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Sunday,September23,2007
AFRMS
37thCommon
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zoologygeneticdrift
Geneticdrift
Inpopulationgenetics,geneticdrift(ormorepreciselyallelicdrift)isthestatisticaleffectthat
resultsfromtheinfluencethatchancehasonthesurvivalofalleles(variantsofagene).Theeffect
maycauseanallele,andthebiologicaltraitthatitconfers,tobecomemorecommonorrareover
successivegenerations.Ultimately,thedriftmayeitherremovetheallelefromthegenepoolor
removeallotheralleles.Whereasnaturalselectionisthetendencyofbeneficialallelestobecome
morecommonovertime(anddetrimentaloneslesscommon),geneticdriftisthefundamental
tendencyofanyalleletovaryrandomlyinfrequencyovertimeduetostatisticalvariationalone,so
longasitdoesnotcompriseallornoneofthedistribution.
Chanceaffectsthecommonalityorrarityofanallele,becausenotraitguaranteessurvivalofagiven
numberofoffspring.Thisisbecausesurvivaldependsonnongeneticfactors(suchasthepossibility
ofbeinginthewrongplaceatthewrongtime).Inotherwords,evenwhenindividualsfacethesame
odds,theywilldifferintheirsuccess.Araresuccessionofchanceeventsratherthannatural
selectioncanthusbringatraittopredominance,causingapopulationorspeciestoevolve.
Animportantaspectofgeneticdriftisthatitsrateisexpectedtodependstronglyonpopulationsize
asaconsequenceofthelawoflargenumbers.Whenmanyindividualscarryaparticularallele,and
allfaceequalodds,thenumberofoffspringtheycollectivelyproducewillonlyslightlydifferfromthe
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expectedvalue,whichistheexpectedaverageperindividualtimesthenumberofindividuals.But
withasmalleffectivebreedingsize,adeparturefromthenorminoneindividualcausesa
disproportionatelygreaterdeviationfromtheexpectedresult.Thereforesmallpopulationsaresubject
tomoredriftthanlargeones.Thisisalsothebasisforthefoundereffect,aproposedmechanismof
speciation.
Bydefinition,geneticdrifthasnopreferreddirection.Aneutralallelemaybeexpectedtoincreaseor
decreaseinanygivengenerationwithequalprobability.Givensufficientlylongtime,however,the
mathematicsofgeneticdrift(cf.GaltonWatsonprocess)predicttheallelewilleitherdieoutorbe
presentin100%ofthepopulation,afterwhichtimethereisnorandomvariationintheassociated
gene.Thusgeneticdrifttendstosweepgenevariantsoutofapopulationovertime,suchthatall
membersofaspecieswouldeventuallybehomozygousforthisgene.Inthisregard,geneticdrift
opposesgeneticmutationwhichintroducesnovelvariantsintothepopulationaccordingtoitsown
randomprocesses.
Allelefrequencies
Fromtheperspectiveofpopulationgenetics,driftisa"samplingeffect."Toillustrate:onaverage,
coinsturnupheadsortailswithequalprobability.Yetjustafewtossesinarowareunlikelyto
produceheadsandtailsinequalnumber.Thenumbersarenomorelikelytobeexactlyequalfor
manytossesinarow,butthediscrepancyinnumbercanbeverysmall(inpercentageterms).Asan
example,tentossesturnupatleast70%headsaboutonceineverysixtries,butthechanceofa
hundredtossesinarowproducingatleast70%headsisonlyaboutonein25,000.
Similarly,inabreedingpopulation,ifanallelehasafrequencyofp,probabilitytheorydictatesthat(if
naturalselectionisnotacting)inthefollowinggeneration,afractionpofthepopulationwillinherit
thatparticularallele.However,aswiththecointossabove,allelefrequenciesinrealpopulationsare
notprobabilitydistributionsrather,theyarearandomsample,andarethussubjecttothesame
statisticalfluctuations(samplingerror).
Whentheallelesofagenedonotdifferwithregardtofitness,onaveragethenumberofcarriersin
onegenerationisproportionaltothenumberofcarriersinthepreviousgeneration.Buttheaverageis
nevertallied,becauseeachgenerationparentsthenextoneonlyonce.Thereforethefrequencyofan
alleleamongtheoffspringoftendiffersfromitsfrequencyintheparentgeneration.Intheoffspring
generation,theallelemightthereforehaveafrequencyp',slightlydifferentfromp.Inthissituation,
theallelefrequenciesaresaidtohavedrifted.Notethatthefrequencyofthealleleinsubsequent
generationswillnowbedeterminedbythenewfrequencyp',meaningthatdriftisamemoryless
processandmaybemodeledasaMarkovprocess.
Asinthecointossexampleabove,thesizeofthebreedingpopulation(theeffectivepopulationsize)
governsthestrengthofthedrifteffect.Whentheeffectivepopulationsizeissmall,geneticdriftwill
bestronger.
Driftingallelesusuallyhaveafinitelifetime.Asthefrequencyofanalleledriftsupanddownover
successivegenerations,eventuallyitdriftsuntilfixationthatis,iteitherreachesafrequencyof
zero,anddisappearsfromthepopulation,oritreachesafrequencyof100%andbecomestheonly
alleleinthepopulation.Subsequenttothelatterevent,theallelefrequencycanonlychangebythe
introductionofanewallelebyanewmutation.
Thelifetimeofanalleleisgovernedbytheeffectivepopulationsize.Inaverysmallpopulation,only
afewgenerationsmightberequiredforgeneticdrifttoresultinfixation.Inalargepopulation,it
wouldtakemanymoregenerations.Onaverage,anallelewillbefixedin4Negenerations,whereNe
istheeffectivepopulationsize.
AccordingtotheHardyWeinbergPrinciple,whichholdsthatallelefrequenciesinagenepoolwillnot
changeovertime,apopulationmustbesufficientlylargetopreventgeneticdriftfromchangingallele
frequenciesovertime.Thisiswhythelawisunstableinasmallpopulation.
Driftversusselection
Geneticdriftandnaturalselectionrarelyoccurinisolationfromeachotherbothforcesarealwaysat
playinapopulation.However,thedegreetowhichallelesareaffectedbydriftandselectionvaries
accordingtocircumstance.
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Inalargepopulation,wheregeneticdriftoccursveryslowly,evenweakselectiononanallelewill
pushitsfrequencyupwardsordownwards(dependingonwhetherthealleleisbeneficialorharmful).
However,ifthepopulationisverysmall,driftwillpredominate.Inthiscase,weakselectiveeffects
maynotbeseenatallasthesmallchangesinfrequencytheywouldproduceareovershadowedby
drift.
Geneticdriftinpopulations
Driftcanhaveprofoundandoftenbizarreeffectsontheevolutionaryhistoryofapopulation.These
effectsmaybeatoddswiththesurvivalofthepopulation.
Inapopulationbottleneck,wherethepopulationsuddenlycontractstoasmallsize(believedtohave
occurredinthehistoryofhumanevolution),geneticdriftcanresultinsuddenanddramaticchangesin
allelefrequencythatoccurindependentlyofselection.Insuchinstances,manybeneficialadaptations
maybeeliminatedevenifpopulationlatergrowslargeagain.
Similarly,migratingpopulationsmayseeafoundereffect,whereafewindividualswitharareallele
intheoriginatinggenerationcanproduceapopulationthathasallelefrequenciesthatseemtobeat
oddswithnaturalselection.Founder'seffectsaresometimesheldtoberesponsibleforhigh
frequenciesofsomegeneticdiseases.
LasteditedbyLastIslandFriday,May15,2009at08:18PM.
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AFRMS
37thCommon
zoologynitrogencycle
TheNitrogenCycle
Allliferequiresnitrogencompounds,e.g.,proteinsandnucleicacids.
Air,whichis79%nitrogengas(N2),isthemajorreservoirofnitrogen.
Butmostorganismscannotusenitrogeninthisform.
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Plantsmustsecuretheirnitrogenin"fixed"form,i.e.,incorporatedincompoundssuchas:
nitrateions(NO3)
ammonia(NH3)
urea(NH2)2CO
Animalssecuretheirnitrogen(andallother)compoundsfromplants(oranimalsthathavefedon
plants).
Fourprocessesparticipateinthecyclingofnitrogenthroughthebiosphere:
1.nitrogenfixation
2.decay
3.nitrification
4.denitrification
Microorganismsplaymajorrolesinallfourofthese.
NitrogenFixation
Thenitrogenmolecule(N2)isquiteinert.Tobreakitapartsothatitsatomscancombinewithother
atomsrequirestheinputofsubstantialamountsofenergy.
Threeprocessesareresponsibleformostofthenitrogenfixationinthebiosphere:
Atmosphericfixationbylightning
Biologicalfixationbycertainmicrobesaloneorinasymbiotic
Industrialfixation
AtmosphericFixation
Theenormousenergyoflightningbreaksnitrogenmoleculesandenablestheiratomstocombinewith
oxygenintheairformingnitrogenoxides.Thesedissolveinrain,formingnitrates,thatarecarriedto
theearth.
