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Conciliating the quantum theory and special relativity

for the photo detector experiment


Stefan Popescu1 and Bernhard Rothenstein2
1) Siemens AG, Erlangen, Germany stefan.popescu@siemens.com
2) Politehnica University of Timisoara, Physics Department,
Timisoara, Romania brothenstein@gmail.com

Abstract. We discuss the concept of wave energy packets and demonstrate that this
physical quantity can be also used in physical problems involving the relativistic effects.
We show that simple definition of energy density could lead to relativistic paradoxes and
contradict the time dilation and length contraction when applied to the free
electromagnetic waves.

1. Introduction
2. The concept of wave energy packet in the classic approach
The plane electromagnetic wave travels in vacuum as fleeting orthogonal
electric and magnetic fields. The field intensities oscillate spatially along the
direction of propagation and temporary normal to the direction of
propagation as depicted by figure 1.

Figure 1. Time-space propagation of the plane electromagnetic wave in vacuum


depicts the orthogonal electric and magnetic components that oscillate both temporary in
any point with period T and longitudinally at any time instant with period .

A stationary observer located at some arbitrary point x along the propagation


direction measures the local amplitude of the electric and magnetic field and
records synchronous electric and magnetic oscillations having the same
period T and the same phase. A group of observers equipped with
synchronized watches and distributed along the propagation direction

measure the local amplitude of the electric and magnetic field. When
comparing their measurements made at any arbitrary time t these observers
identify a longitudinally oscillating electric and magnetic field having the
same period = cT and the same phase. In the non-dissipative vacuum these
fleeting oscillations are mathematically described by the familiar wave
equations:
x

E ( x, t ) E max sin t
c

B ( x, t ) Bmax sin t
c

(1)

The synchronous oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields persuade us


to think that the energy carried by the wave also oscillates. For example an
observer using an electric antenna and a wire loop to probe these fields will
detect short time windows when either probe hardly outputs some signal
(insignificant wave energy is detected) alternating with time windows
showing maximum signals (peak wave energy is detected). By analogy with
ocean waves the energy peak is called a wave crest. The electromagnetic
wave energy travels as a succession of wave crests.
In the following section we calculate the energy carried by the plane
electromagnetic wave. The punctual and instantaneous energy density in the
wave space is given by the well known equation:

In vacuum

1
1
0 E 2 ( x, t ) 0 H 2 ( x, t ) 0 E 2 ( x, t ) c 2 B 2 ( x, t )
2
2
1

E ( x, t )
with H ( x, t ) 0 and c we get E ( x, t ) cB( x, t )
0 0
0

( x, t )

( x, t ) 0 E 2 ( x, t ) 0 H 2 ( x, t ) 0 c 2 B 2 ( x, t )

(2)
and:
(3)

Replacing the expressions for wave fields (1) we get the explicit form as:
x
x

2
( x, t ) 0 Emax
sin 2 t max sin 2 t
c
c

2
max 0 E max . This equation shows that the

(4)

with
energy carried by the plane
wave oscillates temporary at any arbitrary location and longitudinally at any
arbitrary time instant. The energy density changes between zero and a peak
value also called wave crest as further symbolically depicted by figure 2.
This figure represents intuitively the spatial-temporal oscillations of the
wave energy density as a travelling tread of spindles.

Figure 2. Time-Space propagation of the plane electromagnetic wave depicts


energy packets repeating spatially at half the wavelength period /2 and temporary at
half the wave period T/2

The average energy density in any arbitrary point x along the propagation
axis is given by a temporal integration of (4) as:
med ( x)

2
max 0 E max
2
x

sin

dt

max
T T/ 4
c
2
2

T /4

(5)

In a non-dissipative propagation medium the average energy density is the


same in any point. We calculate also the average energy density in the space
between two wave crests at any arbitrary time instant as:
med (t )

/4
2
max 0 E max
2
x

sin

dt

max
/ 4
c
2
2

(6)

In a non-dissipative propagation medium the average energy density is time


invariant.
The directional energy flow in the electromagnetic wave is further given by
the Poynting vector expressed as the wave power deposed per unit area:
S ( x , t ) 0 c 2 E ( x, t ) B ( x, t )

(7)
In a plane wave this vector is always pointing in the direction of wave
propagation and its amplitude is given by the expression:
S ( x, t ) c ( x, t ) c 0 E 2 ( x, t )
(8)
Figure 2 shows the Poynting vector S changing periodically in amplitude
from peak values at wave crests to zero values in between.
This behaviour supports us to assume that the wave energy is travelling as
discrete energy packets that we call wave energy packets - WEP. The
concept of wave energy packet is used here to delimit temporary or spatially
the periodic variations in energy density and should not be yet confronted
with the wave packet concept as known from quantum mechanics.

