations; a light load causing it to run at high speed
and a heavy load causing it to run at low speed.
The torque is proportional to the square of the armature current and, as an increase in load
results in a reduction of the back e.m.f, there is an increase in armature current and a rapid
increase in driving torque. Thus the torque characteristic is such that a motor can be started
on full load.
In shunt-wound motors the field windings are arranged in the same manner as those of
generators of this type, i.e. in parallel with the armature. The resistance of the winding is high
and since it is connected directly across the power supply, the current through it is constant.
The armature windings of some motors are of relatively high resistance and although their
overall efficiency is low compared to the majority of shunt motors, they can be started by
connecting them directly to the supply source. For the starting of motors having lowresistance armature windings it is necessary for a variable resistance to be connected in
series with the armature. At the start full resistance would be in circuit to limit the armature
current to some predetermined value. As the speed builds up the armature current is reduced
by the increase in back e.m.f. and then the resistance is progressively reduced until, at
normal speed of the motor, all resistance is out of the armature circuit.
In operating from a "no-load" to a "full-load" condition the variation in speed of a motor with a
low-resistance armature is small and the motor can be considered as having a constantspeed characteristic. In the case of a motor with a high-resistance armature there is a more
noticeable difference in speed when operating over the above load conditions. The torque is
proportional to the armature current until approaching full-load condition when the increase in
armature reaction due to full-load current has a weakening effect. Starting torque is small
since the field strength is slow to build up. Because of this torque characteristic shunt-wound
motors must be started on light or no load.

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Compound Motors
For many applications it is necessary to utilise the principal characteristics of both series and
shunt motors but without the effects of some of their normally undesirable features of
operation. For example, a motor may be required to develop the high starting torque of a
series type but without the tendency to race when load is removed. Other applications may
require a motor capable of reducing speed with increased load to an extent sufficient to
prevent excessive power demand on the supply, while still retaining the smooth speed control
and reliable "off load" running characteristic of the shunt motor. These and other
requirements can be met by what is termed compounding, or in other words, by combining
both series and shunt field windings in the one machine. In most compound-wound motors
the series and shunt windings are wound to give the same polarity on the pole faces so that
the fields produced by each winding assist each other. This method of connection is known
as cumulative compounding and there are three forms that may be used;
Normal,
Stabilised shunt and
Shunt limited.
In normal compounding a motor is biased towards the shunt-wound type, the shunt winding
producing about 60 to 70 per cent of the total flux, the series winding producing the
remainder. The desired characteristics of both series and shunt-wound motors are retained.
In the stabilised shunt form of compounding a motor is also biased towards the shunt-wound
type but has a relatively minor series winding. The purpose of this winding is to overcome the
tendency of a shunt motor to become unstable when running at or near its highest speed and
then subjected to an increase in load.
The shunt-limited motor is biased towards the series-wound type and has a minor shunt field
winding incorporated in the field system. The purpose of the winding is to limit the maximum
speed when running under "off load" conditions while leaving the torque and general speed
characteristics unaltered. Shunt limiting is applied only to the larger sizes of compound
motors, typical examples being engine starter motors
Split-Field Motors
In a number of applications involving motors it is required that the direction of motor rotation
be reversed in order to perform a particular function, e.g. the opening and closing of a valve
by an actuator. This is done by reversing the direction of current flow and magnetic field
polarity, in either the field windings or the armature.

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A method based on this principle, and one most commonly adopted in series-wound motors,
is that the field winding is split into two electrically separate sections thereby establishing
magnetic fields flowing in opposite directions. One of the two windings is used for each
direction of rotation and is controlled by a single-pole double-throw switch. When the switch is
placed in the "Forward" position then current will flow in section "A" of the field winding and
will establish a field in the iron core of appropriate polarity. Current also flows through the
armature winding, the interaction of its field with that established by field winding section "A"
causing the armature to rotate in the forward direction.
When "Reverse" is selected on the control switch, section "A" is isolated and current flows
through section "B" of the field winding in the opposite direction. The current flow through the
armature is in the same direction as before, but as the polarities of the iron core pole pieces
are now reversed then the resultant interaction of fields causes the armature to run in the
reverse direction. Some split-field series motors are designed with two separate field
windings on alternate poles. The armature in such a motor, a 4-pole reversible motor, rotates
in one direction when current flows through the windings of one set of opposite pole pieces,
and in the reverse direction when current flows through the other set of windings.

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The reversing of motors by interchanging the armature connections is also employed in

certain applications, notably when the operating characteristics of compound machines are
required. The circuit is based on the arrangement adopted in a compound motor designed for
the lowering and raising of an aircraft's landing flaps. Current flows to the armature winding
via the contacts of a relay, since the current demands of the motor are fairly high.
Motor Actuators
Motor actuators are self contained units combining electrical and mechanical devices capable
of exerting reversible linear thrust over short distances, or reversible low-speed turning effort.
Actuators are thereby classified as either linear or rotary and may be powered by either d.c.
or a.c. motors. In the majority of cases d.c. motors are of the split-field series-wound type.
Linear Actuators
Linear actuators may vary in certain of their design and constructional features dependent
upon the application, load requirements and the manufacturer responsible. In general,
however, they consist of the motor, which is coupled through reduction gearing to a lead
screw. On being rotated this screw extends or retracts a ram or plunger. Depending on the
size of actuator, extension and retraction is achieved either by the action of a conventional
screw thread or by what may be termed a "ball bearing thread". In the former case, the lead
screw is threaded along its length with a square-form thread which mates with a
corresponding thread in the hollow ram. With the motor in operation the rotary motion of the
lead screw is thereby converted into linear motion of the ram, which is linked to the
appropriate movable component.
The ball bearing method provides a more efficient thread and is usually adopted in large
actuators designed for operation against heavy loads. In this case, the conventional male and
female threads are replaced by two semi-circular helical grooves, and the space between the
grooves is filled with steel balls. As the lead screw rotates, the balls exert thrust on the ram,
extending or retracting it as appropriate, and at the same time, a recirculating device ensures
that the balls are fed continuously into the grooves.

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Rotary Actuators
Rotary actuators are usually utilised in components the mechanical elements of which are
required to be rotated at low speed or through limited angular travel. As in the case of linear
actuators the drive from the motor is transmitted through reduction gearing, the output shaft
of which is coupled directly to the relevant movable component, e.g. valve flap. Some typical
examples of the application of rotary actuators are air-conditioning system spill valves and
fuel cocks.
Actuator Gearing
The reduction gearing generally takes the form of multi-stage spur gear trains for small types
of linear and rotary actuators, while in the larger types it is more usual for epicyclic gearing to
be employed. The gear ratios vary between types of actuator and specific applications.
Limit Switches
Both linear and rotary type actuators are equipped with limit switches to stop their respective
motors when the operating ram or output shaft, as appropriate, has reached the permissible
limit of travel. The switches are of the micro type and are usually operated by a cam driven by
a shaft from the actuator gearbox. In some cases, limit switch contacts are also utilised to
complete circuits to indicator lights or magnetic indicators. The interconnection of the
switches, which is based on the circuit of a typical actuator-controlled valve system.
In the valve closed position, the cam operates the micro switch "A" so that it interrupts the
"close" winding circuit of the motor and completes a circuit to the "closed" indicator. The
contacts of the micro switch "B" are at that moment connected to the "open" winding of the
motor so that when the control switch is selected, power is supplied to the winding. In running
to the valve open position the cam causes micro switch "A" contacts to change over, thereby
interrupting the indicator circuit and connecting the "close" winding so that the motor is
always ready for operation in either direction. As soon as the "open" position is reached the
cam operates micro switch "B", the contacts of which then complete a circuit to the "open"
indicator.

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Brakes
The majority of actuators are fitted with electromagnetic brakes to prevent over-travel when
the motor is switched off. The design of the brake system varies with the type and size of the
actuator. In all cases the brakes are spring-loaded to the "on" condition when the motor is deenergised, and the operating solenoids are connected in series with the armature so that the
brakes are withdrawn immediately power is applied.
Clutches
Friction clutches, which are usually of the single-plate type or multi-plate type dependent on
size of actuator, are incorporated in the transmission systems of actuators to protect them
against the effects of mechanical over-loading.
Instrument Motors
D.C. motors are not widely used in aircraft instruments, and in present-day systems they are
usually confined to one or two types of turn-and-bank indicator to form the gyroscopic
element. The motor armature together with a concentrically mounted outer rim forms the
gyroscope rotor, the purpose of the rim being to increase the rotor mass and radius of
gyration. The armature rotates inside a cylindrical two-pole permanent magnet stator secured
to the gimbal ring. Current is fed to the brushes and commutator via flexible springs to permit
gimbal ring movement. An essential requirement for operation of the instrument is that a
constant rotor speed be maintained. This is achieved by a centrifugal cut-out type governor
consisting of a fixed contact and a movable contact, normally held closed by an adjusting
spring, and in series with the armature winding. A resistor is connected in parallel with the
contacts. When the maximum speed is attained, centrifugal force acting on the movable
contact overcomes the spring restraint, causing the contacts to open. Current to the armature
therefore passes through the resistor and so reduces rotor speed until it again reaches the
nominal value.
DC Power Distribution
Power distribution via the busbar system has been covered in earlier parts of this chapter as
a general principal. The actual distribution systems vary widely between aeroplane types and
sizes and this section is intended to explore the effects of switching actions, systems failures
and faults and two typical systems have been selected to illustrate these points.
Single Engine Aeroplane System
Introduction
Most modern single piston engined aircraft have a direct current (DC) electrical system of 14
volts, consisting of an alternator and battery combination (Figure 11.69)

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Note: The voltage is slightly higher than the battery voltage to allow the battery to be fully
recharged. The alternator is the primary electrical power supply when the engine is running,
and also charges the battery. The battery is the secondary power supply, used for initial
engine start up and as an emergency power source.
Alternator Design
The engine mechanically drives the alternator via a drive belt in the same way as in a modern
automobile.
It consists of field windings wrapped around a number of pole pieces on a rotating shaft
(rotor), fixed windings inside the casing arranged in a star configuration (stator), and a
rectifier

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Alternator System Faults and Indications

The following faults can occur during alternator system operation:
Undervoltage.If the alternator undervolts, for whatever reason, a red warning light
illuminates on the flight deck. This indicates that the electrical system is now operating
on battery power.
Overvoltage. If the alternator overvolts the battery charge rate will become
excessive, leading to battery overheat, and possible damage. Overvoltage protection
is therefore provided in the system, which is designed to automatically shut down the
alternator if an overvoltage occurs. The alternator field is de-excited and an
undervoltage warning light illuminates. If this occurs one reset may be attempted by
cycling the alternator switch.
Multi Engine Aeroplane System
The following example is a typical twin turbo-prop dc electrical system. To understand the
distribution system it is necessary to have a brief description of the system in total. The
aeroplane used in this example has ni-cad batteries and a standby battery which is designed
to maintain minimum voltages to specified equipment and services during engine starts using
internal batteries.
Battery System
Two 24-Volt nickel-cadmium (nicad) batteries are installed in the electrical bay of the aircraft.
The batteries have sufficient capacity to supply all emergency loads for 30 minutes in IMC
and 30 minutes VMC, following a failure of all generated power.
Battery Contactors
Each battery is connected to its battery busbar through a Remote Control Circuit Breaker
(RCCB). A battery contactor connects each battery to the relevant dc distribution system. The
RCCB and battery contactors are installed in a Power Distribution Unit (PDU).
Each battery has a related BATT ON/OFF switch and caption. The switches and captions are
installed in the roof panel and are labelled LEFT and RIGHT.
If the battery system is serviceable and there is no GPU connected, the battery contactors
close when the BATT switches are set to ON.
When a GPU is connected and set to ON the battery contactors are opened automatically.
This disconnects the batteries from the system and the captions in the roof panel (Figure
11.75) come on regardless of the BATT switches position.

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Battery Overheat
Installed in each battery are two thermal sensors. These sensors control the battery
overtemperature warning and automatic disconnect function.
The overtemperature warning circuit causes a caption in the roof panel to come on if the
battery temperature reaches 60 C. If corrective action is not taken and the battery
temperature reaches 71 C the battery contactor is opened automatically. This disconnects
the battery and the related caption in the roof panel comes on.
If a High Temperature caption comes on set the applicable BATT switch in the roof panel to
OFF. The caption will go off when the battery temperature decreases to less than 49 C.
Do not set the battery back to ON unless it is necessary for flight safety following a total
failure of all generated power.
Battery Charging
The batteries are charged from the engine-driven generators. They cannot be charged from a
GPU. The on-line generators charge the batteries when the BATT switches are ON and the
captions are off. The battery charging current (controlled by the Generator Control Unit) is
shown as part of the generator load.
Battery Voltage and Current
To check the battery voltage and current- set the four-position rotary switch in the roof panel
to BATT. The voltage and current are shown digitally on the meters above the switch. Do not
use the battery for internal power starts if the battery voltage is less than 24.0V dc.
When the current is displayed on the meter a:
+ (plus) before the digits indicates the batteries are being charged
- (minus) before the digits indicates the batteries are being discharged: i.e.
supplying an electrical load.

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Standby Power Supply

A nicad battery provides a standby dc power supply. This maintains the supply voltage above
18V dc during an internal battery engine start. It is also used to maintain the energisation of
some PDU contactor coils during certain fault conditions.
A STBY INST PWR switch is located on the instrument panel. When the switch is set to
NORM, power for the standby instruments is supplied by the 28V dc emergency avionic
busbar.
When the switch is set to STBY, 24V dc is enabled from the standby battery busbar to the
standby instruments.
DC Distribution System
A split two-channel dc system is provided. This gives mechanical and electrical isolation of
the two generator systems. Mechanical and electrical isolation of the two systems ensures
that no single active fault combined with a single dormant fault results in a failure of the two
generator systems.
Busbar System
Distribution of dc power is through twelve busbars as follows:
Left Essential Busbar
The left essential busbar is supplied from the left generator through the left GLC. or from a
GPU through the cross-tie busbar. If a left generator failure occurs, the busbar is supplied
from the right generator through the cross tie busbar.
Right Essential Busbar
The right essential busbar is supplied from the right generator through the right GLC, or from
a GPU through the crosstie busbar. If a right generator failure occurs, the busbar is supplied
from the left generator through the crosstie busbar.
Non-Essential Busbar
When the two generators are on-line the non-essential busbar is supplied from the right
generator. The non-essential busbar is also supplied through the cross-tie busbar from a
GPU. If a generator failure occurs the non-essential busbar is shed automatically.
Emergency Busbar
The emergency busbar is supplied from:
Left generator through the left GLC

Right generator through the right GLC
Left battery through the left battery contactor
Right battery through the right battery contactor.
If a double generator failure occurs the essential bus contactors are opened automatically to
disconnect the essential busbars. The emergency busbar will then supply the electrical loads,
sufficient for safe flight and landing, from battery power.

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Left Battery Busbar

The left battery busbar is connected to the left battery through a Remote Control Circuit
Breaker (RCCB). Crash loads related to the left engine (eg fire extinguishers) are supplied
with power from this busbar.
Right Battery Busbar
The right battery busbar is connected to the right battery through a RCCB. Crash loads
related to the right engine are supplied with power from this busbar.
With batteries installed and the RCCBs closed the battery busbars are always live.
Standby Battery Busbar
The standby battery busbar is connected to the standby power supply by either of the battery
master switches. This busbar supplies power to the AHRS during internal battery engine
starts.

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Cross-Tie Busbar
The cross-tie busbar is used to connect the output from a GPU to the distribution system. It is
also used to parallel the two batteries or the two batteries and one generator for internal
power starts. During the start cycle the crosstie busbar supplies power through the bus-tie
contactors to the GLCs.
In normal flight conditions the cross-tie busbar is isolated by the open bus-tie contactors. In
the event of a single generator failure the bus-tie contactors are closed automatically. This
connects the remaining generator to the opposite essential busbar through the closed bus-tie
contactors and the cross-tie busbar.
28V DC Avionic Essential Busbars (Left and Right)
The two essential avionic busbars are supplied with power from the left and right essential
busbars respectively. The power supplies to these busbars are controlled by switches in the
roof panel labelled AVIONICS MASTER ON/OFF LEFT/ RIGHT.
The left essential avionic busbar supplies the number 1 avionics system components and the
right supplies the number 2 avionics system components.
28V DC Emergency Switched Avionic Busbar
The emergency switched avionic busbar is supplied with power from the emergency busbar
through the emergency avionics bus relay. The relay is made when the emergency busbar is
powered and the LEFT AVIONICS MASTER switch set to ON. Supplies from this busbar are,
primarily, to the number 1 navigation system and standby instruments.
28V DC Emergency Unswitched Avionic Busbar
The emergency unswitched avionic busbar is connected direct to the emergency busbar. It is
energised whenever the emergency busbar is energised.
This busbar supplies emergency services in the number 1 radio system. Contactors, RCCBs
and switches control the distribution of dc electrical power.
The distribution control contactors are as follows:
Generator Line Contactors (GLC)
Load-shed (Non-Essential) Contactor
The load-shed contactor connects the right PDU internal busbar to the non-essential busbar.
The contactor is closed automatically when the two generators or a GPU come on line. If a
generator failure occurs the contactor is opened automatically to shed the non-essential
busbar. The contactor can also be opened manually by selecting the roof panel switch
labelled NON-ESS SHED/NORMAL to SHED. When the load-shed contactor is open the nonessential busbar is shed and caption above the switch comes on.
Busbar Tie Contactors
The busbar tie contactors connect the left and right PDU internal busbars to the cross-tie
busbar. In the normal operating condition the busbar tie contactors are open.
The contactors are closed automatically when a GPU is connected and the GND PWR switch
is set to ON. The GPU output is then supplied through the closed busbar tie contactors to the
emergency. essential and non-essential busbars.

