UNIT-1

FLEXIBILITY MATRIX METHODS

Since twentieth century, indeterminate structures are being widely used for its obvious
merits. It may be recalled that, in the case of indeterminate structures either the reactions or the
internal forces cannot be determined from equations of statics alone. In such structures, the
number of reactions or the number of internal forces exceeds the number of static equilibrium
equations. In addition to equilibrium equations, compatibility equations are used to evaluate the
unknown reactions and internal forces in statically indeterminate structure. In the analysis of
indeterminate structure it is necessary to satisfy the equilibrium equations (implying that the
structure is in equilibrium) compatibility equations (requirement if for assuring the continuity of
the structure without any breaks) and force displacement equations (the way in which
displacement are related to forces). We have two distinct method of analysis for statically
indeterminate structure depending upon how the above equations are satisfied:
1. Force method of analysis (also known as flexibility method of analysis, method of consistent
deformation, flexibility matrix method)
2. Displacement method of analysis (also known as stiffness matrix method).

In the force method of analysis, primary unknown are forces. In this method compatibility
equations are written for displacement and rotations (which are calculated by force displacement
equations). Solving these equations, redundant forces are calculated. Once the redundant forces
are calculated, the remaining reactions are evaluated by equations of equilibrium.
In the displacement method of analysis, the primary unknowns are the displacements. In this
method, first force -displacement relations are computed and subsequently equations are written
satisfying the equilibrium conditions of the structure. After determining the unknown
displacements, the other forces are calculated satisfying the compatibility conditions and force
displacement relations. The displacement-based method is amenable to computer programming
and hence the method is being widely used in the modern day structural analysis. In general, the
maximum deflection and the maximum stresses are small as compared to statically determinate
structure. For example, consider two beams of identical cross section and span carrying
uniformly distributed load as shown in Fig. 7.1a and Fig. 7.1b.

The loads are also the same in both cases. In the first case, the beam is fixed at both ends and
thus is statically indeterminate. The simply supported beam in Fig. 7.1b is a statically
determinate structure. The maximum bending moment in case of fixed- fixed beam is wL2/12
2

(which occurs at the supports) as compared to wl /8 (at the centre) in case of simply supported
beam. Also in the present case, the deflection
in the case of fixedfixed beam
4

wl /384EI is five times smaller than that of simply supported beam 5wl /384EI

. Also, there is

redistribution of stresses in the case of redundant structure. Hence if one member fails, structure
does not collapse suddenly. The remaining members carry the load. The determinate structural
system collapses if one member fails. However, there are disadvantages in using indeterminate
structures. Due to support settlement, there will be additional stresses in the case of redundant
structures where as determinate structures are not affected by support settlement.
The analysis of indeterminate structure differs mainly in two aspects as compared to determinate
structure.
a) To evaluate stresses in indeterminate structures, apart from sectional properties (area of cross section
and moment of inertia), elastic properties are also required.
b) Stresses are developed in indeterminate structure due to support settlements, temperature change and
fabrication errors etc.

Instructional Objectives
After reading this chapter the student will be
1. Able to analyse statically indeterminate structure of degree one.
2. Able to solve the problem by either treating reaction or moment as redundant.
3. Able to draw shear force and bending moment diagram for statically indeterminate beams.
4. Able to state advantages and limitations of force method of analysis.

7.1 Introduction.
In this lesson, a general introduction is given to the force method of analysis of indeterminate
structure is given. In the next lesson, this method would be applied to statically indeterminate beams.
Initially the method is introduced with the help of a simple problem and subsequently it is discussed
in detail. The flexibility method of analysis or force method of analysis (or method of consistent
deformation) was originally developed by J. Maxwell in 1864 and O. C. Mohr in 1874. Since
flexibility method requires deflection of statically determinate structure, a table of formulas for
deflections for various load cases and boundary conditions is also given in this lesson for ready use.
The force method of analysis is not convenient for computer programming as the choice of redundant
is not unique. Further, the bandwidth of the flexibility matrix in the force method is much larger than
the stiffness method. However it is very useful for hand computation.