We are now concerned with calculating the average energy that the plane
wave transports by means of a single wave energy packet throughout a
stationary surface of area A orthogonal to the direction of wave propagation
at some arbitrary position x. This may be for example the average energy
stored into a photo-detector having a transversal sensitive window of area A
subsequent to the absorption of all light photons within a single wave
packet. We calculate the average energy by a time integrating of (4) for the
duration of the wave packet. In a non-dissipative propagation medium
(perfect vacuum), we have no attenuation during propagation and therefore
the average energy in the wave packet is the same in any point along the
propagation direction.
W packet

T /2

T /2

( x, t ) Acdt Ac 0

2
E ( x, t )dt AcT 0

2
E max
E2
A 0 max
4
4

(9)
For consistency we obtain the same result by a spatial integration along the
packet length at any arbitrary time instant t:
W packet

/2

/2

( x, t ) Adx A 0

2
E ( x, t )dx A 0

2
E max
4

3. The electromagnetic wave packet in the relativistic approach


In this approach we are concerned with the wave energy packets and how
they are seen from two inertial reference frames K and K' in the standard
arrangement as depicted in figure 3. A light source S stationary in reference
frame K emits a plane wave consisting of successive energy packets that are
measured by some stationary photo-detector PD in frame K and also by a
photo-detector PD' moving in respect with S in the positive direction of OX
axis.
The Lorentz transformations for the electromagnetic field components are:
E x E x

E y

B x B x

E z

E y V Bz
1 2
Ez V By
1 2

By

B z

V
Ez
c2
1 2

By

(10)

V
Ey
c2
1 2

Bz

where = V/c. For the plane and linear polarised wave we have
Ex=Bx=Ez=By=0 and therefore E'x=B'x=E'z=B'y=0 thus when seen from K' the
wave remains also linear polarised with the wave field intensities given by:
E ( x , t )

E ( x, t ) V B ( x, t )

B ( x , t )

1 2

V
E ( x, t )
c2
1 2

B ( x, t )

(11)
Using the expressions (1) for the stationary field components under the
vacuum condition E ( x, t ) cB( x, t ) and the inverse Lorenz transformation
for the space and time coordinates
1

( x Vt )

1
1

(t

V
x )
c2

(12)

we obtain the expression of wave components as seen by observers in K' as:


x
sin t
E ( x , t ) E max
c

x
sin t
B ( x , t ) Bmax
c

(13)
with

1
E max
1


E max


Bmax

1
Bmax
1

1
1

(14)

Therefore for the moving observers the wave remains plain polarised but the
wave frequency and the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic oscillations
decrease by the Doppler factor. The wavelength however increases by the
Doppler factor.
Y

Y'

S c

Wave A
volum
e

V
c

PD

A
PD'

'

K
O

Wave
volum
e

K'
O'

X, X'

Figure 3. The wave energy packets as measured by two similar photo detectors each stationary in its own reference frame

With these equations we calculate the energy of a single wave energy packet
as measured by the two similar photo detectors each stationary in its
reference frame using (6):
5


W packet
2 T 1 1
T Emax
2

W packet T Emax
T 1 1

(15)

The detector moving in respect to the light source is further subject to the
Doppler effect. Including the equations for the relativistic Doppler shift
T

1
1

W packet
W packet

we have finally:
1
1

(16)

which is the same equation as for the Lorentz transformation of energy.