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If a generator failure occurs during flight the busbar tie contactors are automatically closed to
couple the essential busbars through the cross-tie busbar. The BUS TIE in the roof panel
comes on to show the busbar tie contactors are closed.
Battery Contactors
The battery contactors connect the batteries to their common bus points. The contactors are
opened automatically when a GPU is set to ON. Whenever a battery contactor is open a
caption in the roof panel comes on.
External Power Contactor
The external power contactor connects the output from a GPU to the cross-tie busbar. With
the two generators off-line the contactor is closed when the GND PWR switch is set to ON.
The GPU output is then supplied to the emergency, essential and non-essential busbars
through the cross-tie busbar and busbar tie contactors. If a generator is on-line, the external
power contactor is open and the GND PWR switch cannot be set to ON.
When the GND PWR switch is set to ON, the external power contactor is closed and the
battery contactors open. In this condition the batteries cannot be brought on-line.
To prevent damage to the aircraft electrical system the external power contactor is opened by
an undervoltage, overvoltage or reverse polarity check failure when the GPU is connected.
Essential Busbar Contactors
The essential busbar contactors connect the essential busbars to the PDU internal busbar.
The contactors are closed automatically when a GPU is connected and the GND PWR switch
is set to ON.
During normal flight operation the essential contactors remain closed. Guarded L ESS and R
ESS SHED/NORMAL switches in the roof panel allow the essential busbars to be shed inflight. When a switch is set to SHED the related essential busbar contactor is opened. This
will shed the applicable essential busbar and captions will come on above the switch.
Remote Control Circuit Breakers (RCCBs)
The RCCBs are as follows:
Emergency RCCBs
Two emergency RCCBs connect a generator and a battery to the emergency busbar by
separate routes. In the event of a double generator failure the essential contactors are
opened automatically to shed the essential busbars. The emergency busbar remains
energised, supplied only by the batteries.
Battery RCCBs
The battery RCCBs connects the batteries to their related busbars to supply the crash loads.
Switches
The control switches are as follows:
Busbar Shedding Switches
It is possible to shed individual busbars (e.g. for smoke drill purposes).

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Busbar Tie Contactors

In the event of a single generator failure the busbar tie contactors close automatically to
couple the essential busbars through the cross-tie busbar. If there is a fault on one essential
busbar, the busbar tie contactors must be opened to isolate the fault from the serviceable
essential busbar. To open the busbar tie contactors the guarded BUS TIE OPEN/NORMAL
switch in the roof panel is set to OPEN.
Avionics Master Switch
LEFT AVIONICS MASTER Switch:
This switch is used to control the supply of power to the left essential avionic busbar and
emergency switched avionic busbar.
RIGHT AVIONICS MASTER Switch:
This switch is used to control the supply of power to the right essential avionic busbar.
Warnings
In addition to the discrete captions described for power source and busbar failure/set to OFF,
generator U/VOLTage and the GND PWR switch set to ON, a CAP (amber) caption comes
on when any warning or failure caption in the DC CONTROL panel comes on. In the event of
a double generator failure a CAP (red) caption will come on.
Electrical Power Failures
On single engine aeroplanes, the failures of the generator immediately reduces the systems
to battery power only. Single engine aeroplanes usually only have one 24V battery supplying
probably 20A/H. In this case, it will be necessary for the pilot to find a suitable landing site as
soon as possible and to shed all unnecessary electrical loads for the remainder of the flight.
Multi-engined/multi generator aeroplanes normally have the ability to transfer the loads from
the failed generators to the other (twin system) or remaining generators. This is usually
automatic and the only indications should be a generator failure indication and no loss of
services. The pilot must then monitor the load on the remaining generator(s) to ensure it
does not result in exceeding the maximum in flight load on a single generator.
In the event of the total failure of all generated power, the pilot is now in an emergency
situation and must consult his emergency procedures and plan the flight assuming the battery
life stated in the flight manual.
Modern transport aeroplanes are fitted with RAM Air Turbines (RAT) or stand-by hydraulically
driven generator systems.
The RAT is a system that either opens an air scoop to allow ram air to drive a turbine or
lowers the RAT into the airstream from under the aeroplane wing. The RAT will provide
electrical power to supply all vital and many essential services but again, the flight manual will
dictate the services automatically lost, those to be shed and the regulatory authority
certification statement on continued flight or direction to the closest suitable airfield.

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Electrical fires are not normally easy to locate and the initial indication is either smell or
smoke. If the fore is from an external avionics or electrical bay, smoke is seldom seen and
overheat warnings on an annunciator panel sometimes give the first or only indications of the
problem. If it is not possible to immediately detect the location of the fire or the equipment
that is causing the fire, the emergency check list should be used. This will call for increased
ventilation of the interior of the aeroplane then the sequential shutting down of distribution
busbars to locate the area of the fire. Once it has been located, that equipment has to be
isolated and the check list will normally indicate the equipment and services lost as a result of
the busbar isolation. If it is possible to locate and fight an electrical fire, it must be done with
a suitable extinguisher. Under no circumstances must electrical fires be fought with
extinguishers containing liquid agents (e.g. water glycol). They should be controlled with dry
powder or preferably gaseous extinguishers such as Halon/BCF.
Ground Power Supplies
Electrical power is required for the starting of engines, operation of certain services during
"turn-round" servicing periods at airports, e.g. lighting, and for the testing of electrical systems
during routine maintenance checks. The batteries of an aircraft are, of course, a means of
supplying the necessary power, and although capable of effecting engine starts their capacity
does not permit wide scale use on the ground. They are also restricted to the supply of power
under emergency conditions. It is necessary, therefore, to incorporate a separate circuit
through which power from an external ground power unit may be connected to the aircraft's
distribution busbar system. In its simplest form, a ground power supply system consists of a
connector located in the aircraft at a conveniently accessible point (at the side of a fuselage
for example) and a switch for completing the circuit between the ground power unit and the
busbar system.
In addition to the ground power supply system, some types of aircraft carry separate batteries
which can supply the ground services in the event that a ground power unit is not available in
order to conserve the main batteries for engine starting.
D.C. Systems
A basic system for the supply of d.c. and from this it will also be noted how, in addition to the
ground power supply, the battery may be connected to the main busbar by selecting the
flight" position of the switch. As the name suggests this is the position to which the switch is
selected when the aircraft is in flight since under this condition the generator system supplies
the main busbar and the battery is constantly supplied with charging current.
The ground power connector symbol shown in the diagram represents a twin-socket type of
unit which is of an early design and now limited in its application. The sockets and
corresponding plug pins are of different diameters to prevent a reverse polarity condition. In
order to make the connection, the outer cover of the unit must be rotated to expose the
sockets. As a result of standardisation requirements, multi-pin plug units were introduced and
are now employed in nearly all types of aircraft.

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A typical three-pin plug, consists of two positive pins and one negative pin; one of the positive
pins is shorter and of smaller diameter than the remaining pins. A protective shroud encloses
the pins, and the complete unit is normally fitted in a recessed housing located at the
appropriate part of the airframe structure. Access to the plug from outside the aircraft, is via a
hinged flap provided with quick release fasteners.
A circuit employing a multi-pin plug unit and from this it will be noted that the short positive pin
is connected in the coil circuit of the ground power relay. The reason for this is that in the
event of the ground supply socket being withdrawn with the circuit "live", the ground power
relay will de-energise before the main pins are disengaged from the socket. This ensures that
breaking of the supply takes place at the heavy-duty contacts of the relay thus preventing
arcing at the main pins.
In some aircraft D.C. power is distributed from a multiple busbar system and it is necessary
for certain services connected to each of the busbars to be operated when the aircraft is on
the ground. This requires a more sophisticated arrangement of the ground power supply
system and the circuit. In addition to the ground supply relay or contactor, contactors for
"tying" busbars together are provided, together with magnetic indicators to indicate that all
connections are made.
When the ground power supply unit is connected to the aircraft and the master switch is
selected "on" it energises the ground supply contactor, thus closing its auxiliary and main sets
of contacts. One set of auxiliary contacts complete a circuit to a magnetic indicator, which
then indicates that the ground supply is connected. A second set completes circuits to the
coils of No.1 and No. 3 bus-tie contactors while a third and main heavy-duty set connect the
supply direct to the "vital" and No. 2. busbars. When both bus-tie contactors are energised
their main contacts connect the supply from the ground supply contactor to their respective
busbars. Indication that both busbars are also "tied" to the ground power supply is provided
by magnetic indicators "A" and "B" which are energised from the vital busbar via the auxiliary
contacts of the contactor.

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A.C. Systems
In aircraft which from the point of view of electrical power are principally of the "a.c. type",
then it is essential for the ground supply system of the installation to include a section through
which an external source of a.c. power may be supplied. The circuit arrangements for the
appropriate systems vary between aircraft types but in order to gain some understanding of
the circuit requirements and operation generally we may consider the circuit shown in
Fig.11.81.
When ground power is coupled to the plug a three-phase supply is fed to the main contacts of
the ground power breaker, to a ground power transformer/rectifier unit (T.R.U.) and to a
phase sequence protection unit. The T.R.U. provides a 28 volt d.c. feedback supply to a holdin circuit of the ground power unit. If the phase sequence is correct the protection unit
completes a circuit to the control relay coil, thus energising it. A single-phase supply is also
fed to an amber light, which comes on to indicate that ground power is coupled, and to a
voltmeter and frequency meter via a selector switch.
The circuit is controlled by a ground power switch connected to a busbar supplied with 28
volts d.c. from the aircraft battery system. When the switch is set to the "close" position
current flows across the main contacts of the energised control relay, to the "close" coil of the
ground power breaker, thus energising it to connect the ground supply to the three-phase a.c.
main busbar. The ground power supply is disconnected by selecting the "trip" position on the
ground power switch. This action connects a d.c. supply to the trip coil of the ground power
breaker, thus releasing its main and auxiliary contacts and isolating the ground power from
the a.c. main busbar.
Auxiliary Power Units
Many of today's aircraft are designed so that if necessary, they may be independent of
ground support equipment. This is achieved by the incorporation of an auxiliary power unit
(A.P.U.)which, after being started by the aircraft's battery system, provides power for engine
starting, ground air conditioning and other electrical services. In some installations, the A.P.U.

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is also used for supplying power in flight in the event of an engine-driven generator failure
and for supplementing the delivery of air to the cabin during take off and climb.
In general, an A.P.U. consists of a small gas turbine engine, a bleed-air control and supply
system, and an accessory gearbox. The gas turbine comprises a two stage centrifugal
compressor connected to a single stage turbine. The bleed-air control and supply system
automatically regulates the amount of air bleed from the compressor for delivery to the cabin
air conditioning system. In addition to those accessories essential for engine operation, e.g.
fuel pump control unit and oil pumps, the accessory gearbox drives a generator which,
depending on the type required for a specific aircraft, may supply either d.c. or a.c.
A motor for starting the A.P.U. is also secured to the gearbox and is operated by the aircraft
battery system or, when available, from a ground power unit. In some types of A.P.U. the
functions of engine starting and power generation are combined in a starter/generator unit.
An external view of a typical unit and location in an aircraft is shown in Fig.11.82.
Inverters
An inverter is one of the most commonly used items for converting for converting dc power to
ac. There are a number of different types of inverter available but the unit that is most
commonly found on aeroplanes is the solid state or static inverter.
Static Inverters
These inverters operate by means of solid-state or static circuit principles. They are employed
in a number of types of aircraft in some cases as a normal source of a.c. power, but more
usually to provide only emergency a.c. power to certain essential systems when a failure of
the normal 115-volts source has occurred. The function of an inverter used for the conversion
of battery supply to single-phase 115-volts a.c. is shown
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The d.c. is supplied to transistorized circuits of a filter network, a pulse shaper, a constant
current generator, power driver stage and the output stage. After any variations in the input
have been filtered or smoothed out, d.c. is supplied to a square-wave generator which
provides first-stage conversion of the d.c. into square-wave form a.c. and also establishes the
required operating frequency of 400 Hz. This output is then supplied to a pulse shaper circuit,
which controls the pulse width of the signal and changes its wave form before it is passed on
to the power driver stage. It will be noted from the diagram that the d.c. required for pulse
shaper operation is supplied via a turn-on delay circuit. The reason for this is to cause the
pulse shaper to delay its output to the power driver stage until the voltage has stabilized. The
power driver supplies a pulse-width modulated symmetrical output to control the output stage,
the signal having a square-wave form. The power driver also shorts itself out each time the
voltage falls to zero, i.e. during "notch time".
The output stage also produces a square-wave output but of variable pulse width. This output
is finally fed to a filter circuit that reduces the total odd harmonics to produce a sine wave
output at the voltage and frequency required for operating the systems connected to the
inverter.
As in the case of other types of generators, the output of a static inverter must also be
maintained within certain limits. In the example illustrated, this is done by means of a voltage
sensor and a current sensor, both of which produce. a rectified a.c. feedback signal which
controls the "notch time" of the pulse shaper output through the medium of a regulator circuit
and a notch control circuit.
In addition to the standard 115V ac output of the static inverter, 26v ac is another common
output supply. The outputs from the inverters are fed to 115V ac and 26V ac busbar systems
for power distribution in the same way that dc voltage is distributed to consumer services. In
the case of static inverter output, the consumer services are normally avionics and radio
equipment including gyros, stall protection processor units, inertial navigation and similar
systems over a whole range of aeroplane types.

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The Aircraft Structure as an Electrical Conductor

It has previously been explained that to cause a current to flow in a circuit, a difference of
potential must be maintained across the ends of the circuit. In an electrical circuit, this
difference of potential is normally produced by a battery or generator. Both ends of the circuit
must therefore be connected across the terminals of the source of EMF. On aeroplanes, this
is achieved using either a dipole or unipole (earth returns) circuit.
The single pole or earth return circuit is used on aeroplanes of metal construction where the
airframe acts as a return path between the load and the power source as shown
This system has the advantage of an overall reduction in wiring and hence a reduction in
aeroplane weight.
The dipole or two-wire system is mainly used on aeroplanes constructed from non-conductive
or non-metallic materials.
In this system, one wire connects the electrical supply to the load whilst the return path
between the load and the power source is by way of a second wire. This results in an overall
increase in aeroplane weight.
Ground (Earth)
Ground is simply a zero or reference point within an electric circuit. In most items of electrical
equipment zero, reference point or ground point is the metal frame or chassis on which the
various circuits are constructed. On an aircraft the metal airframe is called ground or earth.

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In modern electrical systems it is normal for the negative pole of the supply system to be
grounded to the fuselage.
All voltages are therefore measured with respect to the metal structure. In electrics, ground is
important because it allows us to have both negative and positive voltages, with respect to
the metal structure. For example, a 12 volt battery has a PD between its terminals of 12
volts. This is not referred to as + 12 or 12 volts but simply as 12 volts. The ground
reference allows us to express voltages as positive and negative with respect to ground.
Remember, ground is a reference point that is considered to be zero or neutral. For example,
if the positive terminal of a 12 volt battery is ground, the negative terminal is 12 volts more
negative. It follows that the voltage at this terminal with respect to ground is 12 volts.
Conversely, if the negative terminal of the battery is connected to ground, then the other
terminal of the battery will be + 12 volts.
Static Electricity
When a comb is passed through hair it acquires an electrical charge. If a piece of tissue
paper is then held close to the comb it is attracted towards it. These effects are due to static
electricity (electrostatics). Aircraft in flight build up large amounts of static electricity and
acquire a charge potential much greater than that of the atmosphere. This charging of the
aircraft is undesirable but unavoidable, although the effects can be minimised by bonding.
Bonding
Bonding is the term given to electrically connecting together all of the metal parts on an
aircraft, which are nominally at earth potential. This provides an electrical path of negligible
resistance throughout the structure. Bonding is used for the:
Safe transmission of lightning discharges.
Equalising of static charges which may build up on adjacent parts of the aircraft.
Reduction of interference, caused by static discharges between adjacent parts of
the airframe, to improve radio transmission and reception.
Prevention of electrical shock to personnel from any high-voltage or high
frequency leakage potentials.
Prevention of static discharges, which might constitute a fire or explosion hazard
in the vicinity of fuel lines and equipments.
Lightning Strikes
The metal skin of an aircraft provides a continuous path if the aircraft is struck by lightning.
This allows the lightning to conduct through the metal of the aircraft rather than through the
passengers. If an aircraft is struck by lightning some of its components may become
magnetised, resulting in inaccuracies in the compass and certain electrical systems may fail.
discharge wicks.

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During flight, the discharge of static electricity from an aircraft takes place continuously in
order to equalise the potentials of the charges between the aircraft and the atmosphere. If
the charge on the aircraft, however, builds up faster than its discharge rate, the aircraft can
reach such a value that parts of the aircraft begin to glow (corona discharge). Corona
discharges tend to occur more readily at curves and sections of an aircraft having minimum
radii, for example, wing tips, trailing edges, radio antennae and pitot tubes. Corona
discharges can additionally cause serious radio interference, so aircraft are fitted with devices
which ensure that discharges occur at points where interference can be minimised. This is
achieved by devices called static discharge wicks which are fitted to the trailing edges of the
elevators, ailerons and rudder. These wicks are generally fitted with sharp tungsten fins to
provide a low resistance path through which the corona can safely discharge to a low level.
Landing Protection
When an aircraft lands its potential due to static electricity will be different from the ground.
This is undesirable since it causes an electrical shock hazard to personnel entering or leaving
an aircraft. This effect is often felt when stepping from a vehicle in dry conditions. Provision
is therefore made to equalise the whole aircraft to earth potential and this is achieved by
using earthing strips or semi-conductive tyres.
Screening

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In addition to radio interference originating from static charges building up in the aircraft
structure, high frequency disturbances in radio circuits can also be caused by certain types of
electrical equipment. This form of interference can be reduced by fitting suppressors of a
suitable type in the cables connected to the course of interference. Alternatively, the
offending item and its cables can be totally enclosed in a continuous metal sheath, known as
screening. These devices are used in the following circuits:
Engine Ignition Systems

DC Generators
DC Motors
Switching Circuits.
In its basic form, a system comprises a group of warning and indicator lights connected to
signal circuits actuated by the appropriate systems of the aircraft, each light displaying a
legend denoting the system, and a malfunction or advisory message. All the lights are
contained on an annunciator panel installed within a pilot's visual range. In aircraft carrying a
flight engineer, a panel is also installed at his station and is functionally integrated with the
pilot's panel. A flight engineer's panel is and may be taken as an example of central warning
displays. In this case, the panel is made up of a number of blue lights which are advisory of
normal operating conditions, a number of amber lights, a red "master Warning" light and an
amber "master caution" light.
When a fault occurs in a system, a fault-sensing device transmits a signal that illuminates the
appropriate amber light. The signal is also transmitted to an electronic device known as a
logic controller, the function of which is to determine whether the fault is of a hazardous
nature or is one requiring caution. If the fault is hazardous, then the controller output signal
illuminates the red "master warning" light; if caution is required, then the signal will illuminate
only the amber "master caution" light.
Each master light incorporates a switch unit so that when the caps are pressed in, the active
signal circuits are disconnected to extinguish the lights. At the same time, they are reset to
accept signals from faults that might subsequently occur in any other of the systems in the
aircraft. The system lights are not of the resetting type and remain illuminated until the system
fault is corrected. Dimming of lights and testing of bulb filaments is carried out by means of
switches mounted adjacent to the annunciator panel.