7.2 Simple Example

Consider a propped cantilever beam (of constant flexural rigidity EI, and span L), which is carrying
uniformly distributed load of as shown in Fig. 7.2a. The beam is statically indeterminate i.e. its
reaction cannot be evaluated from equations of statics alone. To solve the above problem by force
method proceeds as follows.
1) Determine the degree of statically indeterminacy. In the present case it is one. Identify the
reaction, which can be treated as redundant in the analysis. In the present case or can be
treated as redundant. Selecting RB as the redundant, the procedure is illustrated.
Subsequently, it will be shown how to attack the problem by treating M A as redundant.

UNIT-2 Plastic Analysis

1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Up to now we have concentrated on the elastic analysis of structures. In these analyses we used
superposition often, knowing that for a linearly elastic structure it was valid. However, an elastic
analysis does not give information about the loads that will actually collapse a structure. An
indeterminate structure may sustain loads greater than the load that first causes a yield to occur at
any point in the structure. In fact, a structure will stand as long as it is able to find redundancies
to yield. It is only when a structure has exhausted all of its redundancies will extra load causes it
to fail. Plastic analysis is the method through which the actual failure load of a structure is
calculated, and as will be seen, this failure load can be significantly greater than the elastic load
capacity.
To summarize this, Prof. Sean de Courcy (UCD) used to say:
a structure only collapses when it has exhausted all means of standing.
Before analyzing complete structures, we review material and cross section behaviour
beyond the elastic limit.
Basis of Plastic Design
2.1 Material Behaviour
A uniaxial tensile stress on a ductile material such as mild steel typically provides the
following graph of stress versus strain:

As can be seen, the material can sustain strains far in excess of the strain at which yield
occurs before failure. This property of the material is called its ductility.
Though complex models do exist to accurately reflect the above real behaviour of the
material, the most common, and simplest, model is the idealized stress-strain curve. This is
the curve for an ideal elastic-plastic material (which doesnt exist), and the graph is:

As can be seen, once the yield has been reached it is taken that an indefinite amount of strain can
occur. Since so much post-yield strain is modeled, the actual material (or cross section) must also
be capable of allowing such strains. That is, it must be sufficiently ductile for the idealized
stress-strain curve to be valid. Next we consider the behaviour of a cross section of an ideal
elastic-plastic material subject to bending. In doing so, we seek the relationship between applied
moment and the rotation (or more accurately, the curvature) of a cross section.
Cross Section Behaviour
Moment-Rotation Characteristics of General Cross Section
We consider an arbitrary cross-section with a vertical plane of symmetry, which is also the plane
of loading. We consider the cross section subject to an increasing bending moment, and assess
the stresses at each stage.

Cross section and Stresses

Moment-Rotation Curve
Stage 1 Elastic Behaviour
The applied moment causes stresses over the cross-section that are all less than the yield stress of
the material.
Stage 2 Yield Moment
The applied moment is just sufficient that the yield stress of the material is reached at the
outermost fibre(s) of the cross-section. All other stresses in the cross section are less than the
yield stress. This is limit of applicability of an elastic analysis and of elastic design. Since all
fibres are elastic, the ratio of the depth of the elastic to plastic regions,
Stage 3 Elasto-Plastic Bending
The moment applied to the cross section has been increased beyond the yield moment. Since by
the idealized stress-strain curve the material cannot sustain a stress greater than yield stress, the
fibres at the yield stress have progressed inwards towards the centre of the beam. Thus over the
cross section there is an elastic core and a plastic region. The ratio of the depth of the elastic core
to the plastic region is . Since extra moment is being applied and no stress is bigger than the yield
stress, extra rotation of the section occurs: the moment-rotation curve losses its linearity and
curves, giving more rotation per unit moment (i.e. looses stiffness).
Stage 4 Plastic Bending

The applied moment to the cross section is such that all fibres in the cross section are at yield
stress. This is termed the Plastic Moment Capacity of the section since there are no fibres at an
elastic stress, Also note that the full plastic moment requires an infinite strain at the neutral axis
and so is physically impossible to achieve. However, it is closely approximated in practice. Any
attempt at increasing the moment at this point simply results in more rotation, once the crosssection has sufficient ductility. Therefore in steel members the cross section classification must
be plastic and in concrete members the section must be under-reinforced.
Stage 5 Strain Hardening
Due to strain hardening of the material, a small amount of extra moment can be sustained.
The above moment-rotation curve represents the behaviour of a cross section of a regular elasticplastic material. However, it is usually further simplified as follows:

With this idealized moment-rotation curve, the cross section linearly sustains moment up to the
plastic moment capacity of the section and then yields in rotation an indeterminate amount.
Again, to use this idealization, the actual section must be capable of sustaining large rotations
that is it must be ductile.