We conclude that in a relativistic approach the wave energy packet is subject
to a couple of relativistic effects when seen by the observer that moves away
from the source:
A dilation of packet length (relativistic longitudinal dilation with the
Doppler factor)
A dilation of packet duration (relativistic time dilation with the
Doppler factor)
Einstein himself was aware of the fact that length contraction applied
to the transformation of the volume where the photons are located
leads to the paradoxical result that the counted number of photons is
not a relativistic invariant, proposing a way out of it. -,-- -A. Einstein,
Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Korper, Ann.Phys.Lpz, 17, 891-921
(1905) ; Jean Jacques Labarthe, Einsteins answer to Is the number
of photons a classical invariant. Eur.J.Phys. 20, 37-L38 (1999); J.E.
Avron, E.Berg, D.Goldsmith and A.Gordon, Is the number of
photons a classical invariant, Eur.J.Phys. 20, 153-159 (1999)
A relativistic transversal energy expansion, by which the energy
deposed on the same transversal area decreases with the Doppler
factor.
I do not understand the concept of transversal energy expansion and I
think it should be explained. As I see, so far all the results are
expressed as a function of the second type of observers who are able
to detect only multiples of wave lengths and periods. Einstein type
observer does not measure energy being equipped with measuring
rods and clocks only.

We underline here the fundamental difference between the energy


propagating in vacuum as travelling electromagnetic wave energy packets
(which we call further unbounded energy) and other forms of energy which
is somehow bounded to any form of matter (matter bounded energy) as for
instance sound waves propagating through an elastic material. The matter
bounded form of energy is subject to the relativistic time dilation and length
contraction effects, whereas the unbounded electromagnetic energy is
subject uniquely to the Doppler time and length dilation.
4. The wave energy packet in the quantum mechanics approach
In the spirit of quantum mechanics the wave packet is a mathematical
solution for the Schrdinger equation. The square of the area under the wave
packet solution is interpreted as the probability to locate the particle in a
certain region. In a further quantization approach the energy of light is a
discrete function of its frequency E=Nh or instead the accumulated energy
of N photons each photon caring the same elementary quanta of energy
Ephoton=h. Based on this century old valuable knowledge and including the
concept of the wave energy packet that we introduced previously we are
motivated to elaborate some new working hypothesizes:
Because the energy density in plane wave oscillates periodically
passing through zero we conclude that the wave energy travels as
discrete groups of photons. These groups of photons correspond to
the wave energy packet that we introduced earlier and are
consequently separated longitudinally by the period /2 and
temporary by the period T/2.
The probability to detect a photon in the region of an wave energy
packet approach zero at the packet limits (where the electric and
magnetic field are both approaching zero) and increases to maximum
in the middle of the packet (where the intensities of the electric and
magnetic field are both reaching the local maximum).
In conclusion we may interpret the wave energy packet as being the photon
probability distribution function, i.e. the probability to locate the photons
carrying the wave energy in a certain region of space and at certain time. In
consequence a photo-detector placed at some arbitrary position along the
propagation direction and working in counting mode will record a
periodically changing counting rate oscillating between a maximum that
depends on the peak wave energy and a minimum that approaches zero.
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Consistently, a set of photo detectors placed at different positions along the


propagation axis will record at a given time different instantaneous counting
rates depending on their relative position. Photo-detectors separated by a
multiple of wavelength will record at any time equal instantaneous counting
rates with their counting rates changing synchronously.
With this hypothesis in mind we proceed now by calculating the average
number of photons within a wave packet as counted by the stationary photo
detectors in figure 3. We have:
N

W packet
h

and N

W packet

(14)

These numbers are statistically significant if the experiment is repeated


many times to get rid of the errors caused by quantum noise fluctuations. We
find further that:

N W packet
T

1
N W packet T

(15)

therefore the average number of photons inside an wave packet is relativistic


invariant. Nevertheless in the prior section we found an effect of
longitudinal photon spreading. Thus, even if the number of photons in the
wave packet is relativistic invariant, the average packet energy decreases
whilst simultaneously the packet length increases, which by a quantum
approach means that the photon probability distribution function stronger
decreases. The conclusion may be that even if the speed of light is the same
for all relativistic observers, the light photons may be sharply located by
observers that are stationary in respect to the light source than the ones
departing the source.

5. The wave energy packets and the wave volume

cT
In equations (5-7) we make the notations 2 A 2

and m 0

2
E max
2

where is the WEP volume corresponding to transversal area A and m is the


mean energy density or the average energy density in the wave volume. With
these notations we have:

W packet
W packet

m
m

(16)

Replacing the transformation factors from (11) and (13) we obtain:


8

2 1
m Emax
2
m Emax
1

(17)

2 W packet 1
m W packet Emax

2

m W packet
1
Emax W packet

(18)

We conclude that the volume of unbounded wave packet is subject to


Doppler dilation and not to Lorentz contraction as the volume of matter or
material objects.
6. The energy density and the wave interference
In this experiment we further analyse the relativistic effects associated with
the interference of electromagnetic waves occurring within a bounded
volume.
Y

Y'

S2

S1

/2

K
-L

K'
O'

X, X'

Figure 4. The interference of electromagnetic waves inside a bounded volume as


seen from two inertial reference frames

Two identical monochromatic light sources of same colour and polarisation


are stationary in the reference frame K and separated axially by proper
distance 2L and synchronised such that a stationary wave occurs in the
volume in-between these sources. Because the electromagnetism is a linear
phenomenon the principle of superposition holds true and we calculate the
result of interference process by addition of electric and magnetic vector
components.