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Revision Questions
1.
A transformer which halves the voltage will have:

a)
b)
c)
2.
The moving part of the AC generator is:

a)
b)
c)
3.
The rotor.
The stator.
The exciter.
Output from an. AC generator is taken from:

a)
b)
c)
4.
Half as many turns on the secondary coil as on the primary coil.

Twice as many turns on the secondary as on the primary.
Four times as many turns on the secondary as on the primary.
The exciter.
The stator windings.
The rotor windings.
The voltage of an AC generator:

a) Rises to a maximum in one direction, falls to zero, and then rises in the same
direction to a maximum and falls to zero.
b) Rises to a maximum in one direction and then remains constant.
c) Rises to a maximum in one direction, falls to zero and then rises to a
maximum in the opposite direction and falls to zero.
5.
An alternator is:
a)
b)
c)
6.
Impedance is:
a)
7.
A static inverter.
A rotary switch for a de-icing system.
An AC generator.
Volt
Watts
b)
Volt
Amps
c)
Volts
Frequency
If the frequency is increased in an inductive circuit:

a)
b)
c)
Impedence will decrease.

Impedence will increase.
Impedence will remain constant.

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8.
In an. a.c. circuit which is mainly inductive:

a)
b)
c)
9.
If frequency increases capacitive reactance will:

a)
b)
c)
10.
c)
Real load
Wattless load
KVA or Amps.
KVA and power factor.
KVAR and KW.
A capacity of 400 000 watts.

An impedance of 400 ohms.
A frequency of 400 cycles per second.
Easy, and almost lossless stepping up or down of voltage.

Voltage does not need to be changed.
Batteries are not needed.
One of the advantages of three phase generation over single phase generation
is:
a)
b)
c)
15.
Apparent load
Real load
One advantage of a main a.c. supply system is:

a)
b)
c)
14.
b)
A 400 Hz supply has:

a)
b)
c)
13.
Real load
Apparent load
In a non paralleled constant frequency AC system the generator loadmeters will

normally measure.
a)
b)
c)
12.
Increase.
Not change.
Decrease.
Power factor is:

a)
11.
Current will lead voltage.

Current and voltage will be 'in phase'.
Current will lag voltage.
That most aircraft services require three phase supply.

That there is a more efficient conversion of mechanical energy to
electrical energy.
That it gives lower cable weights and more compact generators.
In a typical aircraft constant frequency paralleled AC system the line voltage is:
a)
b)
c)
115 volts.
208 volts.
200 volts.

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16.
In an a.c. generator, voltage regulation:

a)
b)
c)
17.
In a constant speed a.c. "generation system which is paralleled"

a)
b)
c)
18.
Excitation voltage.
Speed of rotation.
Excitation current.
Load sharing circuits are necessary:

a)
b)
c)
23.
Between 380 and 420 Hz.

Frequency is controlled by:

a)
b)
c)
22.
Generator drive torque is increased.

Generator excitation is increased.
Generator drive torque and excitation are increased.
The frequency of aircraft constant frequency systems is maintained:

a)
b)
c)
21.
through the excitation circuit of the generator.

By altering the rotor speed.
By increasing the real load on the other generators.
To increase the real load taken by a paralleled AC generator, the:

a)
b)
c)
20.
All generators are run off the same engine.

All engines are run at the same rpm.
A generator has its own constant speed drive.
A low reactive load on one generator is compensated for in a paralleled system:

a)
b)
c)
19.
Is by varying the drive rpm

Is by varying the excitation current.
Is by the insertion of variable resistors into the circuit.
Whenever generators are operating in series.

Whenever generators are operating independently
Whenever generators are operating in parallel.
Paralleled AC generators will have:

a)
b)
c)
One load meter to measure total system load

One volt meter for each generator.
One load meter for each generator.

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24.
If an a.c. generator control relay tripped the:
25.
a)
Generator circuit breaker for that generator will have opened.
b)
Generator circuit breaker for that generator will close.
c)
Generator circuit breaker for that generator trips and busbar tie breaker trips
On an aircraft a.c. generator, the output is usually taken from:
a)
b)
c)
26.
The CSD functions:

a)
b)
c)
27.
By its own dedicated gas turbine.

By an hydraulic motor.
By a ram air turbine.
An auto-transformer:
a)
b)
c)
31.
A hydraulic clutch.
A universal joint.
Quill drive.
An APU is driven:
a)
b)
c)
30.
Only reinstated when the aircraft is on the ground.

Re-instated in flight from the electrical supply compartment.
Re-instated in flight from the flight deck.
In the event of a mechanical failure occurring in the generator the CSD is

protected by:
a)
b)
c)
29.
To maintain a constant ratio between engine speed and generator speed.

To vary the generator speed in proportion to load.
To maintain constant generator speed.
If the CSD disconnect switch is used, the drive can be:

a)
b)
c)
28.
The stator windings.

The rotor.
The excitor.
Varies the turns ratio automatically to maintain a constant output

voltage with varying input voltage.
Has only one coil which is used as both primary and secondary.
Will maintain a constant output frequency with a varying supply
frequency.
As the torque load increases on an induction motor it will:

a)
b)
c)
Slow down.
Maintain RPM.
Speed up.

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32.
When a generator is on line:

a)
b)
c)
33.
A short circuit:
a)
b)
c)
34.
six months
three months
year.
D.C. generators are normally:

a)
b)
c)
39.
in parallel with the load

in series with the load
in parallel with the fuses.
Battery state of charge must be checked every:

a)
b)
c)
38.
ram air is directed over major components

fuses are fitted
capacitors are fitted.
Circuit breakers are fitted:

a)
b)
c)
37.
volts
watts
ampere-hours.
To prevent a circuit overheating:

a)
b)
c)
36.
has high resistance

has low current
allows excessive current.
The capacity of a battery is rated in

a)
b)
c)
35.
it is at correct RPM
the battery indicates a discharge
it is connected to the bus-bar.
initially excited by direct current from the battery bus-bar

initially excited by residual magnetism
initially excited by ground power.
An earth return circuit is one which:

a)
b)
c)
uses the aircraft structure as the return

has a common earth return lead for all circuits
has a return lead for that circuit.

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40.
Load shedding will cause the:

a)
b)
c)
current to increase
voltage to increase
current to reduce.

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Chapter 7
Air-conditioning & Pressurisation
Essentially the air conditioning system consists of six principle sections which are
Air Supply.
The air supply system must be capable of drawing air from the outside of the aircraft,
that is atmospheric air, and also possess a supply of warm air. The correct
temperature required in the cabin is achieved by mixing the warm and cold air
supplies.
Mass Flow Control.
It is essential that the mass of air entering the cabin should be accurately controlled
at a constant value, either manually or automatically, to cater for the fresh air
requirements, that is the constant changing of the air in the cabin, and pressurization
requirements.
Cooling System.
In the flight deck region of the aircraft are concentrated the majority of the electrically
operated components, such as instruments etc, which during the course of their
normal operation give off considerable heat. To combat this, additional cooling is
often required to maintain a comfortable temperature for the crew. Usually such
cooling may be required for the cabin and crew atmospheric temperature conditions.
Heating System.
A heating system must be provided to heat the crew compartment and cabin when the
aircraft is operating at high altitude, or when operating in cold atmospheric conditions
on the ground.
Temperature Cooling.
The temperature in the cabin must be controlled in some way. This usually
takes the form of a pre-selected temperature which is automatically maintained.
Distribution System.
The function of the distribution system is to distribute the air to the cabin and crew
compartment in an efficient manner to maintain an even temperature throughout the
aircraft cabin. It is also the function of the air conditioning system to control the
humidity within the crew an passenger compartments.
Humidity.
Humidity is controlled at thirty per cent by removal of moisture from the air by the
water separator, or by adding moisture to the air by a humidifier.
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Air Supply Methods.

In general, the source of air supply and arrangement of essential components depends upon
the type of system being employed. Air conditioning systems vary according to aircraft type,
in general terms one of the following basic system designs is normally adopted. One major
factor which determines the type of system being used is the need for pressurization or not.
Ram Air System.
This type of air conditioning system used on small aircraft that are unpressurized. The source
of heat in such system is generally provided by either combustion heating or by engine
exhaust heat exchanger system. Combustion heating is provided by a self-contained heater
unit, with fuel being fed to the heater from a separate fuel tank.
The combustion of the fuel provides the source of heat for the system. The alternative system
is to obtain the heat from a heat exchanger which has its heat source as the engines exhaust
pipe. Both of these systems will be explained in more detail later. The hot air obtained is
mixed with ram air to provide the required temperature. Simple control valves control the
distribution of the air throughout the aircraft cabin.
The ram air supply is provided through an inlet situated in the nose, or at the base of the
dorsal fin. The air, after circulating through the cabin, is discharged to the atmosphere via a
spill vent. This type of system is not used on pressurized aircraft, or aircraft requiring a large
volume flow through the cabin.

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Engine Bleed Air

This type of system is used in many turbojet aircraft, in which hot air is readily available from
the high pressure end of the compressor of the gas turbine engine. Before the air is supplied
to the cabin it is passed through the appropriate control valves and a temperature control
system which control the temperature and pressure. This type is also known as a bootstrap
system.
In this type of system the source of hot air when in flight under normal operation is provided
by the gas turbine engine. Whilst the aircraft is on the ground with the engine stopped hot air
may be provided by the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). In some cases the APU may be used in
flight, in the event of an emergency.
Operation of Bleed Air System.

Air is bled from the high pressure end of the gas turbine engine compressor, which is at a
high temperature and for normal use in the cabin will require to be cooled. On leaving the
compressor the hot air passes through a shut-off valve, which enables the compressor supply
to be isolated if required, and then to a pressure reducing valve which reduces the high
pressure to a more manageable value. The air then passes through a flow control valve
which controls the flow rate into the cabin at a near constant rate to satisfy the fresh air cycle
requirements within the cabin. To achieve the required temperature within the cabin, some of
the air is reduced to a cold value. Before being passed to the air distributor system water
content in the air is reduced by the flow passing through a water separator.
At the same time that some of the air is being cooled, hot air is directed to the air distribution
system via the temperature control valve, thereby controlling the temperature of the air
entering the cabin. Details of the operation of some of the valves will be explained later.

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Compressor or Blower System.

This type of system is also used on some gas turbine powered aircraft, turbo-prop aircraft and
piston engined aircraft. In each case the compressors or blowers are driven by the aircrafts
engines via accessory drives, gearboxes or bleed air.
Displacement Blower System Basic Operation.

Air is drawn in through a ram air intake located in a wing leading edge or an engine nacelle
fairing. A filter unit may be provided to protect the blower rotor from foreign matter and to
ensure a clean air supply. In order to reduce noise emanating from the blower, silencers are
incorporated in this system, as was seen in the Bleed Air System, with regard to their basic
function. Variations in such items as cold air unit/heat exchanger design will be explained
later.

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AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM AND COMPONENT OPERATION

In order that the basic requirements of the air conditioning system are met a variety of
components may be used. The type of component employed in a given system, although
doing the same job as a similar component in another system, may achieve its objectives in
a slightly different way.
Basic Requirements.
A reminder of the basic requirements of the air conditioning system is given here to help the
student relate to the components and their individual functions within the system.
(a) Heating.
In order to maintain the temperature within the cabin, flight deck etc, at the correct
temperature , a supply of warm air is required. The correct temperature is achieved by
mixing hot air with a supply of cold air.
(b) Cooling.
As was started in the previous paragraph, the correct cabin temperature is achieved
by mixing cold air with a supply of warm air. In some instances a supply of cool air is
also required to keep the cabin cool when on the ground in hot climatic conditions,
while the cooling of equipment within the aircraft may also be a requirement.
(c) Humidity.
The moisture content of the air supplied to the cabin is an important requirement that
must not be ignored and therefore a means must be provided to control the humidity
within the cabin and flight deck areas. This may take two forms; the extraction of
moisture from the air supply or adding moisture to the air.
(d) Pure Air.
The air used in the cabin and flight deck must be pure and free from any exhaust
fumes or other contaminants. Great care must be taken in the design of the
components used in the air conditioning system to ensure that only clean pure air is
supplied.
Heating Components
If a ready supply of hot air is provided at the inlet to the air condition system it is easier to cool
the hot air to the required temperature than to have to re-heat the air again at various points
at the inlet of the system.
(a) Bleed Air.
Large turbojet-powered aircraft normally adopt this method of the hot air supply. Within
the compressor section of the gas turbine engine, particularly at the high pressure end
of the compressor, the compressed air reaches high temperatures. In such systems air
is pressurization. Remember that the air is bled from the compressor where it is
relatively clean and free from fumes.

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Whilst the bleeding of air from the compressor may reduce the total thrust produced by
the engine this is taken into consideration when the size and performance of the
engine is chosen at the aircraft design stage.
The air is normally bled from between stage 8-11 of the compressor where the most
suitable temperature is available. This is just a general example and will vary from
engine type to engine type. Filters are normally provided at the outlet from the bleed
valve, or valves, to reduce the risk to air contamination within the aircraft cabin or flight
deck. A non-return valve is also normally fitted to ensure that airflow can only flow the
compressor of the engine. A shut-off valve is also provided to enable the compressor
supply to be isolated from an alternative supply.
(b) Auxiliary Power Unit

An alternative bleed air supply may be provided by the auxiliary power unit (APU). This
supply may be used when the aircraft is on the ground with the main engines shut
down or in flight as an emergency supply should a particular engine be shutdown.

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An APU is, on most modern aircraft, a small gas turbine engine and provided a
convenient alternative supply of hot air when on the ground or in an emergency.
The APU, although capable of maintaining a reasonable temperature within the cabin,
may not be able to supply an adequate volume of air, particularly in a pressurized
cabin. This aspect is dealt with in later chapters.
(c) The use of this type if heating system is generally confined to air conditioning systems
of the ram air ventilation type, and depends special combustion chamber. It is
generally termed a combustion aircraft.
(d) Engine Exhaust Heating.

This type of system is found mainly on light aircraft types and is used in
conjunction with simple ram air ventilation system.

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Air enters through a heater, or heat exchanger, which is generally called a heater
muff which surrounds the exhaust pipe of the piston engine exhaust system. After
heating, the air is passed to the cabin via a control valve which mixed the warm
air
with cold ram air, dependent on the control valve selection, to achieve the desired
cabin temperature.
(d) Compression Heating.
This type of unit relies on the principle of heating the air by compression. Air,
when compressed, will rise in temperature in the air by manner explained in the gas
turbine compressor air bleed section. On smaller aircraft which are not powered by gas
turbine engines a compressor may be used, driven by the piston engine, to achieve
the same aim.
(e) Electric Heating.
This form of heating may be used on some aircraft systems to condition the air supply,
or it may be used to supplement existing heating systems. The electric heater is in the
main heavier than most other forms of heating and when considering its installation
thought must be given to the extra electrical power required. As a general guide , an
aircraft with sixty seats would required a power supply of approximately 40 kW to
produce the required heat.
This type of heater is normally used to supply extra heat to the flight deck and not to
the passenger cabin. The heater in this case consists of a number of conventional
heater elements of the resistance type, the heater being designed so that the normal
cabin air supply is directed to pass around the electrical
heater elements, which
raise the air temperature to the level necessary to maintain the outlet air supply at a
comfortable value.
(f) Choke Heating.
This type of heating is generally used with positive displacement blower air supply
systems and consists primarily of a butterfly valve assembly installed in the ducting
which, when closed, can partially restrict the airflow from the blowers, causing a back
pressure increase and so an increase in temperature. The valve may be either
electrically or manually controlled and the duct pressure is limited by a pressure
switch which will stop the valve from closing further when the pressure setting is
reached. In the event of a failure or malfunction of the pressure switch, a duct relief
valve will relieve the pressure
The amount of heating that can be applied to the system in this manner may be
limited, but is adequate in most cases, where sufficient pressure is available from the
engine-driven blowers to ensure an adequate flow to the cabin against the back
pressure of the choke valve.

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The system embodies a pressure switch, choke valve, choke valve control -switch the
pressure switch and the control relays. When the switch is moved to the position,
electrical power is supplied to the OPEN relay, which will close and supply electrical
power to the electric motor of the choke valve through the closed contacts of the
lowering the back pressure and also the temperature.Once the valve has run to the
open position, the open limit switch breaks the circuit and the valve remains in the
open position and the switch is returned to the centre OFF position.
Moving the switch to the closed position will supply power to the closed relay , which
will supply power to the choke valve through the closed limit switch which would have
been made, once the electric motor moved from the closed toward the open position.
This will cause the choke valve to be moved toward the closed position, which will
raise the airflow back pressure and air supply temperature. The choke valve should
never be fully closed when there is an airflow supply to the cabin as this would
prevent any airflow through the duct. If the choke valve is fully closed and the
pressure switch, the contacts of the pressure switch close and an electrical circuit is
made from the power supply to the motor causing the choke valve to run to the open
position.
Circumstances which could prevent the choke valve being fully effective are
operating the aircraft at low cabin pressure differential or at a low air supply
output. In some cases, a temperature sensing switch is used to control the
position of the choke valve.

