DOCTORAL COURSE ON ANALYSIS OF THE

ELECTRICITY QUALITY OF SERVICE

POWER QUALITY: BASICS AND DEFINITIONS

Author: Toms Gmez San Romn
November 2006

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

 UPCO
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Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

CONTENTS
1

QUALITY OF SUPPLY ..............................................................................................4

POWER QUALITY .....................................................................................................4

VOLTAGE DISTURBANCE DEFINITIONS ...............................................................8

VOLTAGE SUPPLY CHARACTERISTICS .............................................................11

4.1

Supply voltage variations ................................................................................. 11

4.2

Rapid voltage changes ...................................................................................... 12

4.3

Supply voltage dips ............................................................................................ 12

4.4

Short interruptions of the supply voltage..................................................... 13

4.5

Harmonic voltage ................................................................................................ 13

LIMITS TO DISTURBANCE EMISSIONS................................................................14

CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................17

REFERENCES .........................................................................................................17

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

1 Quality of supply
Regulated utilities should strike an optimal balance between their investment and
operation and maintenance costs on the one hand and the quality of supply provided to
consumers on the other. In the event of electricity distributors, there is a clear relationship
between investment and maintenance costs and quality of supply. The higher the cost and
investment the better the service quality, and vice-versa.
From the standpoint of electric power supply, quality of service is characterized by
three different properties:
Continuity of supply, measured in number and duration of outages or supply
interruptions.
Quality of the product or voltage quality, power quality, measured in terms of
the disturbances affecting the ideal voltage wave parameters: variations in voltage
magnitude, periodic oscillations in voltage, harmonics, voltage dips, brief or microoutages (lasting less than 3 minutes) and so on.
Customer support, measured by indicators such as the time taken to process and
act on customer applications for service, time taken to respond to complaints about
poor quality, number of bills based on estimated - in lieu of actual - readings, and
so on.
The rest of this chapter addresses power quality issues in greater detail.

Power Quality
The other technical property of electricity associated with the quality of the power

supplied is known as power quality or quality of the product. The voltage wave delivered
by the distributor to each customer at their supply points should meet certain ideal
requirements, defined with respect to the following characteristics: magnitude relative to
the nominal supply voltage, for instance 230 V for residential consumers in Europe;
Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

frequency, 50 Hz in Europe; wave shape conformity to sine wave; and symmetry

between the three phases in the event of three-phase supply. These characteristics that
define the product are subject to disturbance which, if substantial, may cause the system
or the equipment connected to it to malfunction. The most common types of
electromagnetic disturbance appearing in electric power distribution grids include:
harmonics, periodic or non-periodic voltage oscillations, voltage dips and overvoltages.
The objective pursued with respect to power quality is known as electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC). EMC is defined to be the ability of a device, apparatus or system to
satisfactorily operate in its electromagnetic environment without causing intolerable
electromagnetic disturbance. In this regard, there are two sides to any device or system:

EMISSION: of voltage, currents or electromagnetic fields that may potentially

cause disturbance.

SUSCEPTIBILITY: to the adverse effects of electromagnetic disturbance.

The EMC level for each type of disturbance is defined as the level of disturbance at which
there is an acceptable probability of EMC. This level may be exceeded during only a small
percentage of the time (usually under 5%).

The following figure shows how, for a given type of disturbance, compatibility can be
achieved between the emissions from the devices and equipment causing the disturbance
(curve on the left of the figure) and the susceptibility levels that ensure proper system
operation (curve on the right of the figure), by setting the EMC level to standards
endorsed by international bodies, in particular the International Electrotechnical
Commission or IEC.

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

International
bodiess

IEC
CENELEC
UNIPEDE

Standards defining
wave quality

Distributors

Equipment
Manufacturers

Control of users
with disturbance
equipment

Product quality.
Verification tests

Probability
function
Level of
system
disturbance
Equipment
Immunity levels

Disturbance
level
"Emision ceiling"
for disturbance
equipment

"Immunity ceiling"
"ECM level"

Planning levels
(Company in-house
quality targets)

Figure 1. EMC levels and emission and susceptibility limits for one type of disturbance.

The characteristics associated with power quality and disturbances are therefore
regulated at the following levels:

Co-ordination committees define the EMC levels laid down in international

standards.

Product committees establish equipment susceptibility requirements to be

met by manufacturers.

Distribution companies set emission limits and divide them among users
running electric facilities and appliances.

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

Industrial users specify and design their facilities to comply with emission
and susceptibility limits.

Manufacturers of small electrical appliances for residential or commercial

use must meet standards that limit the grid disturbance caused by their
machinery.