Atmosphericnitrogenfixationprobablycontributessome58%ofthetotalnitrogenfixed.
IndustrialFixation
Undergreatpressure,atatemperatureof600C,andwiththeuseofacatalyst,atmosphericnitrogen
andhydrogen(usuallyderivedfromnaturalgasorpetroleum)canbecombinedtoformammonia
(NH3).Ammoniacanbeuseddirectlyasfertilizer,butmostofitsisfurtherprocessedtoureaand
ammoniumnitrate(NH4NO3).
BiologicalFixation
Theabilitytofixnitrogenisfoundonlyincertainbacteriaandarchaea.
Someliveinasymbioticrelationshipwithplantsofthelegumefamily(e.g.,soybeans,alfalfa).
Someestablishsymbioticrelationshipswithplantsotherthanlegumes(e.g.,alders).
Someestablishsymbioticrelationshipswithanimals,e.g.,termitesand"shipworms"(woodeating
bivalves).
Somenitrogenfixingbacterialivefreeinthesoil.
Nitrogenfixingcyanobacteriaareessentialtomaintainingthefertilityofsemiaquaticenvironments
likericepaddies.
BiologicalnitrogenfixationrequiresacomplexsetofenzymesandahugeexpenditureofATP.
Althoughthefirststableproductoftheprocessisammonia,thisisquicklyincorporatedintoprotein
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andotherorganicnitrogencompounds.
Decay
Theproteinsmadebyplantsenterandpassthroughfoodwebsjustascarbohydratesdo.Ateach
trophiclevel,theirmetabolismproducesorganicnitrogencompoundsthatreturntotheenvironment,
chieflyinexcretions.Thefinalbeneficiariesofthesematerialsaremicroorganismsofdecay.They
breakdownthemoleculesinexcretionsanddeadorganismsintoammonia.
Nitrification
Ammoniacanbetakenupdirectlybyplantsusuallythroughtheirroots.However,mostofthe
ammoniaproducedbydecayisconvertedintonitrates.Thisisaccomplishedintwosteps:
BacteriaofthegenusNitrosomonasoxidizeNH3tonitrites(NO2).
BacteriaofthegenusNitrobacteroxidizethenitritestonitrates(NO3).
Thesetwogroupsofautotrophicbacteriaarecallednitrifyingbacteria.Throughtheiractivities
(whichsupplythemwithalltheirenergyneeds),nitrogenismadeavailabletotherootsofplants.
Manysoilsalsocontainarchaealmicrobes,assignedtotheCrenarchaeota,thatconvertammoniato
nitrites.Whilemoreabundantthanthenitrifyingbacteria,itremainstobeseenwhethertheyplayas
importantaroleinthenitrogencycle.
Manylegumes,inadditiontofixingatmosphericnitrogen,alsoperformnitrificationconverting
someoftheirorganicnitrogentonitritesandnitrates.Thesereachthesoilwhentheyshedtheir
leaves.
Denitrification
Thethreeprocessesaboveremovenitrogenfromtheatmosphereandpassitthroughecosystems.
Denitrificationreducesnitratestonitrogengas,thusreplenishingtheatmosphere.
Onceagain,bacteriaaretheagents.Theylivedeepinsoilandinaquaticsedimentswhereconditions
areanaerobic.Theyusenitratesasanalternativetooxygenforthefinalelectronacceptorintheir
respiration.
Thustheyclosethenitrogencycle.
Arethedenitrifierskeepingup?
Agriculturemaynowberesponsibleforonehalfofthenitrogenfixationonearththrough
theuseoffertilizersproducedbyindustrialfixation
thegrowingoflegumeslikesoybeansandalfalfa.
Thisisaremarkableinfluenceonanaturalcycle.
Arethedenitrifierskeepingupthenitrogencycleinbalance?Probablynot.Certainly,thereare
examplesofnitrogenenrichmentinecosystems.Onetroublingexample:the"blooms"ofalgaein
lakesandriversasnitrogenfertilizersleachfromthesoilofadjacentfarms(andlawns).The
accumulationofdissolvednutrientsinabodyofwateriscalledeutrophication.
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LasteditedbyLastIslandFriday,May15,2009at08:14PM.
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AFRMS
37thCommon
zoologycellbiomitochondria
Mitochondria
Mitochondriaarerodshapedorganellesthatcanbeconsideredthepowergeneratorsofthecell,
convertingoxygenandnutrientsintoadenosinetriphosphate(ATP).ATPisthechemicalenergy
"currency"ofthecellthatpowersthecell'smetabolicactivities.Thisprocessiscalledaerobic
respirationandisthereasonanimalsbreatheoxygen.Withoutmitochondria(singular,
mitochondrion),higheranimalswouldlikelynotexistbecausetheircellswouldonlybeabletoobtain
energyfromanaerobicrespiration(intheabsenceofoxygen),aprocessmuchlessefficientthan
aerobicrespiration.Infact,mitochondriaenablecellstoproduce15timesmoreATPthantheycould
otherwise,andcomplexanimals,likehumans,needlargeamountsofenergyinordertosurvive.
Thenumberofmitochondriapresentinacelldependsuponthemetabolicrequirementsofthatcell,
andmayrangefromasinglelargemitochondriontothousandsoftheorganelles.Mitochondria,which
arefoundinnearlyalleukaryotes,includingplants,animals,fungi,andprotists,arelargeenoughto
beobservedwithalightmicroscopeandwerefirstdiscoveredinthe1800s.Thenameofthe
organelleswascoinedtoreflectthewaytheylookedtothefirstscientiststoobservethem,stemming
fromtheGreekwordsfor"thread"and"granule."Formanyyearsaftertheirdiscovery,mitochondria
werecommonlybelievedtotransmithereditaryinformation.Itwasnotuntilthemid1950swhena
methodforisolatingtheorganellesintactwasdevelopedthatthemodernunderstandingof
mitochondrialfunctionwasworkedout.
Theelaboratestructureofamitochondrionisveryimportanttothefunctioningoftheorganelle.Two
specializedmembranesencircleeachmitochondrionpresentinacell,dividingtheorganelleintoa
narrowintermembranespaceandamuchlargerinternalmatrix,eachofwhichcontainshighly
specializedproteins.Theoutermembraneofamitochondrioncontainsmanychannelsformedbythe
proteinporinandactslikeasieve,filteringoutmoleculesthataretoobig.Similarly,theinner
membrane,whichishighlyconvolutedsothatalargenumberofinfoldingscalledcristaeareformed,
alsoallowsonlycertainmoleculestopassthroughitandismuchmoreselectivethantheouter
membrane.Tomakecertainthatonlythosematerialsessentialtothematrixareallowedintoit,the
innermembraneutilizesagroupoftransportproteinsthatwillonlytransportthecorrectmolecules.
Together,thevariouscompartmentsofamitochondrionareabletoworkinharmonytogenerateATP
inacomplexmultistepprocess.
Mitochondriaaregenerallyoblongorganelles,whichrangeinsizebetween1and10micrometersin
length,andoccurinnumbersthatdirectlycorrelatewiththecell'slevelofmetabolicactivity.The
organellesarequiteflexible,however,andtimelapsestudiesoflivingcellshavedemonstratedthat
mitochondriachangeshaperapidlyandmoveaboutinthecellalmostconstantly.Movementsofthe
organellesappeartobelinkedinsomewaytothemicrotubulespresentinthecell,andareprobably
transportedalongthenetworkwithmotorproteins.Consequently,mitochondriamaybeorganizedinto
lengthytravelingchains,packedtightlyintorelativelystablegroups,orappearinmanyother
formationsbasedupontheparticularneedsofthecellandthecharacteristicsofitsmicrotubular
network.Themitochondrionisdifferentfrommostotherorganellesbecauseithasitsowncircular
DNA(similartotheDNAofprokaryotes)andreproducesindependentlyofthecellinwhichitisfound
anapparentcaseofendosymbiosis.Scientistshypothesizethatmillionsofyearsagosmall,free
livingprokaryoteswereengulfed,butnotconsumed,bylargerprokaryotes,perhapsbecausethey
wereabletoresistthedigestiveenzymesofthehostorganism.Thetwoorganismsdevelopeda
symbioticrelationshipovertime,thelargerorganismprovidingthesmallerwithamplenutrientsand
thesmallerorganismprovidingATPmoleculestothelargerone.Eventually,accordingtothisview,
thelargerorganismdevelopedintotheeukaryoticcellandthesmallerorganismintothe
mitochondrion.
MitochondrialDNAislocalizedtothematrix,whichalsocontainsahostofenzymes,aswellas
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ribosomesforproteinsynthesis.Manyofthecriticalmetabolicstepsofcellularrespirationare
catalyzedbyenzymesthatareabletodiffusethroughthemitochondrialmatrix.Theotherproteins
involvedinrespiration,includingtheenzymethatgeneratesATP,areembeddedwithinthe
mitochondrialinnermembrane.Infoldingofthecristaedramaticallyincreasesthesurfacearea
availableforhostingtheenzymesresponsibleforcellularrespiration.