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Cooling.
There are a number of ways which the hot air supplied for cabin use may be cooled. Some
are very simple and others quite complex. The following are the main types in use at the
present time.
(a) Ram Air Cooling.
This is probably the most simple method of cooling the hot air from the supply, but is
only suitable for small aircraft.
In a ram air supply system the cooling system is of the simplest type whereby the cold
air can be admitted to the cabin via adjustable louvres. In the large more complex
systems cooling may be achieved by either the air cycle cooling method or the vapour
cycle cooling method.
(b) Air Cycle Cooling.
The operation of an air cycle cooling system is based on the principle of dissipating
heat by converting its energy into work. There are variations in the individual
components that are used to achieve this.
There are two main types of cooling systems in use today, the Air Cycle System which
is based on the dissipating of heat by the transformation of heat energy into work and
Vapour Cycle System in which heat is lost in evaporating a liquid refrigerant.
These systems can be used on their own, or a vapour cycle system can be used to
supplement an air cycle system.
(c) Air Cycle System.
The basic air cycle system consist of a source of pressurized air, a heat exchanger, a
high speed turbine and a fan or a compressor.The process involves three basic steps,
i.e.
a. Compression
b. Heat transfer and
c. Expansion accompanied by work extraction.

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First air is compressed in a compressor until its pressure is higher than the pressure
of the space to be cooled. Then the heat of compression is removed from the air by a
heat exchanger and finally the air is further cooled by extracting work from it as it
expands through a turbine. This is accomplished by providing a load on the turbine.
The turbine may drive a fan which draws cooling air (ram air) across an air-to-air heat
exchanger, or it may drive a compressor which raises the pressure of the air before it
is a direct function of the amount of work done by the turbine.
In aircraft with high heat loads, the amount of air, or the mass flow of air, required to
transfer the heat to a heat sink is very considerable and large diameter ducts would
be required. In addition, the large amount of air that would have to be tapped from
very high fuel penalty. For these reasons, the air cycle system has its limitations and
is not applied to aircraft with very high heat loads. Another aspect that limits the
amount of cooling that can be applied taken right down to freezing point, frosting
occurs in the downstream air ducts.
The main advantages of an air cycle system are light weight and low cost, and
main disadvantages are low efficiency and poor ground cooling.
the
The most common variations of the basic air cycle system are the bootstrap
system; both evaporative and regenerative types.
(d) Bootstrap System.
The term bootstrap, as applied to air cycle refrigeration systems, indicates a system in
which the pressure of the air is raised to a higher level in a compressor section of the
cooling turbine unit before it is expanded in the turbine which drive the compressor.
This system consists of a primary heat exchanger, a secondary heat exchanger, a
cooling turbine unit and a compressor or a fan. The bleed air from the engine
compressor is pre-cooled by a primary hear exchanger . The air is compressed to an
even higher pressure and temperature in the compressor section of the cooling
turbine unit. The temperature of the air is then lowered by the secondary heat
exchanger (inter-cooler)
After this the air enters the turbine section of the cooling turbine unit where it expands
required cabin pressure. Heat energy is converted into shaft work in the turbine and is
used for driving the bootstrap compressor. Both the primary and secondary heat
exchangers are cooled by ram air, although any other heat sink

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could be used. The available heat sinks for an aircraft are outside (ambient) air, fuel,
or any expendable cooling media, such as water or liquid hydrogen.
The bootstrap system is normally used in aircraft requiring pressurization air to be
supplied from engine-driven compressors. The pressure rise across the engine driven
compressor is relatively low, with the result that cooling is insufficient when the air is
passed through a turbine alone. By causing the turbine to drive a compressor which
further increase the pressure of the air supplied to the turbine, a higher pressure ratio
is achieved with a corresponding higher pressure drop across the turbine, thus giving
a much greater temperature drop across the turbine.
An interesting point about the bootstrap configuration is that, apart from its application
to aircraft fitted with engine driven blowers and engine driven compressors, further
interest is being aroused as a result of the very low pressures resulting from tapping
jet engine compressors at very high altitudes the Bootstrap System could be
employed to assist in this problem as well.
Bootstrap system have been used quite extensively for passenger and crew
compartment air conditioning. They better the performance of the basic air cycle
system by using the turbine output work to the system is further increased by the
addition of the primary heat exchanger (pre-cooler).
One disadvantage of the bootstrap system is that very little cooling can be applied to
aircraft on the ground, due to lack of ram air for the heat exchangers. Also, the use of
ram air in the secondary heat exchanger becomes inadequate at low supersonic
speeds.

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Ambient air is drawn around banks of parallel tubes carrying hot air from the
pneumatic system by means of ram pressure in flight and by a turbine driven axial
flow fan on the ground. This cooling air is then discharged overboard. The design and
construction of the heat contained in the exchanger is such that a substantial portion
of heat contained in the compressed air is transferred through the tube walls to the
ambient (ram) air. This results in an appreciable reduction in the temperature of the
compressed air with very little loss in pressure.
The effectiveness of heat exchanger is expressed as its thermal ratio, i.e. the ratio of
the temperature drop actually obtained to the difference in temperature between the
two air streams as they enter the heat exchangers were 100 per cent efficient, the
charge air temperature could not be reduced below ambient air temperature. Also in
practice, the cooling air temperature rises, due to the ram effect of the air entering the
ducting, and consequently the effectiveness of the heat exchanger is reduced as the
speed of the aircraft increases. Thus the temperature drop obtained in the primary
heat exchanger is still insufficient and additional cooling is necessary.
Both the primary and secondary heat exchangers (inter-cooler) are cooled by ram air,
although in specific installations, they could be cooled by fuel. Such heat exchangers
are normally designed to give a thermal efficiency of at least eighty per cent. To
achieve such an efficiency it is necessary to have coolant air flow approximately three
times as great as the charge air flow.

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(e) Evaporative System.

An evaporative air system refrigeration system utilizes the same equipment as the
basic air cycle system or the bootstrap-type system. However, it incorporates an
evaporative cooler locate in the high pressure air duct between the secondary
compressor and the cooling turbine. An expandable type evaporant such as water,
alcohol, freon or ammonia is used as a heat sink for the evaporative cooler. This
system is seldom used for a large commercial aircraft due to the increased cost and
extra weight penalty.
(f) Regenerative System.
When aircraft are operating at extremely high altitudes and supersonic speeds there is
very little air available for cooling purposes and it is obvious that heat exchangers will
cause considerable drag when used at aircraft speeds between Mach 1 and Mach 3.
This is in addition to the fact that the very high temperature will greatly reduce the
efficiency of the heat exchangers.
This problem may be alleviated by the use of a regenerative air cycle system. The
system consists of primary air-to-air heat exchangers, a regenerative air-to-air heat
exchanger, a cooling turbine and a fan or compressor.
The air for pressurizing the cabin may come from one of two sources; it may either be
bled from the jet engine compressor or obtained directly from a ram air scoop. The air
is first passed through the primary heat exchanger and through the turbine and into
the cabin. When this air is discharged from the cabin, it is not thrown overboard as is
normally the case, but it is passed through the regenerative heat exchanger to provide
additional coolant air flow. The passage of this air can be given impetus by a fan or a
compressor driven by the turbine and located in the downstream from the fan or
compressor to be discharge overboard through a nozzle; the maximum use can then
be made of the remaining energy. As in the previous cases, the work done by the
turbine in driving the fan or compressor causes a very large temperature drop across
the turbine.
The primary advantage of the regenerative air cycle system is that it makes it possible
to extract all the available heat energy from the exhaust air before finally rejecting it
overboard. This system is particularly applicable to small, high speed military aircraft.
(g) A Typical Bootstrap Cooling System.
The operation of an air cycle cooling system is based on the principle of dissipating
heat by converting its energy into work. The principle components of a typical system
are the primary and secondary heat exchangers, a turbine compressor cold air unit
and a water separator.
(h) Heating Exchangers (Primary and Secondary).
The air-to-air exchanger is the primary source of heat transfer in the air cycle
refrigeration system. It performs the first phase of the cooling process. Temperature
reduction takes place as the compressed air passed through the thin walled
aluminium alloy tubes of the heat exchangers.

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(i) Turbine Compressor Cold Air Unit (Air Cycle Machine)

The air cycle machine is a cooling unit consisting of an expansion turbine on a
common shaft with a compressor. Pressurized air expand through the turbine, driving
the compressor. The centrifugal compressor compresses air from the primary heat
exchanger. This air is then directed through a secondary heat exchanger in which
heat of compression is absorbed. The air leaves the secondary heat exchanger
restored to approximately the temperature it had when entering the compressor. The
air then enters the air cycle machine turbine, expands and cools to the lowest
temperature in the cycle.
(j) Water Separator.
These units provides a means of reducing the moisture content of the air supply to
prevent precipitation in the ducting and in the cabin when operating at altitudes at
which the ambient air has an appreciable water content due to a decrease in the
capacity of a air to hold water vapour at reduced temperatures.
They are normally located just down stream of the cold air unit, the refrigeration,
action of which causes a high percentage of the initial water content of the air supply
to be in suspension as free water, due to the temperature drop applied to the air.
Water separators can be obtained to handle airflows ranging from approximately 10 to
100lbs of air per minute. Salient features of this type of unit are that it has a high
degree of efficiency without imposing an undue back pressure, and it is simple in
design and light in weight. Most separators incorporate an internal relief valve which
opens to allow air to pass to the system should the condenser become iced up.

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The air from the cold air unit, with its attendant free water in form of minute droplets,
passes through the filtration element of condenser. Here the action of passing through
the fabric causes the small droplets to join together to form larger drops. The air,
together with the water of increased droplet size passes through the condenser
support and is caused to swirl very rapidly by the included vanes on the interior of the
support. Kinetic separation of the water then occurs, due to considerably greater
kinetic energy being imparted to the water droplet than is given to the air. Water
collects on the downstream end of the casing and is drained away.
If the condenser assembly becomes choked due to icing conditions, the light relief
valve spring is overcome, and the moist air passes through the centre of the extractor
to the cabin system.
A temperature sensor called a 2C sensor, located downstream of the water separator
prevents the freezing of the water separator when the air flow temperature drops
below 2C. The 2C sensor provides a signal to open an anti-ice control valve to admit
warm air into the water separator to prevent icing if the airflow temperature drops
below 2C.
(k) Turbine Fan System.
Progress from piston to turbine engines, and the increase in engine air temperatures
and flows of the latter, have resulted in a change of cold air unit design and brought
about the introduction of the turbo fan type of unit, which is a simple type of Air Cycle
System.
The turbine-fan system consists of a high speed turbine driving a fan, the latter being
used to boost the flow of coolant air through a heat exchanger. This configuration is
normally employed in aircraft which obtain the cabin air supply by tapping the
compressor casing of the jet engine and where the tapping pressures are high, at
least in the region of 70 psi as measured at the inlet to the turbine.
Thus there is normally sufficient air pressure available to pressurize the cabin and to
ensure a pressure drop across the turbine, sufficient to provide the amount of cooling
required. The air obtained from the jet bleed is also much hotter than that obtained
from an engine-driven compressor it can be for example as high as 330C as
opposed to 160C.
This turbine-fan system is particularly applicable to civil aircraft cases, it is anticpated,
will not operate above 45,000 feet. In some cases, operation above 50,000 feet may
result in insufficient pressure difference across the turbine, due to the fall off in engine
delivery pressure at that altitude.
This system the hot air from the engine is initially cooled by an air-to-air heat
exchanger, and the air passes from the heat exchanger to the turbine where it
expands and drives the turbine. The turbine can be used to drive a fan in the
downstream path of the coolant air passing through the heat exchanger. This not only
boosts the flow of cooling air and increases the efficiency of the exchanger, but, by
causing the turbine to do work driving the fan, the heat energy in the air passing
through the turbine is converted into work thus causing the required extensive
temperature drop across the turbine.
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Alternatively, the turbine can be made to drive a compressor which can be used to
compress and eject it into the downstream path of the heat exchanger coolant, thus
boosting the flow of the latter on the jet pump principle. In this case too, the work done
in driving the compressor results in refrigeration.
The turbine-fan or jet pump system does provides some degree of cooling when the
aircraft is on the ground so long as the engine is running even though there is no
movement of the aircraft and no flow or ram air through the heat exchanger. The
amount of cooling possible in these circumstances does, of course, depend upon the
engine speed. An important point about the turbine-fan or jet pump form of cooling
system is that no inter-cooler is required, which results in a saving in weight and a
reduction of cooling drag.
(l) Temperature Control-Air Cycle System.
Control of air temperature conditions in passenger cabin, crew compartment and other
compartments is accomplished by modulating the valves installed in the air ducting of
the heating and cooling sections of air conditioning system. The methods of control
vary and depends on the type of aircraft and the air conditioning system employed.
The temperature control system is design to automatically modulate actuator motors
which control particular temperature control valves. A typical system comprises a
temperature selector, cabin temperature sensing element and a temperature
regulators. These components are electrically connected to form a resistance bridge
circuit which is only in balance when the cabin air temperature is at the selected
value. If the bridge circuit is placed out of balance by resistance change in either of
the sensing elements due to error signal is produced which is fled to an amplifier
stage of the control unit. The amplified signal is then fed to the appropriate actuator
motors which position their valves to adjust the air flows and so correct the
temperature change until the bridge circuit is restored to the balanced condition.
Manual controls are provided to permit overriding the automatic circuit. Low
temperature and high temperature limit control devices are also provided and
respectively they prevent icing in the water separator, and ensure that the upper limits
of the supply air temperature are not exceeded.

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(m) Vapour Cycle Cooling System.

These system involved the use of a suitable vapour that can be readily liquefied at a
reasonable system pressure. The vapour is pumped round the system, and any heat
transferred to it is converted to a condenser where the heat is rejected on conversion
of the vapour into a liquid.
A vapour cycle refrigerator is in effect a heat pump. It lifts heat from one temperature
level and rejects it at a higher level. The power required to operate the heat pump
depends upon the difference in temperature levels it is required to establish and the
amount of air needing to be treated. When the temperature difference is small the
work required may only be equivalent to one-third or one quarter of the heat lifted. If
the temperature difference is large, the work input tends to approach the equivalent of
the heat extracted.

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For any give refrigerant there is a limiting temperature range over which it can be used.
Vapour cycle system can be applied to all types of aircraft that required cooling , and are of
particular interest in the case of large and very fast aircraft because
i. They enable a system to be assigned with the minimum power input for
a given amount of cooling.
ii. They allow the cooling to be applied very accurately at the required
points.
iii. They cater for the very important case where humidity reduction is
required on the ground.
The last point is very important aspect of vapour cycle cooling, and, indeed, it may be
that the application of a vapour cycle system to an aircraft can be dictated more by the
need to control humidity than to cool the cabin. The transfer of heat to the evaporator
results in very low air temperatures bringing the air to its dew point. The excess
moisture collects on the fins of the evaporator. By providing a simple water droplets
blown from the evaporator by the air stream can be collected and drained away.
It is important to note, when quoting the requirements for a system that requires to
cater for both cooling and humidity reduction on the ground, that the separation of the
water reduces the cooling capacity of the vapour cycle system, due to the latent heat
loss to the water. Under such circumstances, the system must be designed to
produce sufficient refrigeration tonnage to cover both the humidity control and the
cooling cabin aspects.

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The reasons for applying vapour cycle systems to a civil aircraft have already been
given, particularly those relating to ground cooling. Recent design movements in both
reciprocating and centrifugal compressor systems have resulted in considerable
weight reduction, which makes the use of such systems in civil aircraft even more
attractive.
The fans used in the vapour cycle system can be driven by electric motors, or by air.
Electric drives are much heavier and of course add to the problem of the total amount
of electrical power that requires to be made available on an aircraft. The simplicity and
light weight of air driven fans should direct thinking towards the use of an airborne
power unit, capable of meeting this and other auxiliary drive requirements.
Principle of Heat.
Operating on the same basic principles as the modern home air conditioner, the freon
(vapour cycle) cooling system provides cabin and flight station de-humidification and cooling
to below ambient temperature when cabin cooling loads are beyond capacity of the air-cycle
cooling system.
Heat can be measured in two ways INTENSITY and QUANTITY. The INTENSITY is
measured with a thermometer in units called degrees. The standard of measurement for
quantity is known as the British Thermal Unit, commonly called the BTU, which is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the pound of water by 1F. The
difference between INTENSITY and QUANTITY may be illustrated with two containers filled
with one and two pounds of water respectively, each at the same temperature or INTENSITY.
We know however, that there are twice as many heat units in the two-pound container as in
the one-pound container, since it will take twice as long to raise the temperature of two
pounds of water the same number of degrees as one pound of water.
Two kind of heat are SENSIBLE and LATENT. SENSIBLE heat is heat that changes the
temperature of a substance with no change in the form of a substance without changing its
temperature. For example, if water is heated anywhere below the boiling point at 212F is
reached. However, at the boiling point, additional LATENT heat will be absorbed to convert
the water to a vapour but the temperature will remain at 212F during boiling. Thus when a
liquid boils, turning to vapour, it absorbs a great amount of latent (hidden) heat without
changing temperature. This heat is known as LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION.
Conversely, when the vapour is condensed, the process is reversed and the same amount of
heat is released in converting the vapour to liquid. This principle of large heat absorption or
release that occurs when a liquid changes to vapour or a vapour condenses forms the basis
of modern refrigeration systems.