In the European Union, CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical

Standardisation) standard EN-50.160, compliance with which is mandatory in the Member
States, seeks to standardise the definition of the electricity product. Among others, it
specifies disturbance ceilings at customers service connections. For most disturbances,
such ceilings generally concur with the EMC levels established by IEC standards. Due to
the random nature of disturbance, the compliance criterion is established in terms of
testing or measurement time, which is usually one week. The established ceilings may not
be exceeded during 95% of that time. One important exception to this rule has to do with
voltage dips: the standard contains mere recommendations on the acceptable frequency
for this sort of disturbance in grids.
IEC standard 61000-4-30, in turn, specifies the procedures and instruments required
to measure disturbance levels in grids and at points of supply. In general, the IEC 61000X-XX family of standards regulates the many different aspects of electromagnetic
compatibility.
From the regulatory standpoint, distributors are required to comply with these
standards and solve any problems arising within a certain time frame; otherwise, financial
penalties are imposed to prevent problems from becoming perennial. In another vein,
certain kinds of disturbance, such as flicker or harmonics, are directly caused by customer
equipment. Distributors may impose certain disturbance emission limits in such cases and
fine customers failing to honour these limits, or, if the problem persists, interrupt their
power supply.

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

Voltage disturbance definitions

In this section, the voltage disturbances more relevant to characterize power quality

aspects are defined following the European Standard EN 50160.

voltage variation: increase or decrease of voltage normally due to load variations
rapid voltage change: single rapid variation of the r.m.s. value of a voltage between two
consecutive levels which are sustained for definite but unspecified durations
voltage fluctuation: series of voltage changes or a cyclic variation of the voltage
envelope
flicker: impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus whose
luminance or spectral distribution fluctuates with time
NOTE Voltage fluctuation causes changes of the luminance of lamps which can create the visual
phenomenon called flicker. Above a certain threshold flicker becomes annoying. The annoyance
grows very rapidly with the amplitude of the fluctuation. At certain repetition rates even very small
amplitudes can be annoying.

flicker severity: intensity of flicker annoyance defined by the UIE-IEC flicker measuring
method and evaluated by the following quantities:

short term severity (Pst) measured over a period of ten minutes;

long term severity (Plt) calculated from a sequence of 12 Pst-values over a two
hour interval, according to the following expression:

The following curve shows the level of short term flicker severity corresponding to a value
of Pst = 1. This value is considered as the limit of acceptable disturbance (compatibility
level).

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

Figure 2- ECM level, Pst=1, in LV distribution networks (Standard IEC 61000-2-2).

supply voltage dip: sudden reduction of the supply voltage to a value between 90 % and
1 % of the declared voltage Uc followed by a voltage recovery after a short period of time.
Conventionally the duration of a voltage dip is between 10 ms and 1 min. The depth of a
voltage dip is defined as the difference between the minimum r.m.s. voltage during the
voltage dip and the declared voltage. Voltage changes which do not reduce the supply
voltage to less than 90 % of the declared voltage Uc are not considered to be dips
supply interruption: condition in which the voltage at the supply terminals is lower than 1
% of the declared voltage, Uc. A supply interruption can be classified as

prearranged, when network users are informed in advance, to allow the execution
of scheduled works on the distribution network, or

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

accidental, caused by permanent or transient faults, mostly related to external

events, equipment failures or interference. An accidental interruption is classified
as:
o

a long interruption (longer than three minutes);

a short interruption (up to three minutes).

NOTE 1 The effect of a prearranged interruption can be minimized by the network users by taking
appropriate measures.
NOTE 2 Accidental supply interruptions are unpredictable, largely random events.

harmonic voltage: sinusoidal voltage with a frequency equal to an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency of the supply voltage. Harmonic voltages can be evaluated

individually by their relative amplitude (Uh) related to the fundamental voltage U1,
where h is the order of the harmonic,

globally, for example by the total harmonic distortion factor THD, calculated using
the following expression:

NOTE Harmonics of the supply voltage are caused mainly by network users non-linear loads
connected to all voltage levels of the supply network. Harmonic currents flowing through the network
impedance give rise to harmonic voltages. Harmonic currents and network impedances and thus the
harmonic voltages at the supply terminals vary in time.

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

10

Voltage supply characteristics

According to the European Standard EN 50.160, Distribution network operators

(DNO) should supply the voltage at the network users supply terminals in public low and
medium voltage electricity distribution networks, meeting the limits or values within which
the voltage characteristics can be expected to remain.
In this section, the admissible variation ranges for those voltage characteristics more
representative are set.