Mitochondriaaresimilartoplantchloroplastsinthatbothorganellesareabletoproduceenergyand
metabolitesthatarerequiredbythehostcell.Asdiscussedabove,mitochondriaarethesitesof
respiration,andgeneratechemicalenergyintheformofATPbymetabolizingsugars,fats,andother
chemicalfuelswiththeassistanceofmolecularoxygen.Chloroplasts,incontrast,arefoundonlyin
plantsandalgae,andaretheprimarysitesofphotosynthesis.Theseorganellesworkinadifferent
mannertoconvertenergyfromthesunintothebiosynthesisofrequiredorganicnutrientsusing
carbondioxideandwater.Likemitochondria,chloroplastsalsocontaintheirownDNAandareableto
growandreproduceindependentlywithinthecell.
Inmostanimalspecies,mitochondriaappeartobeprimarilyinheritedthroughthematernallineage,
thoughsomerecentevidencesuggeststhatinrareinstancesmitochondriamayalsobeinheritedviaa
paternalroute.Typically,aspermcarriesmitochondriainitstailasanenergysourceforitslong
journeytotheegg.Whenthespermattachestotheeggduringfertilization,thetailfallsoff.
Consequently,theonlymitochondriatheneworganismusuallygetsarefromtheeggitsmother
provided.Therefore,unlikenuclearDNA,mitochondrialDNAdoesn'tgetshuffledeverygeneration,so
itispresumedtochangeataslowerrate,whichisusefulforthestudyofhumanevolution.
MitochondrialDNAisalsousedinforensicscienceasatoolforidentifyingcorpsesorbodyparts,and
hasbeenimplicatedinanumberofgeneticdiseases,suchasAlzheimer'sdiseaseanddiabetes
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Friday,October05,2007
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37thCommon
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zoologyEcosystem
WhatisaBiome?
Abiomeisalargegeographicalareaofdistinctiveplantandanimalgroups,whichareadaptedtothatparticular
environment.Theclimateandgeographyofaregiondetermineswhattypeofbiomecanexistinthatregion.Major
biomesincludedeserts,forests,grasslands,tundra,andseveraltypesofaquaticenvironments.Eachbiomeconsists
ofmanyecosystemswhosecommunitieshaveadaptedtothesmalldifferencesinclimateandtheenvironmentinside
thebiome.
Alllivingthingsarecloselyrelatedtotheirenvironment.Anychangeinonepartofanenvironment,likeanincrease
ordecreaseofaspeciesofanimalorplant,causesarippleeffectofchangeinthroughotherpartsoftheenvironment.
Theearthincludesahugevarietyoflivingthings,fromcomplexplantsandanimalstoverysimple,onecelled
organisms.Butlargeorsmall,simpleorcomplex,noorganismlivesalone.Eachdependsinsomewayonotherliving
andnonlivingthingsinitssurroundings.
Deciduousforests
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DeciduousforestscanbefoundintheeasternhalfofNorthAmerica,andthemiddleofEurope.Therearemany
deciduousforestsinAsia.SomeofthemajorareasthattheyareinaresouthwestRussia,Japan,andeasternChina.
SouthAmericahastwobigareasofdeciduousforestsinsouthernChileandMiddleEastcoastofParaguay.Thereare
deciduousforestslocatedinNewZealand,andsoutheasternAustraliaalso.
Theaverageannualtemperatureinadeciduousforestis50F.Theaveragerainfallis30to60inchesayear.
Indeciduousforeststherearefivedifferentzones.ThefirstzoneistheTreeStratumzone.TheTreeStratumzone
containssuchtreesasoak,beech,maple,chestnuthickory,elm,basswood,linden,walnut,andsweetgumtrees.This
zonehasheightrangesbetween60feetand100feet.
Thesmalltreeandsaplingzoneisthesecondzone.Thiszonehasyoung,andshorttrees.Thethirdzoneiscalledthe
shrubzone.Someoftheshrubsinthiszonearerhododendrons,azaleas,mountainlaurel,andhuckleberries.The
Herbzoneisthefourthzone.Itcontainsshortplantssuchasherbalplants.ThefinalzoneistheGroundzone.It
containslichen,clubmosses,andtruemosses.
Thedeciduousforesthasfourdistinctseasons,spring,summer,autumn,andwinter.Intheautumntheleaves
changecolor.Duringthewintermonthsthetreeslosetheirleaves.
Theanimalsadapttotheclimatebyhibernatinginthewinterandlivingoffthelandintheotherthreeseasons.The
animalshaveadaptedtothelandbytryingtheplantsintheforesttoseeiftheyaregoodtoeatforagoodsupplyof
food.Alsothetreesprovideshelterforthem.Animalusethetreesforfoodandawatersources.Mostoftheanimals
arecamouflagedtolookliketheground.
Theplantshaveadaptedtotheforestsbyleaningtowardthesun.Soakingupthenutrientsinthegroundisalsoa
wayofadaptation.
Alotofdeciduousforestshavelostlandtofarmsandtowns.Althoughpeoplearetryingtoprotecttheforestssome
poachersaretryingtokilltheanimalsintheforests.Theanimalsarelosingtheirhomesbecauseofpeoplebuilding
theirhomes.
DESERTECOSYSTEM.
AHotandDryDesertis,asyoucantellfromthename,hotanddry.MostHotandDryDesertsdon'thaveverymany
plants.Theydohavesomelowdownplantsthough.Theonlyanimalstheyhavethatcansurvivehavetheabilityto
burrowunderground.Thisisbecausetheywouldnotbeabletoliveinthehotsunandheat.Theyonlycomeoutin
thenightwhenitisalittlecooler.
Acolddesertisadesertthathassnowinthewinterinsteadofjustdroppingafewdegreesintemperaturelikethey
wouldinaHotandDryDesert.Itnevergetswarmenoughforplantstogrow.Justmaybeafewgrassesandmosses.
TheanimalsinColdDesertsalsohavetoburrowbutinthiscasetokeepwarm,notcool.Thatiswhyyoumightfind
someofthesameanimalshereasyouwouldintheHotandDryDeserts.
DesertscoveraboutonefifthoftheEarth'slandsurface.MostHotandDryDesertsareneartheTropicofCanceror
theTropicofCapricorn.ColdDesertsareneartheArcticpartoftheworld.
HotandDryDesertstemperaturerangesfrom20to25C.TheextrememaximumtemperatureforHotDesertranges
from43.5to49C.ColdDesertstemperatureinwinterrangesfrom2to4Candinthesummer21to26Cayear
TheprecipitationinHotandDryDesertsandtheprecipitationinColdDesertsisdifferent.HotandDryDeserts
usuallyhaveverylittlerainfalland/orconcentratedrainfallinshortperiodsbetweenlongrainlessperiods.This
averagesouttounder15cmayear.ColdDesertsusuallyhavelotsofsnow.Theyalsohaverainaroundspring.This
averagesoutto1526cmayear.
HotandDryDesertsarewarmthroughoutthefallandspringseasonsandveryhotduringthesummer.thewinters
usuallyhaveverylittleifanyrainfall.ColdDesertshavequiteabitofsnowduringwinter.Thesummerandthe
beginningofthespringarebarelywarmenoughforafewlichens,grassesandmossestogrow.
HotandDryDesertsvegetationisveryrare.Plantsarealmostallgroundhuggingshrubsandshortwoodytrees.All
oftheleavesarereplete(packedwithnutrients).SomeexamplesofthesekindsofplantareTurpentineBush,Prickly
Pears,andBrittleBush.Foralloftheseplantstosurvivetheyhavetohaveadaptations.Someoftheadaptationsin
thiscasearetheabilitytostorewaterforlongperiodsoftimeandtheabilitytostandthehotweather.
ColdDesert'splantsarescattered.Inareaswithlittleshade,about10percentofthegroundiscoveredwithplants.In
someareasofsagebrushitreaches85percent.Theheightofscrubvariesfrom15cmto122cm.Allplantsareeither
deciduousandmoreorlesscontainspinyleaves.
HotandDryDesertsanimalsincludesmallnocturnal(onlyactiveatnight)carnivores.Therearealsoinsects,
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arachnids,reptiles,andbirds.SomeexamplesoftheseanimalsareBorrowers,MourningWheatears,andHorned
Vipers.ColdDesertshaveanimalslikeAntelope,GroundSquirrels,JackRabbits,andKangarooRats.
LasteditedbyXericFriday,May15,2009at08:27PM.
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Grasslandecosytem
GrasslandEcosystem
Grasslandbiomesarelarge,rollingterrainsofgrasses,flowersandherbs.Latitude,soilandlocalclimatesforthe
mostpartdeterminewhatkindsofplantsgrowinaparticulargrassland.Agrasslandisaregionwheretheaverage
annualprecipitationisgreatenoughtosupportgrasses,andinsomeareasafewtrees.Theprecipitationissoeratic
thatdroughtandfirepreventlargeforestsfromgrowing.Grassescansurvivefiresbecausetheygrowfromthebottom
insteadofthetop.Theirstemscangrowagainafterbeingburnedoff.Thesoilofmostgrasslandsisalsotoothinand
dryfortreestosurvive.