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VAPORIZATION is the conversion of a liquid to a gaseous or vapour state at the boiling point
of the liquid. EVAPORATION is the conversion of a liquid to a vapour state at a temperature
lower than the boiling point of the liquid. Although the terms evaporation and vaporization are
closely associated, there is a distinct difference between them. If we place a glass of water in
a room we know that eventually the water will evaporate. This is due primarily to the fact that
the air above the water is in constant motion and contains a comparatively small amount of
moisture. Nature attempts to produce an equilibrium between water in the glass and water in
the air. Because of the large volume of drier air and small volume of water, all the molecules
of water will eventually change to vapour and be carried away by the air. If we place a sealed
cover over a glass of water in the room, the water will evaporate only until the air above it
holds all the moisture that it can contain at that temperature. If the process of evaporation is
sufficiently rapid, a noticeable reduction of temperature can be felt. This is known as
evaporative cooling.
The term hot is not necessarily associated with a boiling liquid. Freon 114, the refrigerant
used in the air conditioning system, boils at 4C. thus, if it were exposed to the air at normal
room temperature, it would absorb heat from surrounding areas of objects and boil,
immediately changing into a vapour.
Definitions.
Sensible heat is the heat which changes the temperature of a substance with no change in
the form of the substance.
Latent heat is the heat which changes the form of substance without changing its
temperature.
Saturated vapour is the vapour which is in contact with its liquid and when it is at the same
temperature as the boiling point of its liquid. It will remain saturated as long as it is in contact
with its liquid. All vapours used in a refrigeration system are saturated vapours.
Super heated vapour is vapour which has its temperature increased above the boiling point of
the liquid from which it came.
Saturation temperature is the boiling or the vaporization temperature of a liquid. This
temperature is not only the boiling point of the liquid but is also the condensing point of the
vapour.
Sub-cooled liquid is one which is at a lower temperature than its saturation temperature
corresponding to its pressure. A liquid which is at its boiling point is saturated liquid e.g. water
at 212F at atmospheric pressure is at saturated temperature and water at less than 212F at
atmospheric pressure is at sub-cooled temperature
Condensation is a process of changing a vapour from a gaseous to liquid state. There are
conditions which must exist or be created for this process to occur which are
a) The vapour must be at a saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure.
b) This temperature must be higher than that of the surrounding cooling medium air or water.

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Pressure Saturated Temperature Relationship.

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of air at sea level due to weight of
air in that column over a unit area. At higher altitudes, the air is rarified and has less weight
and thus exerts less pressure. All pressure, regardless of how it is produced, is measured in
lb/sq in (psi) or Newton sq metre.
All liquids have a definite boiling point, which is dependent upon the pressure applied. Water,
for example, will boil at 212F at sea level atmospheric pressure. If the pressure is increased,
the liquid will not boil until a higher temperature is reached. Water, therefore can have a
boiling point from 32F to 700F depending upon the pressure to which it is subjected. Boiling
water does not necessarily have to be hot because if there is a vacuum over the surface of
water, it will boil at a very low temperature.
The same thing is true for other liquids such as various refrigerants which are use to produce
low temperatures. These refrigerants have the same properties as the water except that the
range of their boiling points are lower. The boiling point of any liquid depends only upon the
pressure exerted on it and is not influenced by any outside flow of heat. Thus Freon-114
which would normally boil at 4C at atmospheric pressure, can be prevented from boiling
under high pressure.
Vapour Cycle System Types.
There are two types of vapour cycle systems
a) Open circuit system and a
b) Closed circuit system.
Open circuit system is one in which the liquid refrigerant is evaporated direct to
atmosphere. This consists of a supply tank maintaining a working level of liquid in the form of
a coil. The heat in the supply air vapourises the liquid, and the gases of evaporation pass to
atmosphere through the vent. Suitable arrangements are made to regulate the flow of liquid
to the evaporation chamber and to control the flow of treated air to the cabin.
The first instance of such a vapour cycle cooling system that aroused interest, employed
water as the refrigerant and was used for cooling the cabins of high speed aircraft (Mach 2
Mach 3). This system is extremely light and simple, but has the disadvantage that the
refrigerant is lost by evaporation to the atmosphere.
Reference to the properties of liquid refrigerants water is by far the lightest liquid refrigerant,
and has highest latent heat value of any liquid, but its boiling point is too high, even at
altitude, to provide an adequately low downstream temperature to allow it to be passed direct
to the cabin. This would still be true at say 70,000 feet where its boiling point is + 28C. to
overcome the high downstream temperature, it would be necessary to be a cooling turbine
between the water boiler and the cabin.

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Ammonia has a latent value of 341 CHUs/min at an atmospheric boiling point of 33.5C. At
a cabin temperature of 25C, the latent heat value would be about 230 CHU/min. If a supply
of liquid ammonia could be carried and used to feed a boiler through which cabin air is
circulated, then, in view of the low boiling point, the whole of the 320 CHUs of latent heat
could be usefully employed in cooling preclude the effective use of high latent heat
characteristic of water.
Under some conditions of flight, the use of ammonia can provide a saving in weight
compared with water. In practice the ammonia system has been used in missiles and it has
not yet been applied to aircraft, but it could have useful application if it was already installed
for other purposes.
A comparatively simple system for short endurance supersonic aircraft envisages the use of a
water boiler located between the primary heat exchanger and the turbine of an air cycle
cooling system.
Closed circuit system
To meet the requirement of long range aircraft capable of flying at speeds in the region of
Mach 2 or Mach 2.5 (as air cycle systems are inefficient at very high speeds) and, to a certain
extent, for shorter range high speed aircraft and missiles, the closed vapour cycle system is
more practical.
Closed circuit system is one in which the liquid refrigerant is recycled again (i.e. evaporated
and condensed and so on) for economy of operation and saving in weight. Suitable
refrigerants for this purpose are the Halides, Fluro Chloro Methane compounds,
manufactured under a great Variety of trade names (Freon etc). In a closed circuit system, for
the refrigerant to be recycled, the following must be noted
1. The temperature required for the change of stage of a refrigerant is dependent
upon the refrigerant pressure.
2. At higher pressures, high temperatures are required to convert refrigerant vapour
into liquid form.
3. At low pressures, the low temperature will vaporize the refrigerant.
A Typical vapour Cycle Cooling system (Closed Circuit Type)
A simplified vapour cycle refrigeration system contains five basic parts a liquid receiver, an
expansion valve, an evaporator, a compressor and a condenser.
The liquid receiver provides storage for refrigerant which passes from the receiver to the
thermostatic expansion valve, and is then released into the evaporator.
The expansion valve allows high pressure liquid freon at controlled rate at the entrance to the
evaporator where it flows through the valve into the evaporator under a much lower pressure.

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In the evaporator, the freon is exposed to low pressure, it begins to boil and it changed to a
vapour state. The heated air from the main air supply system passes across the cabin at a
much lower temperature. As the freon passes through the evaporator, it continues to boil by
absorbing heat from the air passing over the evaporator surfaces until it is completely
vaporized. Thus the air passing over the evaporator is cooled simply by giving up heat to the
freon during the boiling process.
The vaporized refrigerant is drawn into the compressor, the coupled turbine of which may be
driven by an independent air supply, by the main air supply or in some cases, by electrical
means. In the compressor, the pressure and temperature of the vapour refrigerant is
increased to a higher value to increase its saturation temperature, so that the refrigerant
vapour may absorb latent heat of condensation from the surrounded medium and convert into
liquid refrigerant in the condenser.
The refrigerant gas leaves the compressor at high pressure and high temperature and passes
through a matrix assembly of the condenser in which it is cooled by warm air. The refrigerant
gas is condensed into liquid refrigerant at high pressure and flows back into the received to
continue the refrigeration cycle.
Evaporator.
The evaporator is a device in the low pressure side of the refrigeration system through which
the air to be cooled flows. By means of a refrigerant, the evaporator absorbs the heat from
the air and moves this heat out of the refrigerated area.
The evaporator is formed by a continuous tube. The refrigerant from the metering device
feeds into one end of the tube and the suction line connects to the other or outlet end. The
evaporator contains a cooling core composed of refrigerant passages and air passages. The
feed for such an evaporator may be either at the top or the bottom. The evaporator also
contains refrigerant inlet and outlet tube connections, a distributor with its associated tubes
and a thermostatic expansion valve. In the evaporator, both the air and the refrigerant flow is
in a horizontal plane. The inside of the evaporator is always filled with a mixture of refrigerant
in liquid and vapour form. At the high pressure side or the inlet side of the coil, the refrigerant
is mostly in liquid form. As it moves through the evaporator to the low pressure side, more
and more of it is vapourized and at the outlet, the refrigerant is all vapour. The air to be
cooled is blown through the evaporator by the evaporator fan.
Expansion valve.
The most common method of feeding refrigerant liquid to the evaporator is by using a
thermostatic expansion valve. By maintaining constant superheat in the evaporator, the valve
causes the refrigerant to start evaporating the instant it enters the evaporator and to be
completely evaporated before it leaves the coil. This is called dry expansion, and is the
principle on which direct expansion cooling coils operate.

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The valve is an integral part of the evaporator and consists of a valve assembly body
mounted at the inlet side of the evaporator, a remote heat sensing bulb and an inlet and
outlet port. The thermal element is attached to the suction line so that any change in
temperature of the suction line causes a corresponding change in the thermal element. Under
an increased heat load, the refrigerant boils away faster in the evaporator. This results in rise
in temperature at the thermal element. The higher temperature produces a higher pressure
within the bulb and this in turn, causes the diaphragm and spring of the valve to expand. This
forces the valve pin down, which admits more refrigerant to the evaporator to take care of the
increased load. The valve opening is controlled by the superheat for which the valve is set. If
the refrigeration load decreases, the valve opening admits less refrigerant to the evaporator.
Thus, as the load increases or decreases, the valve opening changes to maintain the desired
refrigerant flow for the superheat for which the valve is set.
Compressor.
The compressor is the unit designed to raise the pressure of the refrigerant vapour from
evaporator pressure to condensing pressure and to deliver the refrigerant to the condenser at
a pressure and temperature at which the condensing process can be easily accomplished.
Starting at the low pressure side of the evaporator, the vapour flows through the suction line
to the compressor. The compressor compresses this vapour and by so doing raises its
pressure and temperature. The hot, high pressure vapour then flows to the condenser where,
as it gives up heat, it condenses to form a liquid.
The compressor also lowers the pressure in the evaporator. This causes the refrigerant to
boil at the reduced pressure and thus at a reduced temperature. Thus the main function of
the compressor started briefly, is to maintain a pressure difference between the high and low
sides of the system.
The compressor may be driven by an electric motor, or a hydraulic motor or an air motor
depending upon the particular system.
Condenser.
The condenser is basically an air-to-liquid heat exchanger designed to remove heat added to
the refrigerant in the evaporator and the heat of compression added by compressor. This is
accomplished by condensing the hot gas discharged by the compressor and transferring the
heat to the ram air that enters the condenser duct. Only by condensing the refrigerant can the
latent heat absorbed in the expansion coils, amd the superheat added by the compressor, be
removed from the refrigerant.

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Temperature Control Vapour Cycle System.

The main and control cabins are provided separate temperature control system, providing
either automatic or manual control. Temperature regulators provided for each cabin will
automatically establish and maintain the cabin temperature at the selected temperature. A
typical vapour cycle system incorporates the various controls for temperature regulation,
compressor surges and degree of superheat at the evaporator outlet. Temperature regulators
senses the actual selected cabin temperature and provides signal to the temperature control
valves and expansion valve. The surge control remove surges in the downstream line of the
compressor. Superheat control ensures the degree of superheat of the refrigerant vapour at
the outlet of the evaporator. Its function is to maintain some 3-6 of superheat. This is
achieved by controlling the position of the expansion valve which varies the heat absorption
per unit of refrigerant through the evaporator.
Refrigerant Properties.
The choice of refrigerant for a particular application depends on properties not directly related
to its ability to remove heat. The selection is usually a compromise between conflicting
desirable properties. No refrigerant has all the desirable properties, but several have enough
to be very satisfactory. Usual practice has been to choose a refrigerant with a boiling point
close to, but slightly below, the design evaporator. Having the evaporator pressure as high as
possible, and at the same time, having a low condensing pressure is desirable. The desirable
characteristics of refrigerants are
1. A low boiling point (at atmospheric pressure as close as possible to the degree of
refrigeration required).
2. A low specific heat in liquid form.
3. A high specific heat in vapour form.
4. A high latent heat.
5. Non flammable.
6. Non toxic.
7. Non corrosive.
8. No undesirable action with oil.
9. Leak easily detectable and controllable.
10. Low cost.
Refrigeration Tonnage.
Before the advent of mechanical refrigeration, cooling was obtained by the use of ice. A short
ton of ice melting to water absorbs 288,000 BTUs, and if this is spread over 24 hours, the
rate of heat flow is 200 BTUs/min, which is a very convenient figure to remember. When the
first refrigerators came on the market it was natural to describe them as having the same
effect as so many tons of ice so that a machine which would refrigerate at the rate of
2,400BTUs/min is described as a 12-ton unit. Thus a ton of refrigeration simply means a
cooling effect of 200BTUs/min or 111 BTUs/min.
A vapour cycle refrigerator produces cooling at a sensibly constant rate, because the
compressor circulates a fairly constant mass flow of refrigerant and this evaporates at a
constant temperature in the evaporator, which is the unit that really does the refrigeration.
Thus it is correct to describe the machine as, say, a 12-ton, meaning that it will normally
produce 12 tons or 2, 400 BTUs/min of refrigeration.
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In the case of an aircycle machine, such as a bootstrap or fan turbine the performance varies
so widely that it is misleading to quote the tonnage unless the conditions are specified. For
example, a turbine passing 100lb/min with a temperature drop of 50C is extracting heat at
the rate of 1,200 CHUs/min or 18,0 tons. But if the air temperature at the turbine inlet is
100C, then the outlet will be at 50C, which is of no practical use for cooling a cabin, and the
effective refrigeration is consequently nil.
It is customary to describe air cycle refrigeration by the air mass flow only, it being
understood that this refers to some average conditions of inlet pressure, inlet temperature,
and pressure ration which commonly occur in practice. Thus there are turbines rates at 10
lb/min, 25 lb/min, 55 lb/min, and so on, and for any specified condition, the manufacturer can
quote the actual mass flow and outlet temperature obtained and hence the refrigeration
tonnage delivered to the cooled compartments.
Combined Air Vapour Cycle Cooling System.
In a number of installations, the manufacturers have combined these two basic cooling
system in order to gain some of the advantages of each while eliminating some of the
disadvantages.
Air Distribution.
Practical air distribution within a compartment is dependent upon a high degree of
temperature uniformity without draughts in order to minimize the temperature difference
between entering air, the cabin air and the cabin surfaces.
The air used for conditioning purposes is distributed by a ducting system, the layout of which
depends on the type of aircraft and its air conditioning system. In a basic system, such as that
employing a ram air supply and combustion heating, the ducting is generally in two distinct
sections and provides for separate flows of cold and heated air. The outlets for cold air are
normally of the adjustable louver type and are installed for that air flows from such points as
below hat racks, cockpit and cabin sidewalls. Heated air is distributed through outlet grills
situated at floor level, the degree of heat being regulated by mechanical valves directly
controlled at the outlets, or by control knobs in the flight compartment. The heated air duct
also has a branch duct which directs heated air to the windshield panels for demisting
purposes.
In larger aircraft , the conditioned air is distributed to the passenger cabin through underfloor
and hat rack ducting, the latter containing outlet grills and the requisite number of individual
adjustable cold air louvres which are supplied from a cold air source. Typical locations for air
outlets are at floor, roof levels and in sidewalls. After circulation, the air is exhausted to
atmosphere through the outflow valves in the pressurization system.
Material used in the manufacture of typical ducting systems are light alloy, plastic, fiberglass
reinforced plastic and stainless steel, the latter being normally used for hot air sections of
engine bleed air supply systems. There are various methods of joining the duct sections
together and to components. In those most commonly used, the joints are made by flanges
and ring-clamps of V-section, by rubber sleeves fitted over the ends of duct sections and
secured either by adjustable clamps or by a rubber adhesive, and by bolted flanges. To
permit longitudinal movement of the ducting as it expands and contracts, expansion bellows,
sliding clamps and gimbal mounting are provided in some of the larger aircraft systems.
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Humidity Control.
Humidifiers provide a means of increasing the moisture content of the air received into the
system when operating at high altitudes and so reduce the discomforts and dangers that can
be caused by the action of excessively dry air. Under conditions of extreme humidity the unit
can be employed to extract precipitated moisture from the supply air.
Humidifiers consist of a rectangular container provided with an easily detachable lid.
Depending upon the capacity of the aircraft one or more jet assemblies and associated
components, sieve tubes, swirl cones, etc, are fitted in the container which is connected to
the main aircraft supply ducting. In some installations two single jet humidifers can be used,
one in each of the port and starboard supply ducting systems.
Humidifiers are normally located in the fuselage ducting just downstream of the heating and
refrigeration equipment. When it is required to increase the moisture content of the air
passing to the cabin system, water from a convenient supply tank in the aircraft is supplied to
the jets by the pump and accessories unit at a pressure sufficient to cause a fine spray. Air
entering the humidifier is directed past each jet and is given a swirling motion by the swirl
cones to assist the process of evaporation.
The air then passes to the remainder of the system with increased relative humidity,
unevaporated water being retained by the sieve tubes and rectifier pads whence it drains to
the humidifier sump to be led away through the sump drains to the accessories unit.
At the other extreme, operation of aircraft at low altitude and on the ground in regions of high
relative humidity, necessitates a reduction of moisture content of the air supply. In addition to
the passenger comfort aspect, it is necessary to decrease the humidity to reduce
condensation and its effects on the aircraft structure, to achieved this a water separator may
be used.