4.1 Supply voltage variations

For low-voltage networks, the voltage variation should not exceed 10 %.
Situations like those arising from faults or voltage interruptions, the circumstances of
which are beyond the reasonable control of the parties, are excluded.
Under normal operating conditions,

during each period of one week 95 % of the 10 min mean r.m.s. values of the
supply voltage shall be within the range of Un 10 %, and

all 10 min mean r.m.s. values of the supply voltage shall be within the range of Un
+ 10 % / - 15 %.

NOTE In cases of electricity supplies in remote areas with long lines or not connected to a large
interconnected network, the voltage could be outside the range of Un + 10 % / - 15 %. Network users
should be informed of the conditions.

For medium voltage networks, during each period of one week, 95 % of the 10 min mean
r.m.s. values of the supply voltage shall be within the range of Uc 10 %. Where the
declared supply voltage Uc is normally the nominal voltage Un of the distribution
Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

11

network. If by agreement between the DNO and the network user a voltage different from
the nominal voltage is applied to the terminal, then this voltage is the declared supply
voltage Uc.

4.2 Rapid voltage changes

Single rapid voltage change. A rapid voltage change of the supply voltage is mainly
caused either by load changes in network users installations or by switching in the
system.
Under normal operating conditions, in LV networks, a rapid voltage change generally
does not exceed 5 % Un but a change of up to 10 % Un with a short duration might occur
some times per day in some circumstances.
NOTE A negative voltage change resulting in a voltage less than 90 % Un is considered a supply
voltage dip.

Under normal operating conditions, in MV networks, rapid voltage changes generally do

not exceed 4 % Uc but changes of up to 6 % Uc with a short duration might occur some
times per day in some circumstances.

Flicker severity. Under normal operating conditions, in any period of one week the long
term flicker severity caused by voltage fluctuation should be Plt 1 for 95 % of the time.
NOTE Reaction to flicker is subjective and can vary depending on the perceived cause of the flicker
and the period over which it persists. In some cases Plt = 1 gives rise to annoyance, whereas in other
cases higher levels of Plt are found without annoyance.

4.3 Supply voltage dips

Voltage dips are generally caused by faults occurring in the network users installations or
in the public distribution network. They are unpredictable, largely random events. The
annual frequency varies greatly depending on the type of supply system and on the point
of observation. Moreover, the distribution over the year can be very irregular.

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

12

Indicative values:
Under normal operating conditions the expected number of voltage dips in a year may be
from up to a few tens to up to one thousand. The majority of voltage dips have a duration
less than 1 s and a retained voltage greater than 40 %. However, voltage dips with greater
depth and duration can occur infrequently. In some areas voltage dips with a retained
voltage between 85 % and 90 % of Un can occur very frequently as a result of the
switching of loads in network users installations.

4.4 Short interruptions of the supply voltage

Indicative values:
Under normal operating conditions the annual occurrence of short interruptions of the
supply voltage ranges from up to a few tens to up to several hundreds. The duration of
approximately 70 % of the short interruptions may be less than one second.
NOTE In some documents short interruptions are considered as having durations not exceeding one
minute. But sometimes control schemes are applied which need operating times of up to three minutes
in order to avoid long voltage interruptions.

4.5 Harmonic voltage

Under normal operating conditions, during each period of one week, 95 % of the 10 min
mean r.m.s. values of each individual harmonic voltage shall be less than or equal to the
value given in Table 1. Resonances may cause higher voltages for an individual
harmonic.
Moreover, the THD of the supply voltage (including all harmonics up to the order 40) shall
be less than or equal to 8 %.
NOTE The limitation to order 40 is conventional.

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

13

Limits to disturbance emissions

The aim of imposing limits to the disturbances emitted by apparatus, equipment and
installations is to guarantee that the specified ECM levels are verified, therefore facilitating
that DNO can ensure the adequate voltage characteristics at the users network supply
terminals as it is required by EN 50160.
For apparatus and electrical devices connected to LV networks the emission limits are set
at individual basis. Manufacturers of such type of equipment must meet the specific
standard requirements. The IEC standards 61000-3-(2, 3, 4 y 5) establish the emission
limits for harmonics and flicker that can be emitted by domestic appliances and similar
electrical equipment with the following characteristics:

A.C. single-phase or three-phase supply

Connected to A.C. low voltage networks (single-phase Un 240 V, or threephase Un 415 V, f=50 Hz).

Heating and cooking appliances

Appliances motor driven or with magnetic motion

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

14

Tools and other electrical hardware

TV and radio sets

In case of users with industrial installations or special electrical equipment connected to

public distribution networks, DNO apply guidelines in order to evaluate if the particular
user meet the emission limits requirements. These guidelines and recommendations
usually are elaborated by DSO as internal guides that are mainly based on international
IEC standards and reports. For instance, standards IEC 61000-3-6 and 7 set guidelines
and procedures to impose emission limits for harmonics and flicker to industrial
installations. These guidelines follow an evaluation process to evaluate the application for
connection of a new customer similar to the one shown in next Figure.