WhenthesettlersoftheUnitedStatesmovedwestward,theyfoundthatthegrasslands,orprairiesastheycalled
them,weremorethanjustdry,flatareas.Theprairiescontainedmorethan80speciesofanimalsand300speciesof
birds,andhundredsofspeciesofplants.
Therearetwodifferenttypesofgrasslandstallgrass,whicharehumidandverywet,andshortgrass,whicharedry,
withhottersummersandcolderwintersthanthetallgrassprairie.Thesettlersfoundbothontheirjourneywest.
WhentheycrossedtheMississippiRivertheycameintosomeverytallgrass,someashighas11feet.Hereitrained
quiteoftenanditwasveryhumid.AstheytraveledfurtherwestandapproachedtheRockyMountains,thegrass
becameshorter.Therewaslessraininthesummerandthewintersgotcolder.Theseweretheshortgrassprairies.
Grasslandbiomescanbefoundinthemiddlelatitudes,intheinteriorsofcontinents.Theycanhaveeithermoist
continentalclimatesordrysubtropicalclimates.InArgentina,SouthAmerica,thegrasslandsareknownaspampas.
Theclimatethereishumidandmoist.Grasslandsinthesouthernhemispheretendtogetmoreprecipitationthan
thoseinthenorthernhemisphere,andthegrasstendstobethetallgrassvariety.
ThereisalargeareaofgrasslandthatstretchfromtheUkraineofRussiaallthewaytoSiberia.Thisisaverycoldand
dryclimatebecausethereisnonearbyoceantogetmoisturefrom.Windsfromthearcticaren'tblockedbyany
mountainseither.TheseareknownastheRussianandAsiansteppes.
Inthewinter,grasslandtemperaturescanbeaslowas40F,andinthesummeritcanbeashigh70F.Thereare
tworealseasons:agrowingseasonandadormantseason.Thegrowingseasoniswhenthereisnofrostandplants
cangrow(whichlastsfrom100to175days).Duringthedormant(notgrowing)seasonnothingcangrowbecauseits
toocold.
Intropicalandsubtropicalgrasslandsthelengthofthegrowingseasonisdeterminedbyhowlongtherainyseason
lasts.Butinthetemperategrasslandsthelengthofthegrowingseasonisdeterminedbytemperature.Plantsusually
startgrowingwhenthedailytemperaturereachedabout50F.
Intemperategrasslandstheaveragerainfallperyearrangesfrom1030inches.Intropicalandsubtropical
grasslandstheaveragerainfallperyearrangesfrom2560inchesperyearTheamountofrainfallisveryimportantin
determiningwhichareasaregrasslandsbecauseit'shardfortreestocompetewithgrassesinplaceswheretheuppers
layersofsoilaremoistduringpartoftheyearbutwheredeeperlayerofsoilarealwaysdry.
ThemostcommontypesofplantlifeontheNorthAmericanprairieareBuffaloGrass,Sunflower,CrazyWeed,Asters,
BlazingStars,Coneflowers,Goldenrods,Clover,andWildIndigos.
SomecommonanimalsinthegrasslandsareCoyotes,Eagles,Bobcats,theGrayWolf,WildTurkey,FlyCatcher,
CanadianGeese,Crickets,DungBeetle,Bison,andPrairieChicken.
9/21
1/31/2016
farheen79(Monday,August26,2013)
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TaigaandRainforestecosystem
RainforestEcosystem
Thetropicalrainforestcanbefoundinthreemajorgeographicalareasaroundtheworld.
CentralAmericainthetheAmazonriverbasin.
AfricaZairebasin,withasmallareainWestAfricaalsoeasternMadagascar.
IndoMalaysiawestcoastofIndia,Assam,SoutheastAsia,NewGuineaandQueensland,Australia.
Thetropicalrainforestisaforestoftalltreesinaregionofyearroundwarmth.Anaverageof50to260inches(125to
660cm.)ofrainfallsyearly.
Rainforestsbelongtothetropicalwetclimategroup.Thetemperatureinarainforestrarelygetshigherthan93F
(34C)ordropsbelow68F(20C)averagehumidityisbetween77and88%rainfallisoftenmorethan100inches
ayear.Thereisusuallyabriefseasonoflessrain.Inmonsoonalareas,thereisarealdryseason.Almostallrain
forestslieneartheequator.
Rainforestsnowcoverlessthan6%ofEarth'slandsurface.Scientistsestimatethatmorethanhalfofalltheworld's
plantandanimalspeciesliveintropicalrainforests.Tropicalrainforestsproduce40%ofEarth'soxygen.
Atropicalrainforesthasmorekindsoftreesthananyotherareaintheworld.Scientistshavecountedabout100to
300speciesinone21/2acre(1hectare)areainSouthAmerica.Seventypercentoftheplantsintherainforestare
trees.
About1/4ofallthemedicinesweusecomefromrainforestplants.Curarecomesfromatropicalvine,andisusedas
ananestheticandtorelaxmusclesduringsurgery.Quinine,fromthecinchonatree,isusedtotreatmalaria.Aperson
withlymphocyticleukemiahasa99%chancethatthediseasewillgointoremissionbecauseoftherosyperiwinkle.
Morethan1,400varietiesoftropicalplantsarethoughttobepotentialcuresforcancer.
Alltropicalrainforestsresembleoneanotherinsomeways.Manyofthetreeshavestraighttrunksthatdon'tbranch
outfor100feetormore.Thereisnosenseingrowingbranchesbelowthecanopywherethereislittlelight.The
majorityofthetreeshavesmooth,thinbarkbecausethereisnoneedtoprotectthethemfromwaterlossandfreezing
temperatures.Italsomakesitdifficultforepiphytesandplantparasitestogetaholdonthetrunks.Thebarkof
differentspeciesissosimilarthatitisdifficulttoidentifyatreebyitsbark.Manytreescanonlybeidentifiedbytheir
flowers.
Despitethesedifferences,eachofthethreelargestrainforeststheAmerican,theAfrican,andtheAsianhasa
differentgroupofanimalandplantspecies.Eachrainforesthasmanyspeciesofmonkeys,allofwhichdifferfromthe
speciesoftheothertworainforests.Inaddition,differentareasofthesamerainforestmayhavedifferentspecies.
ManykindsoftreesthatgrowinthemountainsoftheAmazonrainforestdonotgrowinthelowlandsofthatsame
forest.
LayersoftheRainforest
Therearefourverydistinctlayersoftreesinatropicalrainforest.Theselayershavebeenidentifiedastheemergent,
uppercanopy,understory,andforestfloor.
Emergenttreesarespacedwideapart,andare100to240feettallwithumbrellashapedcanopiesthatgrowabovethe
forest.Becauseemergenttreesareexposedtodryingwinds,theytendtohavesmall,pointedleaves.Somespecieslose
theirleavesduringthebriefdryseasoninmonsoonrainforests.Thesegianttreeshavestraight,smoothtrunkswith
fewbranches.Theirrootsystemisveryshallow,andtosupporttheirsizetheygrowbuttressesthatcanspreadoutto
adistanceof30feet.
Theuppercanopyof60to130foottreesallowslighttobeeasilyavailableatthetopofthislayer,butgreatlyreduced
anylightbelowit.Mostoftherainforest'sanimalsliveintheuppercanopy.Thereissomuchfoodavailableatthis
levelthatsomeanimalsnevergodowntotheforestfloor.Theleaveshave"dripspouts"thatallowsraintorunoff.
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1/31/2016
Thiskeepsthemdryandpreventsmoldandmildewfromforminginthehumidenvironment.
Theunderstory,orlowercanopy,consistsof60foottrees.Thislayerismadeupofthetrunksofcanopytrees,shrubs,
plantsandsmalltrees.Thereislittleairmovement.Asaresultthehumidityisconstantlyhigh.Thislevelisin
constantshade.
Theforestfloorisusuallycompletelyshaded,exceptwhereacanopytreehasfallenandcreatedanopening.Most
areasoftheforestfloorreceivesolittlelightthatfewbushesorherbscangrowthere.Asaresult,apersoncaneasily
walkthroughmostpartsofatropicalrainforest.Lessthan1%ofthelightthatstrikesthetopoftheforestpenetrates
totheforestfloor.Thetopsoilisverythinandofpoorquality.Alotoflitterfallstothegroundwhereitisquickly
brokendownbydecomposersliketermites,earthwormsandfungi.Theheatandhumidityfurtherhelptobreakdown
thelitter.Thisorganicmatteristhenjustasquicklyabsorbedbythetrees'shallowroots.
PlantLife
Besidesthesefourlayers,ashrub/saplinglayerreceivesabout3%ofthelightthatfiltersinthroughthecanopies.
Thesestuntedtreesarecapableofasuddengrowthsurgewhenagapinthecanopyopensabovethem.