Figure 5. Collision of two electromagnetic wave fronts propagating in opposite


directions involves the vector additions of the electric and magnetic field.

Using the wave equations (1) we get:


xL
xL

Ei ( x, t ) E max sin t
E max sin t

c
c

xL
xL

Bi ( x, t ) Bmax sin t
Bmax sin t

c
c

(20)

Substituting = 2c/ we obtain the final relations:


Ei ( x, t ) 2 E max cos

2x
L

sin t

(21)
Bi ( x, t ) 2 Bmax sin

2x
L

cos t

Equation above reveals that the interference process enforces a stationary


envelope for the field oscillations in the interference wave. In the stationary
wave the amplitude of the electric field oscillations
magnetic field oscillations

2 Bmax sin

2x

2 E max cos

2x

and

depend exclusively on the actual

position along the OX axis. We notice several particular positions xe with


cos

2xe
2xe
1 sin
0 where the interference wave has only an electric

component with the magnetic component being permanent zero and other
positions xb with cos

2xb
2xb
0 sin
1 where the interference wave has

only a magnetic component.

We calculate the energy density in the interference wave as:


i ( x, t )

0 2

Ei ( x, t ) c 2 Bi2 ( x, t )
2

(22)

10

For each of the interfering waves we have E max cBmax , with the peak energy
2
density in each wave being max 0 E max
and the average spatial-temporal
2
0 E max
. With this (22) becomes:
2

2x
L
2x
L

i ( x, t ) 2 max cos 2
sin 2 t sin 2
cos 2 t

1
2

energy density med max

(23)

Figure 5. The pulsing of the energy density within the interference volume

Figure above depicts a graphical representation of the spatial-temporal


energy distribution as resulted by the interference process at three particular
time instants separated by a quarter of the primary wave period T/4. We
identify several particular positions xn called nodes with
cos 2

2xn
2xn 1
sin 2
where the energy density is constant all the time and

equal to i ( xn , t ) max . We further identify several time instants to with


L
L
1

sin 2 t 0 cos 2 t 0
c
c
2

occurring regularly at half of primary wave

period T/2 when the energy density is constant in the whole interference
volume and equal to i ( x, t 0 ) max . Finally we identify a set of particular
positions xa called anti-nodes that is actuality the reunion of subsets xe and xb
where the energy density is pulsing in between 0 and an absolute maximum
equal to i ( xa , t ) 2 max . For all other axial positions in-between the nodes
and anti-nodes the energy density is pulsing periodically in between two
extreme values symmetric around the average value max .
We conclude our analysis by underling that the nodes and anti-nodes are
simply points in medium which build up the interference pattern. Contrary to
wave crests that travel at light speed along the propagation direction, the
positions of nodes and anti-nodes remain the same in the stationary reference
frame of the light sources. The distance between two adjacent nodes is /4
equal to the distance between two adjacent anti-nodes.

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The wave energy packets in the interference volume


As revealed by the previous analysis we know that in each anti-node either
the electric or the magnetic field component is permanent null, therefore as
the resulting Poynting vector S ( x , t ) 0 is permanent null we dont record
any net energy transport in-between the spatial regions separated by antinodes. This supports us to define the wave energy packet for the interference
wave as the volume delimited by two anti-nodes. Within such a WEP the
electromagnetic energy appears to bounce periodically between anti-nodes
flowing from left-to-right until the energy density at the left side anti-node
reach zero and then back from right-to-left until the energy density at the left
side anti-node reaches the maximum 2 max . In this manner the energy
density in the middle i.e. at the packet node remains permanent constant
max . The average spatial-temporal energy density in the WEP is therefore
equal to i ,med max 2 med which means that the average energy density in
the interference WEP is equal to the sum of average energy densities in the
WEPs of the interfering waves. This is a new way to express the energy
conservation low in terms of wave energy packets.
i

The wave interference in quantum mechanics approach


As before, we interpret the electromagnetic field density as a volumetric
photon density or the average probability of detecting a photon sometime
and somewhere in the field volume. In the figure below we represent
intuitively the distribution of photons by different gray intensities (darker
gray represents higher photon density). We also represent the wave packets
as spindles whereas the spindle thickness represents the energy density
(larger thickness represents higher electromagnetic density).

