Physics

**REFRACTION**
REFRACTION
Change in speed of light in different optical media
CRITICAL ANGLE
The angle of incidence in the optically denser medium for which the angle of ref
raction in the optically less dense medium is 90 degrees
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
The complete reflection of a light ray reaching an interface with an optically l
ess dense medium when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.
OPTICAL FIBRES
Thin glass or plastic fibres that transmit light over long distances through tot
al internal reflection.
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRES IN TELECOMS
* Less signal loss experienced compared to copper wires
* Cheaper to manufacture
* Lighter
* Faster
RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDICES
* Relative refractive index is refractive index of a medium with respect to anot
her medium
* Absolute refractive index is refractive index of a medium with respect to vacu
um
**LENSES**
CONVERGING LENS
Causes parallel rays to converge behind the lens
DIVERGING LENS
Causes parallel rays to diverge behind the lens
FOCAL POINT
The point at which all rays parallel to the principal axis converge to after ref
raction by the lens
FOCAL LENGTH
The distance between the optical centre and the focal point
**KINETIC MODEL OF MATTER**
SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES
*Solids*
* Incompressible, little space between particles, fixed shape and volume
* Vibrate about fixed positions, held in regular position
*Liquids*
* Incompressible, particles still close together, fixed volume but no fixed shap
e
* Free to move about, sliding over and colliding with each other and with the wa
lls of the containers
*Gases*
* Compressible, particles far apart, no fixed volume or shape
* Move at high speed randomly & continuously, colliding with one another and wit
h the walls of the containers

BROWNIAN MOTION
*Observation*
Smoke particles appearing as light spots move in continuous random motion.
Smaller the particle, faster it moves.
*Conclusion*
Smoke particles experience an uneven bombardment by air molecules from all direc
tions.
To cause Brownian motion, the air particles must be in continuous random motion
at high speeds
TEMPERATURE
* Heated
* Increase in internal energy
* Increase in kinetic energy
* Molecules move faster
* Temperature increase
PRESSURE
* Continuous and random motion of particles
* Collide continuously with container
* Average force per unit area exerted on the container is the pressure
*CONSTANT: TEMPERATURE
CHANGE IN: VOLUME
CAUSES CHANGE IN: PRESSURE*
* Volume decreases
* Particles per unit volume increase
* Frequency of collisions increase
* Average force exerted on container per unit area increases
* Pressure increase
* Average kinetic energy of molecules unchanged
*CONSTANT: PRESSURE
CHANGE IN: TEMPERATURE
CAUSES CHANGE IN: VOLUME*
* Average kinetic energy of molecules increase
* Average force exerted on container per unit area increases
* The pressure of the container must equal the surrounding atmospheric pressure
* Container expands so the pressure is constant
*CONSTANT: VOLUME
CHANGE IN: TEMPERATURE
CAUSES CHANGE IN: PRESSURE*
* Average kinetic energy of molecules increase
* Average force exerted on container per unit area increases
* The pressure of the container must equal the surrounding atmospheric pressure
* Container cannot expand so the pressure increases
**TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY**
THERMAL ENERGY
Total kinetic energy of particles in a body
CONDUCTION
The process by which thermal energy is transferred in a medium from faster vibra
ting particles to slower ones through collisions
*Process in solids*
* Heated
* Gain kinetic energy

* Vibrate faster
* Collide with neighbouring particles, transferring kinetic energy
*Process in metals*
* Heated
* Free electrons gain kinetic energy
* Move from one atom to another in sea of delocalised electrons
* Transfer thermal energy faster than vibration of particles
CONVECTION
The process by which thermal energy is transmitted from one place to another by
the actual movement of heated portions of a gas or a liquid
*Process*
* Hotter portion of gas or liquid heated, expands and density decreases, hence r
ises
* Cooler portion of gas or liquid sinks to take its place
* Forms a convection current that distributes thermal energy
RADIATION
The transfer of thermal energy by electromagnetic waves, not requiring a materia
l medium
*Process*
All object emit and absorb radiation
Rate of thermal energy transfer affected by
* Surface colour
* Dark surfaces are good emitters and absorbers of radiation
* Bright surfaces are good reflectors of radiation
* Surface texture
* Rough surfaces are good emitters and absorbers of radiation
* Smooth surfaces are good reflectors of radiation
* Surface temperature
* The higher the temperature, the higher rate of radiation emission
* Area
* The larger the surface area, the higher the rate of radiation emission
THERMOMETRY
CONSTRUCTING A THERMOMETER
1. Choose a physical property that varies with temperature
2. Choose two fixed points
1. Constant under given temperatures to be easily reproduced
2. Each fixed point same on all thermometers
3. Divide temperature between two fixed points into divisions
1. E.g. 100 divisions between ice point and steam point in celsius
4. Find unknown temperature
1. Read off the scale directly
2. Obtain from calculation
FEATURES OF A THERMOMETER
* Responsiveness
* Measures how quickly the thermometer can measure changes in temperatur
e
* Sensitivity
* Measures the amount of change in thermometric property per unit change
in temperature
* Range
* Denotes the minimum and maximum temperatures that the thermometer can
measure
**THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER**