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CABIN PRESSURIZATION
When an aircraft is flown at a high altitude it burns less fuel for a given airspeed than it does
for the same speed at a lower altitude. In addition bad weather and turbulence can be
avoided by flying in the relatively smooth air above the storms. Incidentally, the atmospheric
pressure decreases with increase in altitude and it becomes unsafe for the passengers to
travel if they are exposed beyond a certain cabin altitude.
Pressurization is necessary to adequately cover the requirements of the human body. Each
person requires a continual supply of oxygen, the quantity varying with the amount to physical
effort. Air is drawn into the lungs during breathing, where some of the oxygen it contains
replaces the carbon dioxide in the blood stream, through the function of the lungs. This
process depends upon the pressure of oxygen in the lungs As the atmospheric pressure
decreases with altitude, so also does the oxygen pressure, consequently, less oxygen finds
its way into the blood stream, dulling the human body functions. Within a pressurized cabin,
people can be transported comfortably and safety for long periods of time without any
adverse effects.
Definitions.
1) Absolute pressure pressure measured along a scale which has a zero value at a
complete vacuum.
2) Aircraft altitude the actual height of the aircraft above sea level.
3) Ambient pressure the pressure in the area immediately surrounding the object
under discussion.
4) Standard barometric pressure the weight of gases in the atmosphere sufficient
to hold a column of mercury 760mm high (approx. 30in) at sea level, i.e. 14.7 psi
at sea level. This pressure decreases with altitude.
5) Cabin altitude used to express cabin pressure in terms of equivalent altitude
above sea level.
6) Differential pressure the difference between cabin pressure and atmospheric
pressure.
7) Positive differential cabin is said to be having positive differential when cabin
pressure is more than ambient pressure.
8) Negative differential cabin is said to be having negative differential when cabin
pressure is less than ambient pressure.
9) Gauge pressure
a measure of pressure in a vessel, container or line as
compared to ambient pressure.
Pressurization System Requirements.
Physiological Considerations Oxygen Content.
Lack of oxygen is the most important single factor in the adverse physiological effects
encountered at altitude. At ground level and at rest a person normally breathes 30 cubic
inches or approximately 500 cubic centimetres of air at each breath and at a normal
respiration rate of 12 to 15 cycles per minute. Which means that the oxygen requirements for
a human body are six to eight litres of air per minute.

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The primary effect of exposure to low air pressure is that the oxygen content of the blood is
decreased, the immediate effect being on the brain. Oxygen absorption into the blood across
the surface of the lungs decreases with reduction in atmospheric pressure. The effect may be
felt at altitudes greater than 10,000 feet, although they are not generally serious even when
they aggravate feelings of fatigue. At an altitude of about 20,000 feet, reduction in oxygen
content leads to a phenomenon called HYPOXIA with consequent dulling of all the senses.
It is more serious in that the victim is generally unaware of its onset (hypoxia) and believes
that he is acting in a competent and cheerful manner. Meanwhile ones judgement is
seriously impaired and disastrous mistakes can ensue. Further decrease in atmospheric
pressure leads to another phenomenon called ANOXIA which is due to serious lack of
oxygen in the human body. Anoxia causes lack of clarity, loss of sight (defective vision),
deterioration in hearing, uncontrolled trembling of muscles and the victim becomes weak and
sick. Total unconsciousness eventually occurs and the time taken to fall unconscious
decreases rapidly with increase in altitude. For example, altitudes of about 25,000 feet
produce unconsciousness in six minutes and at about 40,000 feet in 20 seconds followed by
death.
It is also necessary for a certain minimum oxygen pressure to exist in the lungs for the
oxygen to diffuse through the lung tissue and pass to the red corpuscles in the blood stream.
The minimum ambient pressure to maintain life, in this respect is 2.7 psi absolute, the
equivalent altitude being 40,000 feet, even if 100 per cent oxygen is being breathed.
From this aspect of passenger comfort, the deal cabin conditions to maintain would be those
corresponding to sea level. However, considering cabin structural requirements and
consequent power and weight penalty, the difference between cabin and ambient pressure
should be kept to the minimum. Experiences have shown that the vast majority of unselected
persons suffer no discomfort, due to hypoxia at altitude up to 8,000 feet. For all healthy
persons, in all conditions, cabin altitude of 8,000 feet is generally accepted as a safe figure to
maintain passenger comfort and from aircraft structural considerations.
Rate of change Cabin Pressure.
Apart from altitude, the question of rate of change of cabin altitude within the aircraft must
also be considered. It is common practice for an aircraft to climb at a rate of 1,000 feet per
minute or more and engines are designed to maintain their performance with the changing
atmospheric conditions during a climb. But the effect of rapid altitude changes on the human
body causes physical pain and discomfort. If the cabin pressure decreases violently, the
nitrogen and other gases in solution in the blood stream expand rapidly in the form of
bubbles. This causes acute pain and injury, but would not normally occur except in the event
of explosive decompression. If however, the rates of change are large but not violent, the
most common effects are
a)
b)
c)
d)
Sickness.
Expansion of gases in the abdomen (uncomfortable).
Mild effects of bends in exceptional.
Expansion of gases in the ear.

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The most affected part of the body is the ear because of differential build up across the ear
drum and under extreme conditions may result in permanent deafness due to a perforated
ear drum. Another important factor is that the passage by which the pressure equalization
across the ear drum is affected, i.e. the Eustachian tube is of limited size and impose greater
restriction on the air flowing inwards than on air flowing outwards.
Cabin pressure can therefore be decreased at slightly higher rates than increased without
undue discomfort . Here again it has been established that a rate of change of cabin altitude
of 500 feet/min for climb and 300 feet/min for descent are acceptable limits for pressurized
passenger aircraft.
Structural Considerations.
Positive Differential.
If the fuselage of an aircraft can hold substantial pressure greater than the surrounding
atmospheric pressure and this can be accurately controlled, the fuselage of that aircraft can
be said to be pressurized.
Controlling the cabin to ground level values provides maximum comfort, however, if the cabin
altitude was held at sea level whilst the aircraft was climbing, the resultant differential
pressure would be much higher than is really necessary.
Thus an important point arising when deciding on cabin altitude and rate of change values
are the loss of payload and increased fuel consumption due to increased structural weight
required to give the necessary strength to allow very high differential pressure to be used if
low cabin altitude are to be established at very great heights.
Negative Differential.
In order to save weight, the aircraft designer only considers inside pressure being greater
than the outside. In the design of the fuselage he does not cater for a reverse or negative
differential pressure and yet, such an instance can occur as in the case of a perfectly sealed
fuselage being flown with a greater pressure inside than outside and then suddenly being
dived to a low altitude where the outside atmospheric pressure would be greater than inside.
To cater for such an emergency would complicate the structural design so an inward relieve
is fitted, set to open generally at a negative differential pressure of 0.5 psi.

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Pressure Relief Valve Setting for Different Aircraft.
It will be seen from the table that if the normal equipment fails to control normal positive
differential, there is a secondary safeguard to ensure that the differential pressure does not
reach the maximum proof test figure. This secondary safeguard is known as a safety valve
and is set so that normally it does not come into operation.
Design requirements of a pressurization system in an aircraft
Requirements Governing Pressure Cabin.
The designer shall declare the maximum working differential pressure, p, and the maximum
height h, and these values shall be started in the Flight Manual.
The value of p shall ensure a compartment pressure at the maximum height, h, at least
equivalent to the height permitted by the CARS without oxygen equipment.
Pressurized compartment shall be provided with at least the following
a) Devices in duplicate which will, at the maximum rate of flow delivered by the
compressors, automatically limit the positive pressure differential to p. If in
addition, the aeroplane is climbing at its maximum continuous rate of climb, the
acceptable limit is extended to 1.72 kN/m (0.25 psi). The capacity of each of
these appreciable rise in pressure differential.
b) Devices in duplicate which will, with the cabin air supply compressors inoperative
and with zero differential pressure at the start of a dive, automatically prevent the
negative pressure differential, p(neg) from becoming high enough to damage the
structure, when the airplane loses height at its maximum practicable rate. The
differential pressure shall not normally exceed 3.45kN/m (0.5 psi).
c) A manually operated devices available to the flight crew by which the pressure
differential can rapidly be reduced to zero.
d) A suitable automatic or manual regulator for controlling the internal pressure and
rate of exchange of air.
Pressurization System Design Consideration.
In civil aircraft operating above 25,000 feet the CAA specifies that either series or parallel
duplication of discharge valves must be used and also that one or the other of these two
safeguards must be used for aircraft operation below 25,000 feet if the aircraft cannot
descend to 18,000 feet in a reasonable time. This is instanced by the use of two or more
outflow valves, outflow and safety valves, control systems (Auto and Manual).

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The size of the outflow valve is important in that a smaller valve can cut down the weight and
reduce the back pressure control system. Such pressure bumps are experienced on the
pressure control system. Such surges even if of a short duration can be very unpleasant for
the passengers. Another safety feature achieved by the incorporation of duplicate
components is that the failure of one of the valves in opened or closed position will not affect
the pressurization system due to natural tendency of the control system to balance the effect
of extra/reduced leakage by proportional closing/opening of the remaining serviceable
discharge valves.
The use of additional safeguards i.e. series or parallel discharge valves may seem to make a
system heavier and more complex but the recent development of a new range of light weight
combined discharge and relief valves provides the required weight saving.
Pressurization System Components Locations.
The location of control valves and static points must be so arranged to guard against iceformation under high altitude conditions. In addition, they must be installed so that
aerodynamic and other effects do not cause false characteristics by their effect:
a) On the installed unit.
b) On the passage of air and
c) On the transmission of pressure through the units.
The location of outlet valves from the cabin must be such that the water will not enter the
fuselage in the aircraft being ditched. If this is not possible, simple arrangements must be
made within the outflow valves, to allow them to be closed prior to ditching.
A Summary of Pressurization System Requirements.
A summary then, of the requirements, will be seen to be as follows:
1) Maximum cabin altitude of 8,000 feet (10,000 by legislation).
2) Optimum cabin rate of change for climb 500 feet/min.
3) Cabin negative differential of 0.5 psi.
Principle of Pressurization.
Requirement of a Sealed Container.
Firstly we require a sealed container, strong enough to withstand all stresses and which could
be taken to any altitude and still maintain the same pressure internally. Every endeavour
must be on the part of the manufacturer to ensure that the shell is perfectly sealed. This is
essential if the air that is entering and leaving the cabin is to be effective controlled.
Unwanted leaks can occur at points, windows, doors, escape hatches and each hole in the
skin through which a service must pass to reach the unpressurized portion of the aircraft.
Through these various holes must pass the main flying and trimmer controls, hydraulic,
pneumatic, electrical and other service line and cables. Each hole must be effectively sealed,
but main flying control rods, trimmer cables and throttle controls must allow freedom of
movement without too much static friction.

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Air Input into the Sealed Container.

To cater for the ventilation requirements, fresh air must be supplied to the sealed container
through the inlet port and be allowed to escape to the ambient through controlled discharge
valves which will offer a restriction to the outflow from the container.
If the pressure in the cabin is to be controlled accurately by the position of the outflow valve
and for simplicity of system design, the input air into the cabin should be kept at a constant
mass flow. That is, the control will automatically allow for changes in the air density and
changes in cabin back pressure on the inlet, due to changes in the position of the outflow
valve, maintaining a constant mass flow (lbs/min) into the cabin irrespective of cabin
pressure.
Basic Method of Pressure Control.
The principle of pressurization is that whilst the aircraft is climbing at high rate to its cruise
altitude, the cabin is climbing at a slower rate, to a lower altitude. Consider a sealed container
(fuselage) where a constant mass air flow is coming in, if the same mass air flow is going out
through a control valve, then the internal pressure will be held constant. Furthermore if the
control valve stays in one position, the internal pressure must finally stabilize. Closing the
control valve (outflow valve) pressure and when the pressure is stabilized there will be as
much air going out there is coming in.
Control of Rate of Pressure Change.
The cabin rate of climb should be selected to ensure that the set cabin altitude is reached at
approximately the same time as the aircraft reaches its cruise altitude. For example, if the
aircraft was flight planned to fly at 20,000 feet altitude and when pressurized to its maximum
differential of 5 psi, it would have a cabin altitude of 6,000 feet then the time taken for the
cabin to reach 6,000 feet from the sea level would be the same as the time taken for the
aircraft to reach 20,000 feet. So that comfortable conditions are made available for
passengers and crew during climb and descent, the rate of cabin pressure change should be
approximately 500 feet/min during climb and 300 feet/min during descent. This is achieved by
controlling the speed of operation or the movement of the outflow valve.

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Typical Pressurization Schedule.

Depending on the flight condition and the selections made, the pressure control system can
operate in the following control conditions:
a) Unpressurized Range (Ventilation only): In which cabin altitude remains approximately
equal to the flight altitude between sea level and 10, 000 feet of flight altitude. Under
this condition, the control system keeps the outflow valves open and so cabin without
appreciably changing the pressure.
b) Constant Cabin Rate of Climb or Descent: This condition is governed by the setting
of the rate of change selector knob on the pressure control unit.
c) Isobaric Range (Constant Pressure): In which cabin altitude is maintained constant
until the differential pressure limit is reached.
d) Differential Range: In which a constant differential pressure is maintained as
automatically limited by the differential pressure control device within control unit.

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Outlet Valve.
Pressure Controllers.
These unit control the cabin altitude, rate of change of cabin altitude and cabin differential
pressure. In accordance with the selections made, it provides a reference pressure for
outflow valve control. Both cabin rate of change and cabin altitude can be preset manually by
means of control units. On the cabin rate of change selector knob, an arrow is face, the
selection corresponds to 300-500 feet/min. The minimum and maximum values of the
selective range are 50 feet/min and 2,000 feet/min respectively. The range of cabin altitudes
selection is from 1,000 feet to + 10,000 feet, such range being indicated by a pointer, which
is rotated over a dial by the selector knob.
Pressure controllers vary in their construction, but basically they comprise pressure sensing
capsules and diaphragms and metering valves are adjusted to datum position which
ultimately establish the appropriate cabin altitude. In some types of controllers, the datum
positions and resultant pressure signals are converted to electrical signal, which after
amplification, position the outflow valves by means of electrical actuators.
In addition to the pressure controller, in some cases a separate manual control is provided to
control the outflow valves. The manual control may be used to control the system, should the
pressure controller become inoperative or override it in the event of malfunction.
Outflow valve.
The primary function of the outflow valves is to regulate the outflow of used air from the cabin
to atmosphere in response to the pressure signals from the controller. They are of two main
types. In one, the valves are operated by diaphragms and in the other by electrical actuators.
In some outflow valves, safety features like pressure itself, negative pressure relief and cabin
altitude limit may be incorporated. A means of closing the valve in the event of ditching may
also be provided for. The size and number of outflow valves required depend on the particular
type of aircraft.
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As a safety feature, pneumatically operated outflow valves may be incorporated with

electrical override provision and electrically operated valves may be provided with two
independent drive and control systems. These valves are sometimes known as discharge
valves.
Air Filters.
An air filter is installed on the cabin rated restriction of each outflow valve, their purpose
being to preclude tobacco tar contamination of the valves.
Jet Pumps and Vacuum Pumps.

Jet pumps or vacuum pumps may be used to provide a pressure source below the ambient
for modulating the control pressure and operating of the outflow valves. They accelerate the
response rate and improve the accuracy of the cabin pressurization system. For jet pumps a
high pressure air source is necessary. The vacuum pumps are normally electrically driven.
Pneumatic Relays.
They are used to isolate the outflow valves from each other and to have a better control of the
outflow valves by providing a connection from the outflow valve control chambers to a
suction source.
The relay is divided by a spring loaded diaphragm into two chambers, a reference chamber
and a control chamber. The pressure controller supplies reference pressure to the reference
chamber. A spring loaded metering valve is installed on the suction connection.

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Dump Control Valves.

In addition to the normal devices that control cabin pressure to the required values, provision
must be made for the normal operating cabin pressure to be reduced rapidly in an
emergency, to cover the need for reducing the pressure for an emergency landing, the need
to clear the cabin of smoke or other contamination or to meet any other contingency that
would call for rapid reduction of cabin pressure.
The dump control valves are positive action, solenoid-operated on-off valves which, in the
open position, allow air with a pressure below atmospheric to enter the control chamber of the
outflow valve connected to it, thereby opening the outflow valve. When the solenoid is
energized, a magnetic field attracts an armature assembly upwards and away from the valve
seat, thus permitting suction to enter the outflow valve control chamber as long as the
solenoid is energized. When the solenoid is de-energized, a compressor spring pushes the
armature and seal-off disc assembly against the valve thus shutting of all flow.
Safety Valves.
These are somewhat similar in appearance and mechanism to an outflow valve, but the
safety valve is not connected to the pressure controller and is set to open at a pressure
slightly above that of the aircraft maximum pressure differential. The safety valve can also
operate as a negative pressure relief valve and allow ambient pressure to enter the cabin if at
any time cabin if at any time cabin pressure became less than ambient.
The valve assembly consists of an outflow valve section and control chamber, an actuating
diaphragm, a diaphragm backing spring and relief mechanism. The diaphragm separates the
control chamber and the outflow section and allows cabin pressure to be felt in the control
chamber through a filtered orifice. The control chamber is connected to a valve which may be
capsule or diaphragm operated, and is vented to ambient pressure.
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When the cabin pressure differential builds up high enough the cabin pressure will cause the
capsule to collapse and as the control valve is connected to the capsule it will open. This
allows control chamber pressure to be vented to ambient and so dropping the pressure on
the diaphragm, this will create a pressure differential across the diaphragm and so causing
the valve to be opened and dropping cabin pressure. When the cabin pressure decreases,
the load on the capsule is eased and allows the capsule to expand closing the relief valve.
Sonic Vents.
The spillage of air from the toilet and galley areas is usually done through some vents. These
sonic vents are so designed that at comparatively low cabin differential pressure, the flow
causes shock waves to form at the throat of the vent and so preventing any increasing flow
through the vent with increase in cabin differential. This keeps the air losses from the cabin
down to a minimum.
Indicators.
Dual Altimeter: This is a twin pointer instrument registering the flight and cabin altitudes.
Differential Pressure Gauge: This instrument records the actual instantaneous differential
pressure between the aircraft cabin and the ambient.
Cabin Rate of Climb and Descent Indicator: This instrument is of a similar type to the
standard aircraft rate of climb indicator but is in direct communication with the pressure
changes occurring in the cabin and registers rate of cabin pressure.
Pressurization System Control and Operation.
Typical Cabin Pressure Regulator.
In order to gain a better understanding of how the cabin pressure regulator accomplishes its
control throughout the various ranges of operation, it will be necessary to describe the
components in detail.