Figure 5. Illustrating the wave interference in quantum mechanics approach

At the particular interference anti-node located at x=0 the energy density


reaches a maximum peak when the photon densities in both primary waves
reach simultaneously the same maximum value. However we cant record
any net energy transport at this position as the photons of the interfering
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waves travel in opposite directions. After a half wave period the photon
density in both interfering waves reaches zero at this anti-node and therefore
the wave density at this position also reaches zero. In quantum mechanics
approach the probability to detect a photon at this moment and at this point
is infinite small.
At the particular interference node located at x=/8 the photon density never
reaches zero. Here we find always some photons belonging to either of the
interfering waves. As resulted by calculation actually the total number of
photons at the node position is invariant with time. However the relative
composition of these photons changes continuously from 100% photons
travelling leftward, throughout 50%-50%, to 100% photons travelling
rightward. Therefore the net energy transport at any node position reverses
direction periodically forth and back depending on which interfering wave is
dominant at once i.e. it just happens to embrace many photons than the
other.
- Sa calculez energia totala intr-un pachet (fus) de interferenta si numarul de
fotoni din el. Care este energia fotonului in unda de interferenta?

Figure 5. Collision of two electromagnetic wave fronts propagating in opposite


directions involves the vector additions of the electric and magnetic fields.

The relativistic approach


For the observers of the moving frame K' the steady oscillation packets in
the frame K appear to shift at constant speed in the negative direction of the
O'X' axes. With that a net energy flow occurs for the observers in K'.
Using the inverse Lorenz transformation for space and time we obtain the
new expression for the field components as seen by observers in K' as:
Indeed according to equations (9) we have:
E

E
1

and

1
1

V
E)
c2

(25)

13

With (25) we calculate the energy density measured by observers in K' as:

1 2 2 2 1 2 1
(x t ), 0 E (x t ), c B (x t ), 0E tx ),( 2
2
2 1

2
(26)

Therefore the local energy density for the interference volume changes as:
( x , t ) 1 2

( x, t ) 1 2

(27)

We obtain the same result considering that the energy density of interference
volume in frame K' is build up by the superposition of two plane waves
generated by two travelling sources moving in opposite directions at same
speed and creating the energy densities given by:
1 2 1

1 2 1

and

1 2 1

1 2 1

(28)

For the stationary frame we have + = - = 1/2 where is the energy density
in the interference volume. Appling further the principle of energy
conservation in frame K' we calculate the energy density of the interference
pattern as seen from K' with:

1 1
1 2


2 1 1
1 2

(29)

which is the same result as in (27).


The observers of moving frame contemplate three relativistic effects:
1. The relativistic (Lorenz) contraction of the packet length /2, which is

1 2

. Here is not the wavelength of free space travelling

wave but it is a measure of stationary points in medium wherein the


interference pattern occurs.
2. ??? The known Doppler dilation of wave period T by

1
1

Because in the stationary interference pattern we dont have a net


energy transport, the period of electrical field oscillation T is
disconnected from the interference period .

14

( x, t ) 1 2
3. The increase of energy density by ( x, t ) 1 2 . This result is the

same for observers moving in the positive or in the negative direction


of OX axes.
The quantum mechanics approach
Aici trebuie sa investighez cum se transforma energia intr-un pachet / fus de
interferenta, cum se exprima energia photonilor daca numarul ramine
constant si cum se schimba frecventa lor.
6. Bounded und unbounded energy in the laser experiment
We further refine our concept of bounded energy by contemplating another
experiment as seen from the two inertial reference frames. Consider a FabryPerot laser as stationary light source in frame K that emits a laser beam
extending enough transversally to be approximated by a plane wave. The
laser resonant cavity consists of two parallel mirrors and extends over the
length L when measured from frame K and respectively L' when measured
from frame K'. We consider the particular case when the Fabry-Perot lasing
cavity resonates in a fundamental longitudinal mode. As known to those
familiar with this laser technique, the right side mirror is semitransparent
allowing for a part of energy inside the laser to leave the lasing cavity at the
right site. In this scenario we are confronted with two relativistic effects:
1. The laser cavity length contraction as predicted by the Lorentz
transformations:

L
1 2
L

2. The energy packet length dilation in vacuum (outside the laser cavity)
as demonstrated above:

1
1

????