Plastic Hinge
Note that once the plastic moment capacity is reached, the section can rotate freely that is, it
behaves like a hinge, except with moment of Mp at the hinge. This is termed a plastic hinge, and

is the basis for plastic analysis. At the plastic hinge stresses remain constant, but strains and
hence rotations can increase.
Analysis of Rectangular Cross Section
Since we now know that a cross section can sustain more load than just the yield moment, we are
interested in how much more. In other words we want to find the yield moment and plastic
moment, and we do so for a rectangular section. Taking the stress diagrams from those of the
moment-rotation curve examined previously, we have:

Shape Factor
Thus the ratio of elastic to plastic moment capacity is:

This ratio is termed the shape factor, f, and is a property of a cross section alone. For a
rectangular cross-section, we have:

And so a rectangular section can sustain 50% more moment than the yield moment,
before a plastic hinge is formed. Therefore the shape factor is a good measure of the efficiency
of a cross section in bending. Shape factors for some other cross sections are

Methods of Plastic Analysis

3.1 Introduction
There are three main approaches for performing a plastic analysis:
The Incremental Method
This is probably the most obvious approach: the loads on the structure are incremented until the
first plastic hinge forms. This continues until sufficient hinges have formed to collapse the
structure. This is a labour-intensive, brute-force, approach, but one that is most readily suited
for computer implementation.
The Equilibrium (or Statical) Method

In this method, free and reactant bending moment diagrams are drawn. These diagrams are
overlaid to identify the likely locations of plastic hinges. This method therefore satisfies the
equilibrium criterion first leaving the two remaining criterion to derived there from.
The Kinematic (or Mechanism) Method
In this method, a collapse mechanism is first postulated. Virtual work equations are then written
for this collapse state, allowing the calculations of the collapse bending moment diagram. This
method satisfies the mechanism condition first, leaving the remaining two criteria to be derived
there from.
We will concentrate mainly on the Kinematic Method, but introduce now the Incremental
Method to illustrate the main concepts.
Incremental Analysis
Illustrative Example Propped Cantilever
We now assess the behaviour of a simple statically indeterminate structure under
increasing load. We consider a propped cantilever with mid-span point load:

Since the peak moments are less than the yield moments, we know that yield stress has not been
reached at any point in the beam. Also, the maximum moment occurs at A and so this point will
first reach the yield moment.

Equilibrium Method
Introduction
To perform this analysis we generally follow the following steps:
1. Find a primary structure by removing redundant until the structure is statically determinate;
2. Draw the primary (or free) bending moment diagram;
3. Draw the reactant BMD for each redundant, as applied to the primary structure;
4. Construct a composite BMD by combing the primary and reactant BMDs;
5. Determine the equilibrium equations from the composite BMD;

6. Choose the points where plastic hinges are likely to form and introduce into the equilibrium
equations;
7. Calculate the collapse load factor, or plastic moment capacity as required.

For different possible collapse mechanisms, repeat steps 6 and 7, varying the hinge locations.
We now apply this method to the Illustrative Example previously analyzed.
Steps 1 to 3 of the Equilibrium Method are illustrated in the following diagram:

For Step 4, in constructing the Composite BMD, we arbitrarily choose tension on the underside
of the beam as positive. By convention in the Equilibrium Method, instead of drawing the two
BMDs on opposite sides (as is actually the case), the reactant BMD is drawn flipped over the
line and subtracted from the primary BMD: the net remaining area is the final BMD. This is best
explained by illustration below:

For Step 7, we solve this equation for the collapse load:

Kinematic Method Using Virtual Work

Introduction
Probably the easiest way to carry out a plastic analysis is through the Kinematic Method using
virtual work. To do this we allow the presumed shape at collapse to be the compatible
displacement set, and the external loading and internal bending moments to be the equilibrium
set. We can then equate external and internal virtual work, and solve for the collapse load factor
for that supposed mechanism.
Remember:
Equilibrium set: the internal bending moments at collapse;
Compatible set: the virtual collapsed configuration (see below).