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The regular assembly comprises of two principle sections, the outflow valve section and the
control chamber section. A synthetic rubber diaphragm separates these two sections and
forms a flexible, airtight wall between them. The diaphragm is exposed to cabin pressure on
the outflow valve side and control pressure on the other side. The single outflow valve type
regulator has only one large valve attached directly to the diaphragm.
The control chamber contains two pneumatic control systems, the isobaric and the
differential. The isobaric control system includes an evacuated bellows attached to the control
chamber housing at one end and to a rocker arm assembly at the other. Mounted to a rocker
arm is a needle valve and a tension spring. The needle valve seat is attached to the housing,
where it is connected with a tube vented to atmosphere. The tension spring is attached to an
adjustment screw which is threaded into the control housing, it provides a means for
increasing or decreasing the tension for calibration purposes.
The differential control system includes a bellows vented to atmosphere by a passage, called
a bridge, connecting it with the isobaric needle valve vent tube. A rocker arm assembly,
needle valve, and tension spring are attached to the differential bellows in the same manner
as described for the isobaric bellows. The differential needle valve seat is also connected
either to a tube vented to atmosphere or to a tube joined to isobaric needle valve and
differential bellows vent line with a T fitting. A small filter and orifice, through which cabin air
bleeds into the control chamber, is mounted in a port in the side of the control chamber
housing.
At altitudes below isobaric (10,000 feet), the regulator allows cabin pressure to be maintained
substantially at ambient values. At these altitudes, control chamber pressure is sufficient to
allow the evacuated bellows to remain contracted and hold the isobaric needle valve in the
open position.
Cabin air is bled into the control chamber through the orifice and flows out through the open
needle valve and vent line to the atmosphere. Since the orifice is smaller than the isobaric
needle valve vent, pressure in the control chamber becomes less than cabin pressure. This
causes the control chamber diaphragm to move toward the flow-pressure side opening the
outflow valves and allowing cabin air to flow to atmosphere until the pressure differential
between the cabin and ambient air approaches zero.

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As the isobaric altitude (10,000 feet) is approached, the pressure in the control chamber
decreases, resulting in the evacuated isobaric bellows expanding and moving the isobaric
needle valve toward its seat. The expansion of the isobaric bellows is aided by the tension of
the isobaric calibrating. The needle valve tends to close off the vent from the control chamber
to the atmosphere. This action of the needle valve prevents further decreases in control
chamber pressure and maintains the chamber at a substantially constant pressure throughout
the isobaric range of operation. Since control chamber pressure is held at a constant value,
any decrease in cabin pressure, as the aircraft ascends, results in a movement of the outflow
of cabin air to atmosphere. If the flow of conditioned air into the cabin becomes less than that
necessary to maintain the required cabin pressure, the control chamber pressure will
continue to build up, holding the outflow valve closed..
When the aircraft ascends to an altitude where the differential pressure between the cabin
and atmosphere approaches the maximum calibrated value, value, the differential pressure
between the control chamber and the atmosphere becomes great enough to result in the
differential bellows contracting and opening the differential needle valve. As the aircraft
continues to ascend, the opening of the differential needle takes control from the isobaric
needle valve which is virtually completely closed. Since the action of the differential bellows is
a result of the differential pressure between the control chamber and the atmosphere, the
positioning of the needle valve holds the differential pressure of psi between the aircraft cabin
and atmosphere.

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Pressure Control (Auto).

In the system described above, there is no control (selection) of cabin altitude; the cabin
altitude remains the same as the flight altitude up to 10,000 feet , and remains constant at
10,000 feet until maximum differential pressure limit is reached.
Cabin Altitude Control.
In order to provide for selection of cabin altitude a control is added which will load or unload
the isobaric capsule. A cabin altitude selector knob changes the load on the beam and in turn
on the capsule through a spring. If a low cabin altitude is selected the beam is moved (up)
and the needle valve goes to a more closed position. This causes the control pressure to
build up causing the bellows to collapse. The bellows being connected to the beam applies a
force in opposition to the force applied by selector knob movement. The entire mechanism
stabilizes to a new position with the needle valve in the appropriate metering position. The
resultant increase of control pressure causes the outflow valves to move to a more closed
position, thereby increasing the cabin pressure. Similarly if high cabin altitude is selected the
beam will move the needle valve to a more open position, control pressure will decrease,
capsule will expand and move the base and needle valve to a new metering position.
Reduction of control pressure will result in a more open position of outflow valve and
decrease cabin pressure. An indicator is provided to indicate the selected cabin altitude.
Indication may also be provided to indicate the corresponding flight altitude at which the
maximum pressure differential will occur.
Rate Control.
It can be seen from the above that the cabin altitude selector can change the altitude by
moving the needle valve to a new metering position. The rate at which the needle valve
moves will decide the rate of change of altitude. Or in other words in order to control the rate,
the cabin altitude selector has to be moved gradually.
A rate control can be incorporated in order to control the rate of change of cabin altitude and
also to limit the minimum and maximum rates of change. High rates of change are
uncomfortable for the occupants and may cause severe pain in ears.
The needle valve is installed on a (rate) diaphragm which is connected to the beam through a
leaf spring. The diaphragm divides the controller into two chambers which are connected by a
bleed air passage through an adjustable restrictor or rate control. Under stabilized conditions
pressure across the rate diaphragm are equal.
The most minimum initial movement of the altitude selector knob tends to move the needle
valve through the beam, leaf spring and rate diaphragm. This causes a change in the control
pressure which in turn builds up a pressure differential across the diaphragm opposing the
diaphragm (and needle valve) movement. The leaf spring between the diaphragm and the
beam absorbs the applied force. The diaphragm movement is controlled by the rate at which
the pressure in the two chambers across it are equalized; that is the amount of opening of the
adjustable restrictor or the position of the rate selector knob. If the selected rate is high, the
pressure will equalize at a fast rate and the diaphragm and the needle valve will move quickly
and the cabin altitude change will be at a high rate. Similarly if the selected rate is low the
cabin altitude will change at a slow rate. This optimum rate of change is between 300 5000
feet per minute. This optimum rate position is normally indicated by a distinguishable mark.
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Barometric Correction.
The pressurization control system is essentially a pressure measuring device calibrated in
feet. The system is based on the so called standard atmosphere that is the pressure existing
at sea level and other altitudes have a definite standard value. Sea level is used as the zero
or reference level and values of standard pressures are given in pounds per square inch (psi)
or inches of mercury (in.Hg) or millibars (mb).
If the cabin altitude is set for the field elevation, the system will maintain the equivalent
standard pressure for that elevation in the cabin. If the ambient is also the same, i.e. standard
pressure, then there will not be any cabin pressure differential; but if the ambient pressure
differential. In order to avoid such situations, barometric correction is provided. The correction
changes the reference level of the system without changing the selector knob position or the
indication of the selected altitude. The pivot point of the beam is moved to change the needle
valve position and hence the cabin altitude as the selected rate. The barometric correction is
calibrated in terms of inches of mercury and/or millibars.
Outflow Valve.
The outflow valve assembly consists of two main sections: a base and outflow valve section
and a control chamber section. A control chamber diaphragm separates the two sections.
The diaphragm is exposed to control chamber pressure on one side and cabin pressure on
the opposite side. The base and outflow valve section consists of a base, a pedestal, a baffle,
a vacuum relief diaphragm and an outflow valve

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Each outflow valve is mounted on the cabin side of the rear pressure bulkhead and
connected to the cabin pressure control unit through pneumatic relays. Regulated air
pressure from the cabin pressure control unit is applied to one side of each relay. Cabin air
flows to the other side of each relay through the orifice in the filter connection of each outflow
valve. Connection of the relays in this manner serves as a pressure regulation which controls
the flow of air from the cabin through the orifice and relay to atmosphere. The resulting air
pressure between the orifices and relays is applied to the control chamber of the outflow
valves.
The outflow valves, responding to the differential between cabin and control chamber
pressures, open or close as required and allow cabin air to flow to atmosphere in the amount
necessary to maintain differential pressure between cabin and atmosphere in accordance
with the setting of the cabin pressure control unit. The primary pressure relief mechanism
operates at a differential pressure higher than the calibrated differential pressure of the cabin
pressure control unit, therefore the pressure relief the mechanisms are normally inoperative
when the outflow valve assembly is used in conjunction with the cabin pressure control unit.
However, if manual pressure control is selected and the pressure relief diaphragm leaks or
becomes ruptured, the secondary pressure relief mechanism will operate and the cabin to
atmosphere differential pressure may decrease slightly. Vacuum relief occurs whenever
atmospheric pressure exceeds cabin pressure. When this condition exists, atmospheric
pressure on the outflow valve side of the vacuum relief diaphragm forces the outflow valve off
its seat, allowing air at atmospheric pressure to enter the cabin.
A cabin altitude limiter may be incorporated in the outflow valve. It consists of an evacuated
bellow, which is in communication with cabin air and a valve attached to it. At low cabin
altitudes the bellow is collapsed and valve is seated. As the cabin altitude increases the
bellow expands and above a predetermined altitude the valve unseats. Cabin air floods the
control chamber of the outflow valve through this open passage and increases the pressure
and the outflow valve begins to close. As the cabin altitude descends the limiter will take a
metering position to limit the cabin altitude at the set level.
Typical Pressure System.
Characteristics.
a) When the aircraft is on ground and with the cabin altitude set for field elevation and
barometric correction made, the cabin pressure will be the same as the ambient
pressure.
b) After takeoff the desired cabin altitude for cruise flight and the desired rate are
selected. If the aircraft climbs at a rate higher than selected rate the cabin will climb at
the selected rate until the selected cabin altitude is reached. If the aircraft climbs at
the same rate as the selected rate or at lower rate than the selected rate then the
cabin will climb at the same rate as the aircraft until the selected cabin altitude is
reached. If the aircraft levels off below the selected cabin altitude the cabin will climb
to the aircraft altitude and then will also level off until the aircraft climbs again.

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c) The cabin altitude will be maintained at the selected level during cruise provided the
maximum pressure differential is not exceeded. If the aircraft climbs further, the cabin
altitude will be maintained at the selected level until the differential pressure limit is
reached and then the cabin will also climb. The rate of cabin climb will be such that
the maximum pressure differential is maintained. In effect the actual cabin climb rate
will be lower than the aircraft climb rate.
d) Before descent, the cabin altitude is set to the landing field elevation and barometric
correction is done. The cabin will descend at the selected rate provided the maximum
pressure differential is not exceeded and will automatically go to the landing field
elevation on touch down.
The pressurization system consists of essentially of the pressure controller working in
conjunction with the outflow valves.
The control signals from the pressure controller may be pneumatic or electrical and the
operation of the outflow valve may be pneumatic or electrical. So the system may be
pneumatically controlled and pneumatically operated
(707 3338C)
or
electrically/electronically controlled and electrically operated (737,727,747,DC 10).

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Cabin Sealing.
During fuselage construction all joining surfaces are assembled with a sealant between them
and all stringers, fittings etc are fillet sealed to ensure that there is no uncontrolled leakage
during pressurization.
Outlets to atmosphere are provided in all toilets and galleys to ensure that no undesirable
odour is recirculated to the cabins.
The radio component racks are also provided with an outlet to atmosphere to ensure
adequate cooling of the units.
All doors, hatches and openings for control cables are provided with air seales.
Fuselage drains on the lower surface of the fuselage are provided with sealing screws which
are removed periodically to drain accumulated fluids, if any and then replaced.
All cables, leads and rods leaving a pressurized section and entering a non pressurized
section should all be sealed.

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BASIC AIR CON SYSTEMS
1. The air supply for most modern large aircraft air conditioning system is obtained
a. From a ram air supply.
b. From air stored in cylinders.
c. From bleed air originating from the gas turbine engine.
d. From pneumatic pumps in the aircraft.
2. The majority of light aircraft air conditioning systems are supplied with
a. Ram air.
b. Bleed air.
c. Stored cylinder air.
d. Recirculated .
3. The air is sometimes heated in a ram air conditioning system by
a. Bleed air heating.
b. Ram air heating.
c. Recirculated heating.
d. Engine exhaust system heating.
4. On larger aircraft types, in an emergency, air for the conditioning supply may be
provided by
a. Air stored in cylinders.
b. Turbine bleed air.
c. Ram air.
d. The auxiliary power unit.
5. Large piston engined aircraft types normally obtain their air conditioning supply
heating from
a. Compressor bleed air.
b. Engine exhaust heating.
c. Recirculated air.
d. A compressor blower system.
6. In a compressor blower air conditioning system the ram air supply enters the system
through an intake usually located at
a. The wing leading edge.
b. The engine compressor.
c. The engine turbine.
d. The engine exhaust.
7. In a bleed air system the rate of air entering the cabin is controlled by
a. The air conditioning valve.
b. The flow control valve.
c. The temperature control valve.
d. The pressure control valve.

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8. In bleed air system

a. Water is added to the just prior to it entering the cabin.
b. Water is added to the air as it enters the bleed air outlet.
c. Water is separated from the air before it enters the cabin.
d. Water is separated from the air within the engine.
9. In a bleed air system the air is cooled after leaving the engine by
a. Ram air only.
b. A water-filled heat exchanger.
c. A heat exchanger and a cold air unit.
d. A cold air unit only.
10. In a compressor blower air conditioning system the blower is
a. Driven by ram air.
b. Driven by the engines.
c. Electrically driven.
d. Hydraulically driven.
11. Air enters the displacement blower air conditioning system from
a. Compressor air bleed.
b. Electrically driven compressors.
c. Ram air intakes.
d. A piston engine driven compressor.
12. In order to reduce noise levels with a displacement blower system
a. Silencers are fitted in the exhaust.
b. Silencers are fitted in the main supply ducting.
c. Nylon bearings are used.
d. Plastic type fans are used.
13. The temperature is controlled within the cabin by
a. The temperature control.
b. The cabin pressure control.
c. The engine bleed control.
d. The cold air control unit.
14. Ventilation air, after passing through the cabin, is discharged to the atmosphere via
a. Outflow valves.
b. Flow control valves.
c. Sonic vents.
d. Spill valves or vents.
15. The heat exchanger in a ram air conditioning system is normally located in
a. The engine intake.
b. The engine exhaust system.
c. The wing.
d. The rear fuselage

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AIR CONDITION COMPONENTS

1. A bleed air heating system obtains a supply of hot air from
a. The compressor stage of the gas turbine engine.
b. The turbine stage of a gas turbine engine.
c. The exhaust duct of a gas turbine engine .
d. The exhaust pipe of a piston engene.
2. Air conditioning heat may be provided on the ground by
a. The engine compressor only.
b. The heat exchangers only.
c. The engine turbines only.
d. The auxiliary power unit.
3. On modern aircraft the APU is
a. A small gas turbine engine.
b. An electrically driven motor.
c. An electrical generator.
d. A petrol driven engine.
4. Combustion heating is heating provided by
a. The compressor of a gas turbine engine.
b. The exhaust system of a piston engine.
c. The heat exchangers.
d. A special heater with its own fuel supply.
5. Compression heating is normally provided by
a. A compressor or gas turbine engine.
b. A compressor only.
c. A gas turbine engine only.
d. A combustion heater only.
6. On small aircraft air cooling for the cabin is provided by
a. A cold air unit.
b. A water separator.
c. Ram air.
d. Recirculated air.
7. In an air cycle cooling system the bleed air is initially cooled by
a. A compressor and turbine unit.
b. The primary heat exchanger.
c. The secondary heat exchanger.
d. The water separator.
8. On entering the cold air is first supplied to the
a. Turbine.
b. Heat exchanger.
c. Intercooler.
d. Compressor.
9. The compressor of the cold air unit of the air cycle system is driven by
a. The engine.
b. Ram air.
c. The turbine.
d. The electric motor.

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10. Within the cold air unit of the air cycle system the turbine causes
a. The air temperature rise.
b. The air to drop in temperature.
c. The air to further compress.
d. The air to accelerate.
11. In a vapour cycle cooling system when the refrigerant leaves the compressor it
passes through
a. The evaporator.
b. The expansion valve.
c. The condenser.
d. The expansion chamber.
12. The condenser of a vapour cycle cooling system
a. Increases the temperature of the refrigerant.
b. Decreases the temperature of the refrigerant.
c. Maintains a constant pressure in the system.
d. Expands the refrigerant causing a rise in temperature.
13. The refrigerant of a vapour cycle cooling system entering the compressor is
a. In vapourized form.
b. In liquid form.
c. In a condensed form.
d. In expanded form.
14. The expansion valve of a vapour cycle cooling system is
a. An integral part of a compressor.
b. An integral part of a condensor.
c. An integral part of a the evaporator.
d. Fitted just prior to the evaporator.
15. In a vapour cycle system the air to be cooled through the evaporator
a. Is first compressed by the compressor.
b. Is blown through by a fan.
c. Flown naturally due to temperature difference.
d. Flows naturally due to pressure difference.

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CABIN PRESSURIZATION
1. The rate of cabin pressure changes during a climb does not normally exceed:
a. 300 feet/minute.
b. 500 feet/minute.
c. 100 feet/minute.
d. 600 feet/minute.
2. During descent the cabin pressure rate of change does not normally exceed:
a. 500 feet/minute.
b. 600 feet/minute.
c. 400 feet/minute.
d. 300 feet/minute.
3. The primary function of the outflow valves is to :
a. Relieve excess cabin pressure in an emergency.
b. Regulate the outflow of used air from the cabin.
c. Directly control the cabin pressure.
d. Seal the cabin in the event of ditching.
4. Air filters are fitted to each outflow valve to:
a. Ensure only pure air enters the cabin.
b. Prevent tobacco tar contaminating the valves.
c. Prevent contaminating of the atmosphere.
d. Prevent water ejection into the slipstream.
5. Safety valves are fitted to permit:
a. Relief of excess positive pressure.
b. Relief of excess negative pressure.
c. Relief of excess positive or negative pressure.
d. Relief of excess humidity.
6. sonic valves are normally fitted to:
a. the cockpit or flight deck areas.
b. The toilet and galley areas.
c. The baggage compartments.
d. Door seals.
7. Isobaric is normally approximately:
a. 5,000 feet.
b. 6,000 feet.
c. 8,000 feet.
d. 10,000 feet.
8. Sonic valves are fitted to:
a. Reduce cabin noise levels.
b. Seal unpressurized areas of the cabin.
c. Control the pressure in the baggage compartments.
d. Reduce leakage as cabin differential pressure increases.
9. Cabin altitude control is achieved by:
a. The load applied to the isobaric capsule.
b. The load applied to the flow control valve.
c. The load applied to the outward vent valves.