Theairbeneaththelowercanopyisalmostalwayshumid.Thetreesthemselvesgiveoffwaterthroughthepores
(stomata)oftheirleaves.Thisprocess,calledtranspiration,canaccountforasmuchashalfoftheprecipitationinthe
rainforest.
Rainforestplantshavemademanyadaptationstotheirenvironment.Withover80inchesofrainperyear,plants
havemadeadaptationsthathelpsthemshedwaterofftheirleavesquicklysothebranchesdon'tgetweigheddown
andbreak.Manyplantshavedriptipsandgroovedleaves,andsomeleaveshaveoilycoatingstoshedwater.To
absorbasmuchsunlightaspossibleonthedarkunderstory,leavesareverylarge.Sometreeshaveleafstalksthat
turnwiththemovementofthesunsotheyalwaysabsorbthemaximumamountoflight.Leavesintheuppercanopy
aredarkgreen,smallandleatherytoreducewaterlossinthestrongsunlight.Sometreeswillgrowlargeleavesatthe
lowercanopylevelandsmallleavesintheuppercanopy.Otherplantsgrowintheuppercanopyonlargertreestoget
sunlight.Thesearetheepiphytessuchasorchidsandbromeliads.Manytreeshavebuttressandstiltrootsforextra
supportintheshallow,wetsoiloftherainforests.
Over2,500speciesofvinesgrowintherainforest.Lianasstartoffassmallshrubsthatgrowontheforestfloor.To
reachthesunlightintheuppercanopyitsendsouttendrilstograbsaplingtrees.Thelianaandthetreegrowtowards
thecanopytogether.Thevinesgrowfromonetreetoanotherandmakeup40%ofthecanopyleaves.Therattanvine
hasspikesontheundersideofitsleavesthatpointbackwardstograbontosaplingtrees.Other"strangler"vineswill
usetreesassupportandgrowthickerandthickerastheyreachthecanopy,stranglingitshosttree.Theylooklike
treeswhosecentershavebeenhollowedout.
Dominantspeciesdonotexistintropicalrainforests.Lowlanddipterocarpforestcanconsistofmanydifferent
speciesofDipterocarpaceae,butnotallofthesamespecies.Treesofthesamespeciesareveryseldomfoundgrowing
closetogether.Thisbiodiversityandseparationofthespeciespreventsmasscontaminationanddieofffromdisease
orinsectinfestation.Biodiversityalsoinsuresthattherewillbeenoughpollinatorstotakecareofeachspecies'needs.
Animalsdependonthestaggeredbloomingandfruitingofrainforestplantstosupplythemwithayearroundsource
offood.
AnimalLife
Manyspeciesofanimallifecanbefoundintherainforest.Commoncharacteristicsfoundamongmammalsandbirds
(andreptilesandamphibians,too)includeadaptationstoalifeinthetrees,suchastheprehensiletailsofNewWorld
monkeys.Othercharacteristicsarebrightcolorsandsharppatterns,loudvocalizations,anddietsheavyonfruits.
Insectsmakeupthelargestsinglegroupofanimalsthatliveintropicalforests.Theyincludebrightlycolored
butterflies,mosquitoes,camouflagedstickinsects,andhugecoloniesofants.
TheAmazonriverbasinrainforestcontainsawidervarietyofplantandanimallifethananyotherbiomeintheworld.
ThesecondlargestpopulationofplantandanimallifecanbefoundinscatteredlocationsandislandsofSoutheast
Asia.ThelowestvarietycanbefoundinAfrica.Theremaybe40to100differentspeciesin2.5acres(1hectare)ofa
tropicalrainforest.
TAIGAECOSYSTEM
Abiomeisthetypeofhabitatincertainplaces,likemountaintops,deserts,andtropicalforests,andisdeterminedby
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1/31/2016
theclimateoftheplace.Thetaigaisthebiomeoftheneedleleafforest.Livinginthetaigaiscoldandlonely.Coldness
andfoodshortagesmakethingsverydifficult,mostlyinthewinter.Someoftheanimalsinthetaigahibernateinthe
winter,someflysouthiftheycan,whilesomejustcooperatewiththeenvironment,whichisverydifficult.(Dillon
Bartkus)
TaigaistheRussianwordforforestandisthelargestbiomeintheworld.ItstretchesoverEurasiaandNorth
America.Thetaigaislocatednearthetopoftheworld,justbelowthetundrabiome.Thewintersinthetaigaarevery
coldwithonlysnowfall.Thesummersarewarm,rainy,andhumid.Alotofconiferoustreesgrowinthetaiga.The
taigaisalsoknownastheborealforest.DidyouknowthatBorealwastheGreekgoddessoftheNorthWind?
Thetaigadoesn'thaveasmanyplantandanimalspeciesasthetropicalorthedeciduousforestbiomes.Itdoeshave
millionsofinsectsinthesummertime.Birdsmigratethereeveryyeartonestandfeed.
Hereissomeinformationaboutthetemperaturesandweatherinthetaiga.Theaveragetemperatureisbelowfreezing
forsixmonthsoutoftheyear.Thewintertemperaturerangeis54to1C(65to30F).Thewinters,asyoucansee,
arereallycold,withlotsofsnow.
Temperaturerangeinthesummergetsaslowas7C(20F).Thehighinsummercanbe21C(70F).The
summersaremostlywarm,rainyandhumid.Theyarealsoveryshortwithabout50to100frostfreedays.Thetotal
precipitationinayearis3085cm(1233in).Theformstheprecipitationcomesinarerain,snowanddew.Mostof
theprecipitationinthetaigafallsasraininthesummer.
Themainseasonsinthetaigaarewinterandsummer.Thespringandautumnaresoshort,youhardlyknowthey
exist.Itiseitherhotandhumidorverycoldinthetaiga.
Therearenotalotofspeciesofplantsinthetaigabecauseoftheharshconditions.Notmanyplantscansurvivethe
extremecoldofthetaigawinter.Therearesomelichensandmosses,butmostplantsareconiferoustreeslikepine,
whitespruce,hemlockanddouglasfir.
Coniferoustreesarealsoknownasevergreens.Theyhavelong,thinwaxyneedles.Thewaxgivesthemsome
protectionfromfreezingtemperaturesandfromdryingout.Evergreensdon'tloosetheirleavesinthewinterlike
deciduoustrees.Theykeeptheirneedlesallyearlong.Thisissotheycanstartphotosynthesisassoonastheweather
getswarm.Thedarkcolorofevergreenneedlesallowsthemtoabsorbheatfromthesunandalsohelpsthemstart
photosynthesisearly.
Evergreensinthetaigatendtobethinandgrowclosetogether.Thisgivesthemprotectionfromthecoldandwind.
Evergreensalsoareusuallyshapedlikeanupsidedownconetoprotectsthebranchesfrombreakingundertheweight
ofallthatsnow.Thesnowslidesrightofftheslantedbranches.
Thetaigaissusceptibletomanywildfires.Treeshaveadaptedbygrowingthickbark.Thefireswillburnawaythe
uppercanopyofthetreesandletsunlightreachtheground.Newplantswillgrowandprovidefoodforanimalsthat
oncecouldnotlivetherebecausetherewereonlyevergreentrees.
Animalsofthetaigatendtobepredatorslikethelynxandmembersoftheweaselfamilylikewolverines,bobcat,
minksandermine.Theyhuntherbivoreslikesnowshoerabbits,redsquirrelsandvoles.Reddeer,elk,andmoosecan
befoundinregionsofthetaigawheremoredeciduoustreesgrow.
Manyinsecteatingbirdscometothetaigatobreed.Theyleavewhenthebreedingseasonisover.Seedeaterslike
finchesandsparrows,andomnivorousbirdslikecrowsstayallyearlong.
farheen79(Monday,August26,2013)
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Savanna,Alpine,chaparralecosystem
12/21
1/31/2016
Savannaecosystem
Asavannaisarollinggrasslandscatteredwithshrubsandisolatedtrees,whichcanbefoundbetween
atropicalrainforestanddesertbiome.Notenoughrainfallsonasavannatosupportforests.
Savannasarealsoknownastropicalgrasslands.Theyarefoundinawidebandoneithersideofthe
equatorontheedgesoftropicalrainforests.
Savannashavewarmtemperatureyearround.Thereareactuallytwoverydifferentseasonsina
savannaaverylongdryseason(winter),andaverywetseason(summer).Inthedryseasononly
anaverageofabout4inchesofrainfalls.BetweenDecemberandFebruarynorainwillfallatall.
Oddlyenough,itisactuallyalittlecoolerduringthisdryseason.Butdon'texpectsweaterweatherit
isstillaround70F.
Inthesummerthereislotsofrain.InAfricathemonsoonrainsbegininMay.Anaverageof15to25
inchesofrainfallsduringthistime.Itgetshotandveryhumidduringtherainyseason.Everydaythe
hot,humidairrisesoffthegroundandcollideswithcoolerairaboveandturnsintorain.Inthe
afternoonsonthesummersavannatherainspourdownforhours.Africansavannashavelargeherds
ofgrazingandbrowsinghoofedanimals.Eachanimalhasaspecializedeatinghabitthatreduces
compititionforfood.
Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofsavannasaroundtheworld.Thesavannaswearemostfamiliar
witharetheEastAfricansavannascoveredwithacaciatrees.TheSerengetiPlainsofTanzaniaare
someofthemostwellknown.Hereanimalslikelions,zebras,elephants,andgiraffesandmanytypes
ofungulates(animalswithhooves)grazeandhunt.Manylargegrasseatingmammals(herbivores)
cansurviveherebecausetheycanmovearoundandeattheplentifulgrasses.Therearealsolotsof
carnivores(meateaters)whoeattheminturn.
SouthAmericaalsohassavannas,butthereareveryfewspeciesthatexistonlyonthissavanna.In
Brazil,Colombia,andVenezuela,savannasoccupysome2.5millionsquarekilometers,anareaabout
onequarterthesizeofCanada.Animalsfromtheneighboringbiomeskindofspillintothissavanna.
TheLlanosoftheOrinocobasinofVenezuelaandColumbiaisfloodedannuallybytheOrinocoRiver.
Plantshaveadaptedtogrowingforlongperiodsinstandingwater.Thecapybaraandmarshdeerhave
adaptedthemselvestoasemiaquaticlife.
Brazil'scerradoisanopenwoodlandofshorttwistedtrees.Thediversityofanimalsisverygreat
here,withseveralplantsandanimalsthatdon'texistanywhereelseonearth.
ThereisalsoasavannainnorthernAustralia.Eucalyptustreestaketheplaceofacaciasinthe
Australiansavanna.Therearemanyspeciesofkangaroosinthissavannabutnottoomuchdiversity
ofdifferentanimals
Plantsofthesavannasarehighlyspecializedtogrowinthisenvironmentoflongperiodsofdrought.
Theyhavelongtaprootsthatcanreachthedeepwatertable,thickbarktoresistannualfires,trunks
thatcanstorewater,andleavesthatdropofduringthewintertoconservewater.Thegrasseshave
adaptationsthatdiscourageanimalsfromgrazingonthemsomegrassesaretoosharporbitter
tastingforsomeanimals,butnotothers,toeat.Thesidebenefitofthisisthateveryspeciesof
animalhassomethingtoeat.Differentspecieswillalsoeatdifferentpartsofthegrass.Manygrasses
growfromthebottomup,sothatthegrowthtissuedoesn'tgetdamagedbygrazers.Manyplantsof
thesavannaalsohavestorageorganslikebulbsandcormsformakingitthoughthedryseason.
Mostoftheanimalsonthesavannahavelonglegsorwingstobeabletogoonlongmigrations.Many
burrowundergroundtoavoidtheheatorraisetheiryoung.Thesavannaisaperfectplaceforbirds
ofpreylikehawksandbuzzards.Thewide,openplainprovidesthemwithaclearviewoftheirprey,
hotairupdraftskeepthemsoaring,andthereistheoccasionaltreetorestonornestin.Animals
don'tsweattolosebodyheat,sotheyloseitthroughpantingorthroughlargeareasofexposedskin,
orears,likethoseoftheelephant.
Thesavannahasalargerangeofhighlyspecializedplantsandanimals.Theyalldependontheeach
othertokeeptheenvironmentinbalance.Thereareover40differentspeciesofhoofedmammals
thatliveonthesavannasofAfrica.Upto16differentspeciesofbrowsers(thosewhoeatleavesof
trees)andgrazerscancoexistinonearea.Theydothisbyhavingtheirownfoodpreferences,
browsing/grazingatdifferentheights,timeofdayoryeartouseagivenarea,anddifferentplacesto
goduringthedryseason.
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1/31/2016
Thesedifferentherbivoresprovideawiderangeoffoodforcarnivores,likelions,leopards,cheetahs,
jackalsandhyenas.Eachspecieshasitsownpreference,makingitpossibletolivesidebysideand
notbeincompetitionforfood.
InmanypartsofthesavannasofAfricapeoplehavestartedusingittograzetheircattleandgoats.
Theydon'tmovearoundandsoonthegrassesarecompletelyeatenup.Withnovegetation,the
savannaturnsintoadesert.HugeareasofsavannaarelosttotheSaharadeserteveryyearbecause
ofovergrazingandfarming.
Alpineecosystem
Cold,snowy,windy.Whenyouhearthosewordstheymakeyouthinkofmountains.TheAlpinebiome
islikewinteristopeopleinNewEnglandsnow,highwinds,ice,allthetypicalwinterthings.InLatin
thewordfor'highmountain'is'alpes'.Thatiswheretoday'swordalpinecomesfrom.
Alpinebiomesarefoundinthemountainregionsallaroundtheworld.Theyareusuallyatanaltitude
ofabout10,000feetormore.TheAlpinebiomeliesjustbelowthesnowlineofamountain.Asyougo
upamountain,youwilltravelthroughmanybiomes.IntheNorthAmericanRockyMountainsyou
begininadesertbiome.Asyouclimbyougothroughadeciduousforestbiome,grasslandbiome,
steppebiome,andtaigabiomebeforeyoureachthecoldAlpinebiome.
Inthesummeraveragetemperaturesrangefrom10to15C.Inthewinterthetemperaturesare
belowfreezing.ThewinterseasoncanlastfromOctobertoMay.Thesummerseasonmaylastfrom
JunetoSeptember.ThetemperaturesintheAlpinebiomecanalsochangefromwarmtofreezingin
oneday.
BecausethesevereclimateoftheAlpinebiome,plantsandanimalshavedevelopedadaptationsto
thoseconditions.Thereareonlyabout200speciesofAlpineplants.Athighaltitudesthereisvery
littleCO2,whichplantsneedtocarryonphotosynthesis.Becauseofthecoldandwind,mostplants
aresmallperennialgroundcoverplantswhichgrowandreproduceslowly.Theyprotectthemselves
fromthecoldandwindbyhuggingtheground.Tallerplantsortreeswouldsoongetblownoverand
freeze.Whenplantsdietheydon'tdecomposeveryquicklybecauseofthecold.Thismakesforpoor
soilconditions.MostAlpineplantscangrowinsandyandrockysoil.Plantshavealsoadaptedtothe
dryconditionsoftheAlpinebiome.PlantbooksandcatalogswarnyouaboutoverwateringAlpine
plants.
Alpineanimalshavetodealwithtwotypesofproblems:thecoldandtoomuchhighUVwavelengths.
ThisisbecausethereislessatmospheretofilterUVraysfromthesun.Thereareonlywarmblooded
animalsintheAlpinebiome,althoughthereareinsects.Alpineanimalsadapttothecoldby
hibernating,migratingtolower,warmerareas,orinsulatingtheirbodieswithlayersoffat.Animals
willalsotendtohaveshorterlegs,tails,andears,inordertoreduceheatloss.Alpineanimalsalso
havelargerlungs,morebloodcellsandhemoglobinbecauseoftheincreaseofpressureandlackof
oxygenathigheraltitudes.Thisisalsotrueforpeoplewhohavelivedonmountainsforalongtime,
liketheIndiansoftheAndesMountainsinSouthAmericaandtheSherpasoftheHimalayasinAsia.
chaparralEcosystem
ThechaparralbiomeisfoundinalittlebitofmostofthecontinentsthewestcoastoftheUnited
States,thewestcoastofSouthAmerica,theCapeTownareaofSouthAfrica,thewesterntipof
AustraliaandthecoastalareasoftheMediterranean.
Layoftheland:Thechaparralbiomehasmanydifferenttypesofterrain.Someexamplesareflat
plains,rockyhillsandmountainslopes.Itissometimesusedinmoviesforthe"WildWest".
Chaparralischaracterizedasbeingveryhotanddry.Asforthetemperature,thewinterisverymild
andisusuallyabout10C.Thenthereisthesummer.Itissohotanddryat40Cthatfiresand
droughtsareverycommon.
Fortunately,theplantsandanimalsareadaptedtotheseconditions.Mostoftheplantshavesmall,
hardleaveswhichholdmoisture.Someoftheseplantsarepoisonoak,scruboak,YuccaWipleand
othershrubs,treesandcacti.
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1/31/2016
Theanimalsareallmainlygrasslandanddeserttypesadaptedtohot,dryweather.Afewexamples:
coyotes,jackrabbits,muledeer,alligatorlizards,hornedtoads,prayingmantis,honeybeeand
ladybugs.
So,ifyouevergosomewherethatislikechaparral,makesuretobringsomesunscreenandlotsof
water!
Sunday,April19,2009
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ZoologyNotes
PlacentalStructureandClassification
Placenta
thevascular(suppliedwithbloodvessels)organinmostmammalsthatunitesthefetustothe
uterusofthemother.Itmediatesthemetabolicexchangesofthedevelopingindividualthroughan
intimateassociationofembryonictissuesandofcertainuterinetissues,servingthefunctionsof
nutrition,respiration,andexcretion
Theplacentasofalleutherian(placental)mammalsprovidecommonstructuralandfunctional
features,buttherearestrikingdifferencesamongspeciesingrossandmicroscopicstructureof
theplacenta.Twocharacteristicsareparticularlydivergentandformbasesforclassificationof
placentaltypes:
1.Thegrossshapeoftheplacentaandthedistributionofcontactsitesbetweenfetal
membranesandendometrium.