Internal energy = kinetic energy + potential energy (Intermolecular, nuclear, ch

emical)
Thermal energy = kinetic energy + potential energy (Intermolecular)
You can supply thermal energy, leading to an increase in internal energy
Increase in kinetic energy results in an increase in internal energy, and temper
ature
STATE CHANGE (Boiling, melting)
Thermal energy is used to do work to overcome intermolecular forces of attractio
n
Push back surrounding atmosphere
No increase in kinetic energy
No change in temperature
STATE CHANGE (Condensation, freezing)
Thermal energy is released by the formation of intermolecular forces of attracti
on
No decrease in kinetic energy
No change in temperature
HEAT CAPACITY
The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a body by 1K
*Joules per kelvin*
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a subst
ance by 1K
*Joules per kg per kelvin*
LATENT HEAT
The amount of thermal energy released or absorbed during a change of state
*Joules*
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT
The amount of thermal energy released or absorbed required to change the state o
f 1kg of a substance without any change in temperature
*Joules per kg*
EVAPORATION
* Occurs at any temperature
* Slow process
cess
* Take place only at the surface
* No bubbles formed
* Temperature decreases

BOILING
Occurs at fixed temperature
Fast pro
Takes place throughout the liquid
Bubbles formed
Temperature doesn t change

**DYNAMICS**
MASS
The property of a body which resists change in a state of rest or motion
INERTIA
The reluctance of an object with mass to move when a force is applied on it
Higher the mass, greater the inertia
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction
NEWTON S FIRST LAW
An object at rest or in uniform motion with constant velocity in a straight line

will remain so unless a force acts upon it.

NEWTON S SECOND LAW
The resultant force acting on a body is proportional to its acceleration, given
constant mass
F=ma
NEWTON S THIRD LAW
For every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force that acts o
n contrary bodies
**WORK ENERGY POWER**
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but converts from one form to another
WORK
Force x Distance
Joules
POWER
Joules per second
Watt
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
Mass x G (9.81ms-2) x Height
Joules
KINETIC ENERGY
1/2 x Mass x Velocity^2
Joules
EFFICIENCY
Useful energy output/Total energy input x100%
**WAVES**
Waves are made up of periodic motion
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter
WAVELENGTH (Lambda)
Shortest distance between any two points in a wave that are in phase (Moving in
same direction, same speed and have same displacement from rest position)
AMPLITUDE (A)
Maximum displacement from the rest position
PERIOD (T)
Time taken for one wave to complete one oscillation
FREQUENCY (f)
Number of complete waves produced per second
Hertz (Waves per second)
f=1/T
WAVE SPEED (v)
Speed of movement of crest of a transverse wave/compression of a longitudinal wa
ve
Velocity = Frequency x Wavelength
WAVEFRONT

An imaginary line on a wave that joins all points that are in the same phase
Can be concentric circles, lines, or other shapes
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
Direction of wave motion parallel to direction of vibration
Sound
TRANSVERSE WAVE
Direction of wave motion perpendicular to direction of vibration
EM Waves
**ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM**
PROPERTIES
Transverse waves
Travel at 3.0x10^8 m/s in vacuum
Do not require medium to propogate
Transfers energy
Obeys v=f(Lambda)
Obeys laws of reflection and refraction
No electric charge
Frequencies to not change when entering one medium from another
COMPOMENTS OF EM SPECTRUM
Radio Waves (Radio and TV communication)
Microwaves (Satellite television and microwave oven)
Infrared (Remote controls and intruder alarms)
Visible Light (Optical fibres for medical uses and telecommunications)
Ultraviolet Light (Sunbeds, sterilisation)
X-Ray (Radiological and engineering applications)
Gamma Rays (Radiosurgery)
EFFECTS OF EM WAVES ON HUMANS
*Heating*
Radiant heat infrared in nature
Skin absorbs infrared waves, making us feel warm
*Ionisation*
Ionise atoms and molecules
Damage to proteins, nucleic acids, DNA
Causing deformation in pregnancies and abnormal cell division (Cancer)
Premature ageing and shortened lifespan