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10. Rapid reduction of cabin pressure in an emergency is normally achieved by

operation of :
a. The isobaric capsule or bellows.
b. The safety valve.
c. The sonic valves.
d. The dump control valves.
11. Cabin altitude is the:
a. Actually height the aircraft is above sea level.
b. Actually height the aircraft is above the ground.
c. Differential between cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure.
d. Equivalent altitude above sea level in pressure terms.
12. The outflow valve is controlled by:
a. Manual operation.
b. Electrical signal from a flight deck mounted switch.
c. Pressure signals from the controller.
d. Spring pressure.
13. The dump valves are normally:
a. Pneumatically operated.
b. Electrically operated.
c. Manually operated by a lever assembly.
d. Operated by oil pressure.
14. prior to ditching the:
a. sonic vents must be closed.
b. Outflow valves must be closed.
c. Relay valves must be closed.
d. Air filters must be closed.
15. Legislation requires a maximum cabin altitude of:
a. 10,000 feet.
b. 8,000 feet.
c. 7,000 feet.
d. 14,000 feet.
16. The maximum negative differential pressure for a civil aircraft should not
exceed:
a. 0.5 psi.
b. 0.05 psi.
c. 5.0 psi
d. 0.95 psi.
17. Control of rate of pressure change within the cabin is achieved by:
a. Operation of the outflow valves.
b. Operation of the sonic vents.
c. Operation of the rate valves.
d. Operation of the inflow valve or control valve.
18. The differential pressure:
a. Remains constant up to 10,000 feet.
b. Progressively increases above 500 feet.
c. Progressively increases above 6,000 feet.
d. Progressively increases above 14,000 feet.

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19. Safety valves are:

a. Operated by the pressure controller.
b. A form of pressure relief valve.
c. Operated by the outflow valve.
d. Part of the flow control valve assembly.
20. If the flow of conditioned air is below the set value under pressurized
conditions:
a. The inward relief valve will open.
b. The sonic vents will open.
c. The dump valves will open.
d. The outflow valves will be closed.

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ANNEX A
SAMPLE EXAMS

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PAPER 1
1.
When a high electrical load is noted it means that:

a.
b.
c.
On a free wheel or free turbine engine is the accessory gearbox coupled to:
a.
b.
c.
3.
Stator vanes.
Nozzle guide vanes.
Inlet guide vanes.
What guides air to the axial compressors first set of rotor blades:
a.
b.
c.
7.
Increase CL max.
Decrease stall angle of attack.
Decrease stalling attitude.
What component directs air onto the turbine blades?

a.
b.
c.
6.
HP compressor.
LP compressor.
LP turbine.
Does leading edge slats:

a.
b.
c.
5.
the rotor shaft.

the compressor turbine
the power turbine.
On a fan turbine engine is the fan driven by:

a.
b.
c.
4.
A high voltage load is indicating on a certain bus.

The electrical cycles per second on a specific bus are too
There is a high amperage on a bus.
Stator vanes.
Nozzle guide vanes.
Inlet guide vanes.
To achieve higher thrust values on high pressure ratio engines, the exhaust duct
can be made:
a.
b.
c.
Convergent.
Divergent.
Convergent/divergent.

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8.
On a turbo fan engine the majority of the thrust is produced by the:

a.
b.
c.
9.
Which type of compressor is most likely to sustain damage due to injection of

foreign matter?
a.
b.
c.
10.
Directly to mass flow and directly to TAS.

Indirectly to mass flow and directly to TAS.
Directly to mass flow and indirectly to TAS.
Does overall efficiency of a gas turbine engine:

a.
b.
c.
14.
HP turbine air.
HP compressor air.
The hottest LP compressor air.
Thrust is related:
a.
b.
c.
13
Outflow valve.
Pressure relief valve.
Cockpit pressurization controller, outflow valve and pressure relief
valve.
The intake shroud of a turbine fan engine is heated for anti-ice purposes by:
a.
b.
c.
12.
Axial
Centrifugal.
Centrifugal/axial.
The cabin pressure ratio is controlled by:

a.
b.
c.
11.
Combustion gasses.
By pass flow.
High velocity exhaust gasses.
Increase with altitude while thrust decreases.

Decreases with altitude.
Remains the same because TAS increases at a rate which compensates
for the loss of the thrust.
The turbine N1 is actually indicated on the instrument as:

a.
b.
c.
Turbine RPM.
Compressor RPM.
Compressor percentage RPM.

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15.
An a/c flying through the transonic speed range will suffer from tuck under.
This is caused by:
a.
b.
c.
16.
An a/c will be most susceptible to Dutch roll when it has:

a.
b.
c.
17.
c.
At low power settings.

At high power settings.
At all power settings.
In a pressurized aircraft the differential pressure equals:

a.
b.
c.
21.
Warn the pilot of the onset of a stall.

Shake the stick as the a/c stalls to indicate to the pilot to ease forward
on stick.
Shake the stick above a certain body angle to indicate to the pilot that a
lower attitude is required.
When engine air bleeds are used for air conditioning purposes, the bleeds
remain open:
a.
b.
c.
20.
Pitch nose down and likely to roll.

Pitch nose up and CP moves forward.
Pitch nose down as CP moves back at the stall.
A stick shaker device is used to:

a.
b.
19.
A high wing loading, at high altitude and has sweepback

A low wing loading, high alt, at high speed.
A high wing loading, low alt, low speed.
When a swept wing a/c stalls conventionally it will:

a.
b.
c.
18.
Forward movement of CP as the a/c accelerates

Rearward movement of CP and increase in down wash.
Rearward movement of CP and decrease in down wash.
Aircraft altitude divided by cabin altitude and increases as the aircraft

descends.
Cabin pressure in relation to outside pressure and increases as the
aircraft climbs.
Cabin pressure in relation to outside pressure and decreases as the
aircraft climbs.
Cabin altitude in a pressurized cabin is controlled by:

a.
b.
c.
Controlling the amount of inflowing air.

Controlling both the inflow and outflow of air to the cabin.
Controlling the amount of out flowing air.

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22.
In a pressurization system the cooling effect of air entering the cabin is allowed
for by:
a.
b.
c.
23.
If the maximum differential was reached during the climb in a pressurized

aircraft it could be corrected by:
a.
b.
c.
24.
Closes the outflow valve slightly.

Opens the outflow valve slightly.
Opens the relief valve slightly.
Cabin differential is:

a.
b.
c.
28.
to prevent excessive internal pressures.

to prevent excessive external pressures.
to prevent both excessive internal as well as external pressures.
If the fuselage of an aircraft has a slight leak. pressurization is maintained by the

action of the pressurization controller which:
a.
b.
c.
27.
The cabin pressure is reduced (compared with ambient).

The cabin pressure is increased (compared with ambient).
ambient pressure is increased.
Safety devices are required in cabin pressurization systems:

a.
b.
c.
20.
Increasing the aircraft altitude.

Increasing the cabin altitude.
closing the outflow valves.
In a pressurized aircraft differential pressure is produced when:

a.
b.
c.
25.
A water separator.
An outflow valve.
A pack valve.
The difference between cabin altitude and aircraft altitude and is usually
negative.
The difference between cabin pressure and ambient pressure and is
usually positive.
The difference between cabin pressure and ambient pressure and is
negative.
In an aircraft with a pressured cabin, differential pressure is obtained by:

a.
b.
c.
Increasing the pressure in the cabin.

Decreasing ambient pressure.
Increasing ambient pressure.

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29.
When a cabin altitude in a pressurized aircraft decreases with aircraft altitude

remaining constant:
a.
b.
c.
30.
The advantage of a moveable tail plane on a high-speed a/c is:

a.
b.
c.
31.
Inlet velocity, jet velocity, exhaust pressure

Fuel flow, fuel pressure.
Fuel flow, mass flow, compression ratio.
Turbo prop engine can be efficient up to:

a.
b.
c.
35.
Yaw and roll

Pitch and yaw.
Pitch and roll.
Thrust in a turbine engine depends on:

a.
b.
c.
34.
Convergent.
Divergent.
Parallel to provide non-turbulent air to the compressor.
Dutch roll is a result of

a.
b.
c.
33.
Less drag, more rigid, less flutter.

Only used when downward force is required on the tail plane.
That servo trimmers can be used when tail is moveable.
The intake of a turbine engine is:

a.
b.
c.
32.
The outflow control valve is opened to increase the outflow of cabin

air.
The outflow control valve is closed partly to decrease the outflow of
cabin air.
Some systems will increase the outflow while decreasing the inflow.
400 kts.
250 kts.
600 kts.
The fan in an engine with a bypass ratio of 5:1 is responsible for:

a.
b.
c.
23 %
50 %.
75 % of the thrust.

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36.
The purpose of vortex generators in the transonic speed range is to:

a.
b.
c.
37.
The major effects on an a/c during the shock stall are caused due to:
a.
b.
c.
38
No increase in RPM all other indications normal.

Slow increase or static RPM and a rice in ITT.
Rise in ITT with slow increase in RPM and no fuel flow.
Span wise flow on a swept wing can be reduced by:

a.
b.
c.
43.
Less drag at low Mach no. more drag at high Mach. no.
More drag at low Mach No. less drag at high Mach no.
More drag at low and high Mach no.
An indication of a hung start is:

a.
b.
c.
42.
Increases tip stalling tendency.

Induces root stalling.
Delays root stalling.
A swept wing has:

a.
b.
c.
41.
Increases slightly.
Decreases slightly.
Increases radically.
Leading edge spoiler at the root of the wing:

a.
b.
c.
40.
The increase in pressure, density and temp associated with shock

waves.
The sudden decrease in airflow speed behind the shock wave.
The reward movement of the CP and reduction in down wash.
When an a/c goes through Mcrit the drag co-efficient:

a.
b.
c.
39.
Delay the formation of shockwaves.

Ensure the boundary layer stays attached to the trailing edge of the
wing.
Create a lower Mcrit
Using Vortex generators and saw tooth leading edge.

Using less taper towards the wing tip.
Using washout.
The purpose of nozzle guide vanes is to:

a.
b.
c.
Increase speed of air flow as well as change its direction.

Reduce speed of flow so the pressure of the air can increase to drive the
turbine.
Straighten airflow before the turbine.

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44.
During compression in a turbine the greatest increase in pressure per stage will
take place through:
a.
b.
c.
45.
The helical motion or excessive whirl or exhaust gasses in a turbine engine:

a.
b.
c.
46.
c.
To ensure that ice never forms on the windscreen.

To make the window flexible and so prevent shattering during bird
strikes.
Because the system is on all the time and can not be switched off.
What is the definition of Vref

a.
b.
c.
50.
of environmental reasons.
lack of thrust.
drag increases and fuel burn would not be economical.
The main reason for using windscreen heat all the time in a high-speed airliner
is:
a.
b.
49.
Tail plane must have more sweep than the main plane.
Must have less sweepback and greater incidence than the main plane.
Less sweep and more camber.
A subsonic jetliner does not exceed Mcrit because:

a.
b.
c.
48.
Is normal and cannot be excluded.

Is necessary.
Has a detrimental effect on thrust.
To reduce the effect of longitudinal instability at the shock stall on a T-Tail a/c
the:
a.
b.
c.
47.
Centrifugal compressor.
Axial flow compressor.
Both.
1.3 Vso.
1.3 VSTALL.
1.3 APP
During what segment will the W.A.T. limit apply for the T/O:
a.
b.
c.
1st segment.
2nd segment.
3rd segment.

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PAPER 2
1.
In the event of a flame-out in flight the best chance of obtaining a satisfactory

re-light is assured by:
a)
b)
c)
2.
Lubrication oil in a gas turbine is:

a)
b)
c)
3.
Needle and plain bearings.

Plain and ball bearings.
Ball and roller bearings.
With a free turbine engine there is:

a)
b)
c)
7.
Needle and plain bearings.

Plain and ball bearings.
Ball and roller bearings.
With a free turbine engine there is:

a)
b)
c)
6.
Is restarted.
Fails to start.
Starts but fails to accelerate.
A compressor shaft is supported by:

a)
b)
c)
5.
Synthetic.
Vegetable.
A mixture of vegetable and petroleum by-products.
An engine hot start is when it:

a)
b)
c)
4.
re-lighting as soon as possible

delaying the re-light to achieve a stipulated turbine temperature;
delaying the re-light for a stipulated time to allow the pressure in the
combustion chamber to decrease.
No mechanical link between (power) turbine and out) shaft.

No mechanical link between (gas producer) compressor and output
shaft.
a free wheel between (gas producer) compressor and output shaft.
An extinguishant contained in engine fire bottles is:

a)
b)
c)
Water glycol.
Carbon dioxide.
Methyl bromide.

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8.
With increasing forward speed ram air effect will cause gas turbine efficiency
to:
a)
b)
c)
9.
Cascade vanes are designed to:

a)
b)
c)
10.
Non toxic.
Only toxic after use.
Highly toxic.
The maximum engine RPM setting is controlled by:

a)
b)
c)
14.
An electrically driven fan.

An ejector duct.
No special provision.
Synthetic oil in turbine engines contain additives that are:

a)
b)
c)
13.
Increase engine efficiency.

Prevent ice crystals forming in the fuel which would block the LP filter.
Prevent air intake icing.
A gas turbine engine that is running is cooled, when the aircraft is stationary on
the ground, by:
a)
b)
c)
12.
Prevent energy loss while airflow is directed around a corner.

Prevent compressor surge.
Remove swirl format he exhaust gas.
Fuel heating is to:

a)
b)
c)
11.
Decrease.
Not change.
Increase.
An auxiliary throttle valve which is then partially closed and the

pressure drop spill valve opens to reduce the fuel flow to the atomizers
nozzles.
A speed sensing device located on the HP compressor sending a signal
to the FCU.
A limiting device in the LP FCU which senses the overspeed, closes the
pressure drop spill valve, and thus reduces the fuel flow to the
atomizers.
The vanes between the combustion and turbine sections are:

a)
b)
c)
Parallel.
Convergent.
Divergent.

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15.
Fuel is heated to:

a)
b)
c)
16.
A CSD unit, which has been disconnected in flight:

a)
b)
c)
17.
Can be reconnected in flight.

Can only be reconnected on the ground.
Cannot be used again and must be replaced.
Oil from the engine is filtered by:

a)
b)
c)
18.
Improve fuel flow.

Prevent icing of LP filter.
Improve thermal efficiency.
Scavenge filter?
Pressure filter?
Oil tank stack filter?
Scavenge pump supplies oil at pressure

a)
b)
c)
Higher than pressure pump?

Same as pressure pump?
Lower than pressure pump?

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Revision : 1/1/2001

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Version 4
ANNEX B
ANSWERS

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Chapter 1
Aerodynamic Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
C
A
A
A
B
B
B
A
B
C
C
B
C
A
C
A
C
C
B
C
B
C
B
B
B
B
C
B
C
C
A
B
A
A
B
C

ATP DOC 01
Revision : 1/1/2001
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
B
A
B
A
B
B
B
C
A
B
C
C
A
C
B
C
B
A
A
C
C
B
B
B
C
C
B
A
C
A
B
C
A
B
C

Page 294
Version 4
Supersonic Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A
A
B
C
B
B
A
A
A
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
B
B
B
B
C
A
A
B
B
High Speed Wing Questions

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A
B
A
B
C
C
A
A
A
Swept Wing Questions

1.
2.
3.
4.
C
C
B
B
Stability Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
B
B
A
B
C
A
A
C
B
A
B

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Chapter 3
Gas Turbine Engine Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
A
A
A
B
A
A
C
A
A
B
B
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
A
A
B
B
B
A
C
A
C
A
A
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
A
C
C
A
B
A
C
C
Air Intake Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
B
A
C
A
Compressor Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A
B
C
C
B
A
B
A
C

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Combustion Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
C
B
A
C
B
C
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
C
A
A
B
C
B
Chapter 5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
C
A
B
A
B
C
C
B
C
A
B
B
C
B
C

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Revision : 1/1/2001

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Version 4
Paper 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
C
C
C
A
B
C
C
B
A
C
B
A
A
C
C
A
B
A
C
B
C
C
B
B
C

ATP DOC 01
Revision : 1/1/2001
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
A
A
C
A
C
C
B
B
B
A
A
A
C
A
C
B
A
B

Page 298
Version 4
Paper 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
A
A
C
C
B
B
C
C
a

ATP DOC 01
Revision : 1/1/2001
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
B
B
C
B
B
B
B
A
c

Page 299
Version 4

FTC ATG Notes &amp; Questions

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TECHNICAL & GENERAL

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

This book should be used in conjunction with the

Copyright 2001 Flight Training College of Africa

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Characteristics of the Atmosphere

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

constant (for that particular gas)

where p = pressure in hPa, T = temperature absolute (K) and = density

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

The pattern of the airflow around an aircraft at low to moderate speeds

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

kinetic energy due to the velocity of the air;

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Leading edge radius is a measure of the sharpness of the leading edge.

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CAS = IAS PEC + IE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

condition of the wing surface;

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

The boundary layer

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

R where = density, V = TAS, L = chord length, = viscosity

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Surface friction drag

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

wing shape, particularly planform

ATP Technical & General

FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Effect of lift and weight

FTC ATG Notes & Questions

FTC ATG Notes & Questions