Note that in the actual collapse configuration the members will have elastic deformation in
between the plastic hinges. However, since a virtual displacement does not have to be real, only
compatible, we will choose to ignore the elastic deformations between plastic hinges, and take
the members to be straight between them.
Actual Collapse Mechanism
So for our previous beam, we know that we require two hinges for collapse (one more than its
degree of redundancy), and we think that the hinges will occur under the points of peak moment,
A and C. Therefore impose a unit virtual displacement at C and relate the corresponding virtual
rotations of the hinges using ,

Other Collapse Mechanisms

For the collapse mechanism looked at previously, it seemed obvious that the plastic hinge in the
span should be beneath the load. But why? Using virtual work we can examine any possible
collapse mechanism. So lets consider the following collapse mechanism and see why the plastic
hinge has to be located beneath the load.
Plastic Hinge between A and C:
Imposing a unit virtual deflection at B, we get the following collapse mechanism:

And so we see that the collapse load factor for this mechanism depends on the position of the
plastic hinge in the span.
Theorems of Plastic Analysis
4.1 Criteria
In Plastic Analysis to identify the correct load factor, there are three criteria of importance:
1. Equilibrium: the internal bending moments must be in equilibrium with the external loading.
2. Mechanism: at collapse the structure, or a part of, can deform as a mechanism.

3. Yield: no point in the structure can have a moment greater than the plastic moment capacity of
the section it is applied to.
Based on these criteria, we have the following theorems.

The Upper bound (Unsafe) Theorem

This can be stated as:

If a bending moment diagram is found which satisfies the conditions of equilibrium

and mechanism (but not necessarily yield), then the corresponding load factor is
either greater than or equal to the true load factor at collapse.
This is called the unsafe theorem because for an arbitrarily assumed mechanism the load factor is
either exactly right (when the yield criterion is met) or is wrong and is too large, leading a
designer to think that the frame can carry more load than is actually possible.

The Lower bound (Safe) Theorem

If a bending moment diagram is found which satisfies the conditions of equilibrium and yield
(but not necessarily that of mechanism), then the corresponding load factor is either less than or
equal to the true load factor at collapse.

Plastic Analysis of Beams

Example 1 Fixed-Fixed Beam with Point Load

To start the problem, we examine the usual elastic BMD to see

where the plastic
hinges are likely to form:

We also need to know how many hinges are required. This structure is 3 statically indeterminate
and so we might expect the number of plastic hinges required to be 4. However, since one of the
indeterminacies is horizontal restraint, removing it would not change the bending behaviour of
the beam. Thus for a bending collapse only 2 indeterminacies apply and so it will only take 3
plastic hinges to cause collapse.
So looking at the elastic BMD, well assume a collapse mechanism with the 3 plastic hinges at
the peak moment locations: A, B, and C.

We need to check that this is the correct solution using the

Uniqueness Theorem:

And so the applied load is in equilibrium with the free BMD of the collapse BMD.
2. Mechanism:
From the proposed collapse mechanism it is apparent that the beam is a mechanism.
3. Yield:
From the collapse BMD it can be seen that nowhere is exceeded. P M
Thus the solution meets the three conditions and so, by the Uniqueness Theorem, is the correct
solution.

Example 2 Propped Cantilever with Two Point Loads

For the following beam, for a load factor of 2.0, find the required plastic moment
capacity:

Allowing for the load factor, we need to design the beam for the
following loads:

Once again we try to picture possible failure mechanisms. Since

maximum moments occur underneath point loads, there are two
real possibilities:

Mechanism-1

Mechanism-2

Therefore, we analyse both and apply the Upperbound Theorem to

find the
design plastic moment capacity.
Mechanism 1: Plastic Hinge at C:

Mechanism 2: Plastic Hinge at D:

1. Equilibrium:

Using the BMD at collapse, well check that the height of the free BMD is that of
the equivalent simply-supported beam. Firstly the collapse BMD from Mechanism
1 is:

Hence, the total heights of the free BMD are:

Checking these using a simply-supported beam analysis:

Thus, using appropriate free body diagrams of AC and DB:

And so the applied load is in equilibrium with the free BMD of the collapse BMD.
2. Mechanism:
From the proposed collapse mechanism it is apparent that the beam is a mechanism. Also, since
it is a propped cantilever and thus one degree indeterminate, we require two plastic hinges for
collapse, and these we have.
3. Yield:
From the collapse BMD it can be seen that nowhere is the design exceeded. 144
kNm Thus by the Uniqueness Theorem we have the correct solution.
Lastly, well examine why the Mechanism 2 collapse is not the correct solution. Since the virtual
work method provides an upperbound, then, by the Uniqueness Theorem, it must not be the
correct solution because it must violate the yield condition.
Using the collapse Mechanism 2 to determine reactions, we can draw the following BMD for
collapse Mechanism 2:

From this it is apparent that Mechanism 2 is not the unique solution, and so
the design plastic moment capacity must be 144 kNm as implied previously
from the Upperbound Theorem.

Basic Collapse Mechanisms

In frames, the basic mechanisms of collapse are:

Beam-type collapse

Sway Collapse

Combination Collapse

Combination of Mechanisms
One of the most powerful tools in plastic analysis is Combination of Mechanisms. This allows us
to work out the virtual work equations for the beam and sway collapses separately and then
combine them to find the collapse load factor for a combination collapse mechanism.
Combination of mechanisms is based on the idea that there are only a certain number of
independent equilibrium equations for a structure. Any further equations are obtained from a
combination of these independent equations. Since equilibrium equations can be obtained using
virtual work applied to a possible collapse mechanism, it follows that there are independent
collapse mechanisms, and other collapse mechanisms that may be obtained form a combination
of the independent collapse mechanisms.

Simple Portal Frame

In this example we will consider a basic prismatic (so all members
have the same
plastic moment capacity) rectangular portal frame with pinned
feet:

We will consider this general case so that we can infer the properties and behaviour of all such
frames. We will consider each of the possible mechanisms outlined above.
Beam collapse:
The possible beam collapse looks as follows:

Sway Collapse
The virtual deflection for the sway collapse is:

Combined Collapse
The virtual deflection for this form of collapse is:

Collapse Mode
Since we dont know the relative values of H and V, we cannot determine the
correct collapse mode. However, we can identify these collapse modes if we plot
the three load factor equations derived above on the following interaction chart:

Notice that each mechanism defines a boundary and that it is

only the region inside all of these boundaries that is safe. Now, for
a given ration of V to H, we will be able to determine the critical
collapse

mechanism.

Note

also

that

the

beam

collapse

mechanism is only critical for this frame at point P on the chart

this point is also included in the Combined mechanism.
The bending moment diagrams corresponding to each of the
mechanisms are approximately:

Beam

Sway

Combined

An interesting phenomenon is observed at point Q on the chart,

where the Sway and Combined mechanisms give the same result.
Looking at the bending moment diagrams, we can see that this
occurs as the moment at the top of the left column becomes
equal to the mid-span moment of the beam:

Important Problems

UNIT-3
STIFFNESS MATRIX METHODS
The given indeterminate structure is first made kinematically determinate by introducing
constraints at the nodes. The required number of constraints is equal to degrees of freedom at the
nodes that is kinematic indeterminacy k. The kinematically determinate structure comprises of
fixed ended members, hence, all nodal displacements are zero. These results in stress resultant
discontinuities at these nodes under the action of applied loads or in other words the clamped
joints are not in equilibrium. In order to restore the equilibrium of stress resultants at the nodes
the nodes are imparted suitable unknown displacements. The number of simultaneous equations
representing joint equilibrium of forces is equal to kinematic indeterminacy k. Solution of
these equations gives unknown nodal displacements. Using stiffness properties of members the
member end forces are computed and hence the internal forces throughout the structure. Since
nodal displacements are unknowns, the method is also called displacement method. Since
equilibrium conditions are applied at the joints the method is also called equilibrium method.
Since stiffness properties of members are used the method is also called stiffness method.

Introduction
All known methods of structural analysis are classified into two distinct groups:(i) force method of analysis and
(ii) displacement method of analysis.