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

15

Disturbance
equipment
data

Supply
Network
data

ASSESSMENT
OF THE IMPACT
ON VOLTAGE
CHARACTERISTICS

EMC planning
levels

Criteria to share
global emission limits
among network users

Compute the
allowance
emission limit

Compute the
disturbance
emission

YES
<?

NO

CORRECTIVE
ACTIONS TO
LIMIT EMISSIONS

CONNECTION
ACCEPTANCE
AFTER CONNECTION
Measurement
control to verify
actual emissions

Figure 3. Evaluation of new connection applications of potential disturbance installations

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

16

Conclusions
Regulation of power quality aims to ensure adequate EMC levels in electricity

networks together with apparatus, devices and equipment connected to them.

Power quality is defined by a set of voltage characteristics that should be within a
set of admissible range variations in normal operating conditions. The most relevant
voltage disturbances that affect voltage characteristics are voltage variations, voltage dips
and short supply interruptions, and harmonic voltages.
The European standard EN 50.160 establishes the voltage characteristics that
should be met by DNOs when supplying electricity to users connected to public LV and
MV distribution networks. For voltage variations, flicker, and harmonic voltages, the
standard sets maximum ranges under specific measurement conditions that should be
met by DNOs. However, for voltage dips and short interruptions the standard only
provides indicative values that in normal operating conditions can be found in supply
terminals, with no specification of admissible maximum ranges.
Distribution network operators (DNO) in order to control voltage characteristics at
supply connection terminals should check that disturbance emission limits are complied
by disturbance customers or installations. In case a particular installation emits higher
emissions than the allowance, the disturbance customer should implement corrective
actions, such as harmonic filters or dynamic voltage compensators, to decrease the
disturbance emission level before the connection to the network can be approved by the
DNO.
In case of electrical appliances, emission limits should be verified by manufacturers
in order to meet the requirements imposed by corresponding IEC standards before those
devices can be approved to be marketed and sold in the European Union market.

References
International Electrotechnical Commission. International Standard - IEC 61000-2-2,
"Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)- Part 2: Environment - Section 2: Compatibility

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

17

levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in public low-voltage

power supply systems", 1990. (Also EN 61000-2-2, 2002)

International Electrotechnical Commission. Report IEC-CEI 868, "Flickermeter.

Functional and design specifications", 1986

EN 61000-4-15, "Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)- Part 4-15: Testing and

measurement techniques Flickermeter Functional and design specifications ",
2003. (IEC 61000-4-15:1997 + A1:2003)

International Electrotechnical Commission. International Standard - CEI 61000-4-7,

"Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)- Part 4: Testing and measurement techniques
Section 7: General guide on harmonics and interharmonics measurements and
instrumentation, for power supply systems and equipment connected thereto", 1991.

EN 61000-4-30, "Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)- Part 4-30: Testing and

measurement techniques Power quality measurement methods (IEC 61000-430:2003).

International Electrotechnical Commission. International Standard - IEC 61000-3-3,

"Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 3: Limits -

Section 3: Limitation

of voltage

fluctuations and flicker in low-voltage supply systems for equipment with rated current
<= 16 A ", 1994.

International

Electrotechnical

Commission.

Technical

Report - IEC 61000-3-5,

"Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 3: Limits - Section 5: Limitation of voltage

fluctuations and flicker in low-voltage supply systems for equipment with rated current
greater than 16 A ", 1994.

International Electrotechnical Commission. International Standard - IEC 61000-3-2,

"Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 3: Limits - Section 2: Limits for harmonic current
emissions (equipment input current <= 16 A per phase)", 1995.

International Electrotechnical Commission. International Standard - IEC 61000-3-4,

"Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 3: Limits - Section 2: Limits for harmonic current
emissions (equipment input current greater than 16 A per phase)", 1995.

International Electrotechnical Commission. Technical Report (type 2) - IEC 61000-3-6,

"Electromagnetic compatibility - Part 3: Limits - Section 6: Limitation of emission of
harmonic currents for equipments

connected to medium and high voltage power

supply systems", 1995.

Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution systems

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

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CENELEC, Norma Europea EN50160. November 94. Also as Spanish Standard UNEEN 50.160. (Version final draft prEN 50160, October 2006 will supersede EN
50160:1999)

Universidad Pontificia Comillas. Doctoral Course on Analysis of the electricity quality of service.
Power quality.: basics and definitions

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