2.Thenumberoflayersoftissuebetweenmaternalandfetalvascularsystems.
Differencesinthesetwopropertiesallowclassificationofplacentasintoseveralfundamental
types.
ClassificationBasedonPlacentalShapeandContactPoints
Examinationofplacentaefromdifferentspeciesrevealsstrikingdifferencesintheirshapeandthe
areaofcontactbetweenfetalandmaternaltissue:
Diffuse:Almosttheentiresurfaceoftheallantochorionisinvolvedinformationofthe
placenta.Seeninhorsesandpigs.
Cotyledonary:Multiple,discreteareasofattachmentcalledcotyledonsareformedby
interactionofpatchesofallantochorionwithendometrium.Thefetalportionsofthistypeof
placentaarecalledcotyledons,thematernalcontactsites(caruncles),andthecotyledon
carunclecomplexaplacentome.Thistypeofplacentationisobservedinruminants.
Zonary:Theplacentatakestheformofacompleteorincompletebandoftissue
surroundingthefetus.Seenincarnivoreslikedogsandcats,seals,bears,andelephants.
Discoid:Asingleplacentaisformedandisdiscoidinshape.Seeninprimatesandrodents.
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1/31/2016
ClassificationBasedonLayersBetweenFetalandMaternalBlood
Justpriortoformationoftheplacenta,thereareatotalofsixlayersoftissueseparatingmaternal
andfetalblood.Therearethreelayersoffetalextraembryonicmembranesinthechorioallantoic
placentaofallmammals,allofwhicharecomponentsofthematureplacenta:
1.Endotheliumliningallantoiccapillaries
2.Connectivetissueintheformofchorioallantoicmesoderm
3.Chorionicepithelium,theoutermostlayeroffetalmembranesderivedfromtrophoblast
Therearealsothreelayersonthematernalside,butthenumberoftheselayerswhichare
retainedthatis,notdestroyedintheprocessofplacentationvariesgreatlyamongspecies.The
threepotentialmaternallayersinaplacentaare:
1.Endotheliumliningendometrialbloodvessels
2.Connectivetissueoftheendometrium
3.Endometrialepithelialcells
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1/31/2016
Inhumans,fetalchorionicepitheliumisbathedinmaternalbloodbecausechorionicvillihave
erodedthroughmaternalendothelium.Incontrast,thechorionicepitheliumofhorseandpig
fetusesremainsseparatedfrommaternalbloodby3layersoftissue.Onemightthusbetempted
toconsiderthatexchangeacrosstheequineplacentaismuchlessefficientthatacrossthe
humanplacenta.Inasensethisistrue,butotherfeaturesofplacentalstructuremakeupforthe
extralayersinthediffusionbarrierithasbeenwellstatedthat"Thenewbornfoalprovidesa
strongtestimonialtotheefficiencyoftheepitheliochorialplacenta."
SummaryofSpeciesDifferencesinPlacentalArchitecture
Theplacentalmammalshaveevolvedavarietyofplacentaltypeswhichcanbebroadlyclassified
usingthenomenclaturedescribedabove.Notallcombinationsofthoseclassificationschemes
areseenorarelikelytoeverbeseenforinstance,nomammalisknowntohaveadiffuse,
endotheliochorial,orahemoendothelialplacenta.Placentaltypesfor"familiar"mammalsare
summarizedbelow,withsupplementalinformationprovidedforavarietyof"nonfamiliar"species.
farheen79(Monday,August26,2013),Viceroy(Thursday,April23,2009),Raz(Sunday,May10,
2009),Shali(Thursday,October08,2009),zahraafzal(Monday,April27,2009)
Sunday,April19,2009
AFRMS
37thCommon
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Mammals
Mammals
Thereareapproximately4,260differentmammalianspeciesthathavebeendiscoveredtodate,althoughthisfigure
variesbecausenotallscientistsagreethatcertainorganismsareadistinctspecies.
Inaddition,newspeciesarealwaysbeingdiscovered,thereforethisfigureofhowmanydifferentmammalsexistis
alwayschanging.
Mammalsareallwarmblooded,andallmammalsarevertebrates(meaningtheyhavevertebrae,formingaspine),but
therearealsootheranimals,likebirds,thathavethesecharacteristics,sothereareadditionaltraitsthatsetmammals
apart.
CharacteristicsofMammals
Mammalshavesixkeycharacteristicsthatcanbeseenineachandeverymammal,anditsthesetraitsthatset
mammalsapartfromothertypesofcreatures:
1.Mammalsproducemilktofeedtheiryoung.Femalemammalspossessamodifiedsweatglandamammarygland
thatisactivatedbyhormonalchangesthatoccurwithpregnancy.Infact,thistraitiswhatinspiredtheterm
mammal,aderivationofmammary.
2.Mammalsallhaveonesinglebonecomprisingtheirlowerjaw.Inallotheranimals,morethanonebonecomprises
thejaw.
3.Allmammalshavethreetinybonesinthemiddleportionoftheear.
4.Allmammalshaveadiaphragm.Themammal'sdiaphragmisathinmuscularwallthatseparatestheupperand
lowerportionsofthetorso.
5.Allmammalshavefurorhair.Hairorfurisacharacteristicthat'sonlyseeninmammals.Allmammalsdevelopfur
orhairatsomepointduringtheirdevelopment,thoughnotallkeeptheirfurorhairthroughouttheirlifespan.
6.Mammalshaveauniqueheart.Theheartofamammalisuniqueinthatithasoneprimaryarteryleavingtheheart
bendingtotheleft,whereasotheranimalseitherhavemultiplearteriesintheheartortheheart'smainarterybendsina
differentdirection.
CategoriesofMammals
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Withintheclassofanimalsconsideredmammals,therearethreecategories:eutheria,metatheriaandprototheria.
Thethreecategoriesofmammalscanbedescribedasfollows:
1.EutheriaEutheriaaremammalspossessingaplacenta,likeahumanordog.
2.MetatheriaMetatheriaarealsoknownasmarsupialsorpouchbearingmammalslikethekangaroo.
3.PrototheriaPrototheriaarealsoknownasmonotremesoregglayingmammalsliketheduckbillplatypus.
ExclusiveTraitsofMammals
Inaddition,thereareafewcharacteristicsthatareexclusivetomammals,meaningonlyanimalshavethesetraits.
But,ineachcase,therearesomemammalsthatdon'thavethesetraits,whichiswhythey'redifferentfromthe
characteristicsofmammals(themammalcharacteristicsareseenineachandeverymammal).
Thevastmajorityoffemalemammalshaveaplacenta,usedtoprotectandnourishtheoffspringpriortobirth.
Marsupialsandmonotremesdonothaveaplacenta.
Intheirlifetime,amammalwillnothavemorethantwosetsofteeth.Typically,mammalsgrowonesetofteethas
juveniles,andthenanewpermanentsetgrowsinastheynearadulthood.
Amammaliswarmblooded,meaningithastheabilitytogenerateitsownbodyheatandmaintainasteadybody
temperature,despiteambienttemperaturechanges.
Mammalsalsohaveaseparationbetweentheirmouthandnasalcavity.Otheranimals,likereptilesdonothavean
upperpalatethisallowsthenasalcavitytoremainopenregardlessofwhetherthereissomethinginsidethemouth.
MultituberculatesAnExtinctCategoryofMammals
Inadditiontothethreecategoriesofmammalseutheria,metatheriaandprototheriatherewasonceafourth
mammalcategorythatisnowcompletelyextinct.
MultituberculatesareacategoryofmammalthataroseduringthelateJurassicperiod160millionyearsagoandthey
survivedupuntilabout35millionyearsago.
Multituberculateshavenolivingdescendantstoday,butfossilrecordsindicatethattheyweresimilartomodern
rodents.
Multituberculateswerenamedfortheirteeth.Thesemammalshadonepairofincisorsonthelowerjawandtheir
molarshadnumerouscuspsformingnumerousrowsofteeth.Thesemammalsalsolackedcanineteethontheupper
jaw,likemanyrodentsoftoday.
Viceroy(Thursday,April23,2009),Shali(Thursday,October08,2009)
Monday,April20,2009
AFRMS
37thCommon
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Birds
Birds,anIntroduction
Birdsarewarmbloodedvertebrates,withforelimbsmodifiedtowings,andskinscoveredwith
feathers.Vertebratesarecharacterisedbyhavingaspinalcolumnandaskull.Warmbloodedor
homoiothermic(constanttemperature)meansthattheirbodytemperatureiskeptmoreorless
constantandabovethatoftheirsurroundings.Typically,theforelimbsaswingsgivebirdsthe
powerofflightalthoughtherearesomeflightlessbirds.Insomecases(e.g.penguinsandpuffins)
thewingsareusedforswimmingunderwater.