In module 3, the force method of analysis or the method of consistent deformation is discussed. An
introduction to the displacement method of analysis is given in module 3, where in slope-deflection
method and moment- distribution method are discussed. In this module the direct stiffness method is
discussed. In the displacement method of analysis the equilibrium equations are written by
expressing the unknown joint displacements in terms of loads by using load-displacement relations.
The unknown joint displacements (the degrees of freedom of the structure) are calculated by solving
equilibrium equations. The slope-deflection and moment-distribution methods were extensively used
before the high speed computing era. After the revolution in computer industry, only direct stiffness
method is used.
The displacement method follows essentially the same steps for both statically determinate and
indeterminate structures. In displacement /stiffness method of analysis, once the structural model is
defined, the unknowns (joint rotations and translations) are automatically chosen unlike the force
method of analysis. Hence, displacement method of analysis is preferred to computer
implementation. The method follows a rather a set procedure. The direct stiffness method is closely
related to slope-deflection equations.
The general method of analyzing indeterminate structures by displacement method may be traced to
Navier (1785-1836). For example consider a four member truss as shown in Fig.23.1.The given truss
is statically indeterminate to second degree as there are four bar forces but we have only two
equations of equilibrium. Denote each member by a number, for example (1), (2), (3) and (4). Let i
be the angle, the i-th member makes with the horizontal. Under the action of

external loads and, the joint E displaces to E. Let u and v be its vertical and horizontal
displacements. Navier solved this problem as follows.
In the displacement method of analysis u and v are the only two unknowns for this structure. The
elongation of individual truss members can be expressed in terms of these two unknown joint
displacements. Next, calculate bar forces in the members by using forcedisplacement relation.
Now at E, two equilibrium equations can be written viz., 0=xFand 0=yF by summing all
forces in x and y directions. The unknown displacements may be calculated by solving the
equilibrium equations. In displacement method of analysis, there will be exactly as many
equilibrium equations as there are unknowns.

Let an elastic body is acted by a force F and the corresponding displacement be u in the direction
of force. In module 1, we have discussed force- displacement relationship. The force (F) is
related to the displacement (u) for the linear elastic material by the relation
where the constant of proportionality k is defined as the stiffness of the structure and it has units
of force per unit elongation. The above equation may also be written as

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Chapter-2 Objectives
After reading this chapter the student will be able to
1. Derive member stiffness matrix of a truss member.
2. Define local and global co-ordinate system.
3. Transform displacements from local co-ordinate system to global co-ordinate system.
4. Transform forces from local to global co-ordinate system.
5. Transform member stiffness matrix from local to global co-ordinate system.
6. Assemble member stiffness matrices to obtain the global stiffness matrix.
7. Analyse plane truss by the direct stiffness matrix.
An introduction to the stiffness method was given in the previous chapter. The basic principles
involved in the analysis of beams, trusses were discussed. The problems were solved with hand
computation by the direct application of the basic principles. The procedure discussed in the previous
chapter though enlightening are not suitable for computer programming. It is necessary to keep hand
computation to a minimum while implementing this procedure on the computer. In this chapter a
formal approach has been discussed which may be readily programmed on a computer. In this lesson
the direct stiffness method as applied to planar truss structure is discussed.
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Plane trusses are made up of short thin members interconnected at hinges to form triangulated
patterns. A hinge connection can only transmit forces from one member to another member but not
the moment. For analysis purpose, the truss is loaded at the joints. Hence, a truss member is
subjected to only axial forces and the forces remain constant along the length of the member. The
forces in the member at its two ends must be of the same magnitude but act in the opposite directions
for equilibrium as shown in Fig. 24.1.

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Problem-1

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UNIT-4- CABLES AND SUSPENSION BRIDGES

Instructional Objectives:
After reading this chapter the student will be able to
1. Differentiate between rigid and deformable structures.
2. Define funicular structure.
3. State the type stress in a cable.
4. Analyse cables subjected to uniformly distributed load.
5. Analyse cables subjected to concentrated loads.
31.1 Introduction
Cables and arches are closely related to each other and hence they are grouped in this course in
the same module. For long span structures (for e.g. in case bridges) engineers commonly use
cable or arch construction due to their efficiency. In the first lesson of this module, cables
subjected to uniform and concentrated loads are discussed. In the second lesson, arches in
general and three hinged arches in particular along with illustrative examples are explained. In
the last two lessons of this module, two hinged arch and hingeless arches are considered.
Structure may be classified into rigid and deformable structures depending on change in
geometry of the structure while supporting the load. Rigid structures support externally applied
loads without appreciable change in their shape (geometry). Beams trusses and frames are
examples of rigid structures. Unlike rigid structures, deformable structures undergo changes in
their shape according to externally applied loads. However, it should be noted that deformations
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are still small. Cables and fabric structures are deformable structures. Cables are mainly used to
support suspension roofs, bridges and cable car system. They are also used in electrical
transmission lines and for structures supporting radio antennas. In the following sections, cables
subjected to concentrated load and cables subjected to uniform loads are considered.