Our special concern is now the energy inside the cavity (which according to
our previous definition is a particular form of bounded energy) and how it is
seen by observers of the moving frame. This experiment could be also
realized using a resonant microwave cavity that is excited at the left side by
a microwave oscillator whose frequency is fine tuned such that a stationary
electromagnetic wave occurs along the cavity length.

15

Y'
Resonant
cavity

Resonant
cavity

L'

o'

K'
X O'

X'

Figure 4. Bounded and unbounded energy packets for the Fabry-Perot laser
experiment as seen from two inertial reference frames.

In the stationary reference frame of the cavity we have L=k or in particular


L= for k = 1. Considering now the resonant cavity as seem from frame K'
and encouraged by the relativity postulates we reason that the cavity should
be yet at resonance when seem from K', therefore with L'='. Under these
circumstances we get different transformation equation for wavelength, and
energy density for the bounded electromagnetic wave as follows:

1 2

m
1

m
1

????

(19)

Thus the bounded and unbounded energy transform differently and this
could be explained by the Heisenbergs uncertainty principle stating that we
cant measure simultaneously the energy and the bounding volume of the
electromagnetic wave.
8. The wave packet concept applied to the Margaritondos experiment1
In this experiment a photo-detector stationary in a reference frame K counts
the number of incident photons. The same experiment is contemplated by
the observers of a second inertial reference frame K' that is moving at
constant speed V relative to the first frame.

16

Y'

Y
K at t = t0

b
K' at t = t0

PD
c

PD
c

'

O'

X'

ct

Y'

ut
A

A
K at t = t0+t

PD

K' at t = t0+t

PD

O'

X'
Figure 5. Margaritondos experiment used for deriving the transformation
equation for the energy of a photon. Figure 4a depicts the experiment as detected from
the rest frame of the photomultiplier whereas Figure 4b illustrates the experiment as
detected from a reference frame that moves uniformly in respect to the first one.

We accept that the number of photon counts is the same when viewed by the
observers of the two inertial frames and we apply the concept of wave
packet that we presented before. We know that the average number of
photons per wave packet is invariant. Therefore if the photo-detector is
counting let say two complete wave packets in frame K then it shall count
also two complete wave packets when seen from frame K' to get the same
number of counts. We calculate the time window required to perform the
counting process. In frame K we have
t

whereas in frame K' we have

were Vrel is the relative speed between the photo-detector and the
Vrel

wave packets as seen by observes in frame K'. This is the apparent speed
between the wave packets (the wave front of the light signal) and a moving
object in frame K' and not the speed of light c as properly seen by the photodetector from its own reference frame. Using the Lorentz transformation for
the measurement time intervals

t
1

t
1 2

and the relativistic Doppler


17

shift

as:
Vrel c

we obtain the final relation for the apparent relative speed

c 1 c V
t

(20)

which confirms the Margaritondos assumption.


9. Conclusion
We introduced the concept of electromagnetic wave packet and analyzed the
way this concept could be used to conciliate different physical approaches
including the classical electromagnetic wave theory, the special relativity
and the quantum mechanics. The length of unbounded wave packet doesnt
transform as the length of the meter stick, which is subject to length
contraction, but as the wavelength thus dilating with increasing velocity.
This further sustains the proposal to measure the wave volume as discrete
entities2. We conclude by asserting that the phenomenon of photon density
expansion in combination with special relativity deserves a deeper
consideration as the light signals are extensively used in relativistic
scenarios, not at last by the Einsteins clock synchronization methods.
References
1
G.Margaritondo, Quantization, Doppler shift and invariance of the speed
of light: some didactic problems and opportunities, Eur.J.Phys. 16 169-171
(1996)
2
B.Rothestein and S.Popescu, Quantization, Doppler shift and the
invariance of the speed of light via the invariance of the counted numbers of
photons: An interesting pedagogical problem, arXiv (2007)
3
D.L.Khokhlov, Quantum mechanical constrains on the measurement of the
density of the electromagnetic energy, arXiv:physics/0402022 v1, 5 Feb.
2004

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