Allbirdsreproducebylayingeggswhicharefertilisedinternallybeforelaying.
Theskullandlowerjawareextendedforwardintomandibleswhichmakeabeak.
Thebird'slegsandtoesarecoveredwithoverlappingscales.
Birdspossessathird,transparenteyelid,thenictitatingmembrane,whichcanmoveacrossthe
eye.
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Feathers
Thefeathersarethesingleexternalfeaturethatdistinguishbirdsfromothervertebrates.The
feathersareproducedfromtheskinwhichislooseanddry,withoutsweatglands,andtheyform
aninsulatinglayerroundthebird'sbody,helpingtokeepitstemperatureconstant,andrepelling
water.Thewingsarespeciallydevelopedforflight,havingalargesurfaceareaandverylittle
weight.
Thebarbulesofthefeathersinterlockinsuchawaythatshouldafeatherbedamagedinflight,
preeningwiththebeakwillreformitperfectly.
Thefeatherquillshaveattachedtothemmuscleswhichcanaltertheanglesofthefeathersfor
example,whenabirdfluffsitsfeathersoutincoldweather.Theyalsohaveanervesupplywhich,
whenthefeathersaretouched,isstimulatedinasimilarwaytoacat'swhiskers.
Thedownfeathersarefluffy,trappingalayerofairclosetothebody.Theflightfeathersand
covertsarebroadandflatandofferresistancetothepassageofair.
Theshapeofthebirdandthelayofitsfeathersmakeitstreamlinedinflight.
Featureswhichadaptthebirdforflying
1.Theforelimbsarewingswithalargesurfaceareaprovidedbyfeathers.However,ratherthan
beinganadaptationtoflighttheyareessentialforflighttotakeplace.
2.Largepectoralmusclesfordepressingthewings.Theymayaccountforasmuchasonefifthof
thebodyweightinsomebirds.
3.Adeep,keellikeextensionfromthesternum(breastbone)providesfortheattachmentofthe
pectoralmuscles.Welldevelopedcoracoidbonestransmittheliftofthewingstothebody.
4.Arigidskeletongivingafirmframeworkforattachmentofmusclesconcernedwithflying
movements.Manyoftheboneswhichcanmoveinmammalsarefusedtogetherinbirdsfor
example,thevertebraeofthespinalcolumninthebodyregion.
5.Hollowbones,whichreducethebird'sweight.
Locomotion
Theflightofabirdcanbedividedintoflapping,andglidingorsoaring,differentspeciesofbirds
usingthetwotypestovaryingextents.Inflappingflightthepectoralismajormusclecontracts,
pullingtheforelimbdown.Theresistanceoftheairtothewingproducesanupwardreactionon
thewing.Thisforceistransmittedthroughthecoracoidbonestothesternumandsoactsthrough
thebird'scentreofgravity,liftingitasawhole.
Inadditiontothelift,forwardmomentumisprovidedbytheslicingactionofthewing,particularly
nearthetip.Inthedownstroketheleadingedgeisbelowthetrailingedgesothattheairisthrust
backwardsandthebirdmovesforward.Thesecondaryfeathersprovidemuchoftheliftingforce
andtheprimariesmostoftheforwardcomponent.
Thebastardwing(agroupoffeathersattachedtothefirstdigit)maybeimportantduringtakeoff
forgivingaforwardthrust.Duringflightitmayfunctionasaslotmaintainingasmoothflowofair
overthewingsurface.
Theupstrokeofthewingismuchmorerapidthanthedownstroke.Thepectoralisminormuscle
contractsandraisesthewing,sinceitstendonpassesoveragrooveinthecoracoidtotheupper
sideofthehumerus.Oftenthearmissimplyrotatedslightlysothattheleadingedgeishigher
thanthetrailingedgeandtherushofairliftsthewing.Thewingisbentatthewristduringtheup
strokethusreducingtheresistance.Inaddition,thewayinwhichtheprimaryandsecondary
feathersoverlapproducesmaximumresistanceduringthedownstrokeandminimumresistance
ontheupstroke.
Inglidingflightthewingsareoutspreadandusedasaerofoils,thebirdslidingdowna'cushion'of
air,losingheightandgainingforwardmomentum.Sometimesupwardthermalcurrentsor
intermittentgustsofwindmaybeusedtogainheightwithoutwingmovementsinseagullsand
buzzardsforexample.
Generally,thefastflyingbirdshaveasmallwingareaandalargespan,withspeciallywell
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Generally,thefastflyingbirdshaveasmallwingareaandalargespan,withspeciallywell
developedprimaries,whiletheslowerbirdshaveshorter,widerwingswithwelldeveloped
secondaries.
Estimatesofspeedvaryfrom160km/hinswiftsto60km/hinracingpigeons.Thetailfeathers
helptostabilizethebirdinflightandareparticularlyimportantinbrakingandlanding.
Inwalking,thepostureofthebirdbringsthecentreofgravityofthebirdbelowthejointofthe
femurandpelvis.
Reproduction
Thedetailedpatternofreproductionandparentalcarevarieswidelyindifferentspeciesbut,in
general,itfollowsthecourseoutlinedbelow.
Pairing.Asequenceofbehaviouralactivities,e.g.courtshipdisplay,leadstopairformationa
maleandfemalebirdpairingatleastforthedurationofthebreedingseason.
Nestbuilding.Oneofthepairorbothbirdsconstructanestwhichmaybeanelaboratestructure
wovenfromgrass,leaves,feathers,etc.,orlittlemorethanahollowscrapedintheground.
Mating.Furtherdisplayleadstomating.Themalemountsthefemale,applieshisreproductive
openingstohersandpassesspermintoheroviduct,thusenablingtheeggstobefertilized
internally.
Egglaying.Thefertilizedeggisenclosedinalayerofalbumenandashellduringitspassage
downtheoviductandisfinallylaidinthenest.Usually,oneeggislaideachdayandincubation
doesnotbeginuntilthefullclutchhasbeenlaid.
Incubation.Thefemalebirdisusuallyresponsibleforincubation,keepingtheeggsata
temperatureapproximatingtoherownbycoveringthemwithherbodyandpressingthemagainst
herbroodingpatches,i.e.areasdevoidoffeatherswhichallowdirectcontactbetweentheskin
andtheeggshell.Incubationalsoreducesevaporationofwaterfromtheshell.Atthis
temperature,theeggsdevelopandhatchinaweekortwo.
Development.Thelivingcellsintheeggdividetomakethetissuesandorgansoftheyoung
birds.Theyolkprovidesthefoodforthisandthealbumenisasourceofbothfoodandwater.The
eggshellandshellmembranesarepermeable,andoxygendiffusesintotheairspace,being
absorbedbypartofthenetworkofcapillarieswhichspreadoutovertheyolkandoveraspecial
sac,theallantois,whichhasbecomeattachedtotheairspace.Thebloodcarriestheoxygento
theembryo.Carbondioxideiseliminatedbythereverseprocessthroughtheeggshell.Whenthe
chicksarefullydeveloped,theybreakoutoftheshellbyusingtheirbeaks.
Parentalcare.Thechicksoflarge,groundnestingbirds,e.g.pheasant,arecoveredwithdowny
feathersandcanrunaboutsoonafterhatching.Theypeckatobjectsonthegroundandsoon
learntodiscriminatematerialsuitableforfood.Theystayclosetothehen,respondingtohercalls
bytakingcoverorseekingheroutaccordingtothecircumstances.
Inmostotherspecies,thechickshatchwithfewornofeathers,helplessandwithclosedeyelids.
Havingnofeathers,theyareverysusceptibletoheatlossanddesiccation,andtheparentsbrood
them,coveringthenestwiththebodyandwings,soreducingevaporationandtemperature
fluctuations.Bothparentswillcollectsuitablefood,oftenworms,caterpillars,insectsandother
materialsequallyrichinprotein.Thesoundorsightoftheparentsapproachingthenestcauses
thenestlingstostretchtheirnecksandgapetheirbeaks.Thebrightorangecolourinsidethe
beaksinducestheparenttothrustthefooditiscarryingintotheopenbeaks.
Afteraweekortwo,theyoungbirdsbegintoclimboutofthenestandsitinthebushortreebut
theparentsstillfindandfeedthem.Whentheprimaryandsecondaryfeathershavedeveloped,
thefledglingsbeginshortpracticeflights.Thisisoneofthemostdangerousperiodsoftheirlives
sincetheycanfeedthemselvestoonlyalimitedextentandcannotescapefrompredatorssuch
ascatsandhawks.Someestimatessuggestthatonly25percentoftheeggslaidinopennests
ofthiskindreachthestageoffullyindependentbirds.
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ofthiskindreachthestageoffullyindependentbirds.
ahmadmba215(Tuesday,December21,2010),dr.taqiabass(Sunday,August15,2010),
farheen79(Monday,August26,2013),MalikNadeem06(Tuesday,July31,2012),mazar(Tuesday,
August19,2014),Viceroy(Tuesday,April21,2009),Shali(Thursday,October08,2009)
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