The shape assumed by a rope or a chain (with no stiffness) under the action of external
loads when hung from two supports is known as a funicular shape. Cable is a funicular
structure. It is easy to visualize that a cable hung from two supports subjected to external
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load must be in tension (vide Fig. 31.2a and 31.2b). Now let us modify our definition of
cable. A cable may be defined as the structure in pure tension having the funicular shape of
the load.
As stated earlier, the cables are considered to be perfectly flexible (no flexural stiffness) and
inextensible. As they are flexible they do not resist shear force and bending moment. It is subjected to
axial tension only and it is always acting tangential to the cable at any point along the length. If the
weight of the cable is negligible as compared with the externally applied loads then its self weight is
neglected in the analysis. In the present analysis self weight is not considered.
Consider a cable as loaded in Fig. 31.2. Let us assume that the cable lengths and sag at () are known.
The four reaction components at ACDEB andB, cable tensions in each of the four segments and three
sag values: a total of eleven unknown quantities are to be determined. From the geometry, one could
write two force equilibrium equations (0,0== yxFF) at each of the point and DCBA,,,E i.e. a total
of ten equations and the required one more equation may be written from the geometry of the cable.
For example, if one of the sag is given then the problem can be solved easily. Otherwise if the total
length of the cable is given then the required equation may be written as

Cable subjected to uniform load.

Cables are used to support the dead weight and live loads of the bridge decks having long spans.
The bridge decks are suspended from the cable using the hangers. The stiffened deck prevents
the supporting cable from changing its shape by distributing the live load moving over it, for a
longer length of cable. In such cases cable is assumed to be uniformly loaded.

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Consider a cable which is uniformly loaded as shown in Fig 31.3a

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Due to uniformly distributed load, the cable takes a parabolic shape. However due to its
own dead weight it takes a shape of a catenary. However dead weight of the cable is
neglected in the present analysis.
Example 31.1
Determine reaction components at A and B, tension in the cable and the sag of the cable
shown in Fig. 31.4a. Neglect the self weight of the cable in the analysis

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Since there are no horizontal loads, horizontal reactions at A and B should be the same.
Taking moment about E, yields

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UNIT-5 SPACE TRUSSES

Tetrahedron: simplest element of stable space truss (six members, four joints) expand by adding
3 members and 1 joint each time

Determinacy and Stability

b + r < 3j unstable
b + r = 3j statically determinate (check stability) b
+ r > 3j statically indeterminate (check stability)

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Procedure for Analysis

Method of Sections
Method of Joints

Numerical example
In the following example we shall construct the internal forces diagrams for the given in Fig. 8
space frame structure. The introduced global coordinate system is shown in the same figure.

The introduced local coordinate systems of the different elements of the space frame are
presented in Fig. 9. The typical sections where the internal forces must be calculated, in order to
construct the relevant diagrams, are numbered from 1 to 8 in the same figure. The typical
sections are placed at least at the beginning and at the end of each element (segment) of the
frame. The internal forces diagrams, in the limits of each element, could be derived by using the
corresponding reference and base diagrams.

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Internal Forces
In order to obtain the internal forces at a specified point, we should make section cut
perpendicular to the axis of the member at this point. This section cut divides the structure in two
parts. The portion of the structure removed from the part into consideration should be replaced
by the internal forces. The internal forces ensure the equilibrium of the isolated part subjected to
the action of external loads and support reactions. A free body diagram of either segment of the
cut member is isolated and the internal loads could be derived by the six equations of equilibrium
applied to the segment into consideration.
We shall skip the derivation of internal forces in section 1 from Fig. 8, because they can be derived
without any troubles. Let us go direct to the internal forces in section 2. If we pass a section cut at
point 2 the space frame will be separated as shown in Fig. 10. The positive directions of internal
forces, in accordance with the introduced local coordinate system for the members

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Equilibrium of the joints

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Numerical Example-2

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