Project writing: the essential elements

of a project
By Laust Schouenborg
12 September, 2013

Goals for today

What is a project?
What does it mean to argue
academically?

What is project design?

Argumentation

Conclusion

Problem
formulation

Project as wrapped candy

Argumentation

Conclusion

Problem
formulation

Project as wrapped candy

is supposed to argue, reason, prove, discuss, interpret,

nuance, problematise, investigate, assess
is NOT supposed to agitate, confess, educate, speculate,
convey, praise, proselytize, denigrate, postulate or
entertain

Argumentation

Conclusion

Problem
formulation

Project as wrapped candy

Overall argument:
The road from problem formulation to conclusion
Consists of many small arguments

Argument = Claim + Substantiation + Scientific Basis

Argumentation

Claim

Problem
formulation

The project as an argument

Claim = that which needs to be demonstrated

Substantiation

Claim

Problem
formulation

The project as an argument

Claim = that which needs to be demonstrated

Substantiation = that which supports the claim
(theory, concepts, own or others empirical analyses)

Substantiation

Claim

Problem
formulation

The project as an argument

Scientific basis
Claim = that which needs to be demonstrated
Substantiation = that which supports the claim
(theory, concepts, own or others empirical analyses)
Scientific basis = that which makes the reader accept the substantiation
(scientifically recognised, suitable methods)

Substantiation

Claim

Problem
formulation

The project as an argument

Scientific basis
Bonus points in substantiation!
Refutation = consideration of possible/likely counterarguments
Cover = leaning on authorities
(citing recognised academics theories, concepts and empirical analyses)
Validity = discussion of degree of certainty, reach of argument

Method
Theory

Data

Conclusion

Problem
formulation

Method = problem handling

Method = a systematic approach to gathering and/or analyzing

information to reach an answer to a question/or a solution to a problem
Also involves an account of the connection between: problem
theory - metatheory

Methodology
Method
Theory

Data

Conclusion

Problem
formulation

Method = problem handling

Methodology = knowledge about methods based on philosophy of

science
Basic position 1 (rationalism): operationalised method = procedure to
discover truth
Basic position 2 (post-rationalism): analytical strategy = choices
related to the production of truth
Common premise: making your method explicit is necessary for
establishing what counts as scientific basis and to modify a theory so it
becomes suitable for analyzing your specifc problem

Four typical projects

1) The theory testing project (rationalism)
One or more theories are tested on a given phenomenon
Design: List the theories hypotheses about the given phenomenon
Based on this, derive the expected behaviour/outcome
Ascertain the actual behaviour/outcome
Compare the different theories predictions of the behaviour/outcome
Example: Realism vs. constructivism in explaining why the USA wants to
intervene in Syria
What it requires:
That the theories can in fact be tested and placed opposite each other
That it is possible to derive empirical expectations which can then be
tested
That the theories are able to make predictions about the same kind of
phenomenon

Four typical projects

2) The analytical project (rationalism)
Takes its point of departure in a specific empirical development or
phenomenon
Design: Theoretically informed analysis of concrete relations,
configurations or processes
Example: How can we explain Danish foreign policy towards Europe in the
post-Cold War era?
What it requires:
The theories used should be epistemologically compatible (dont combine
realism with Frankfurt School critical theory!)

Four typical projects

3) The philospohical/political theory project (post-/beforerationalism)
Seeks to analyse, but within a political theory context
Design: Maps the broader theoretical/historical/empirical dimensions of
some subject and relate these to the thoughts of one or more political
theorists/philosophers
Example: How can we understand human rights in International Relations
via the thought of John Dewey and Isaiah Berlin?
What it requires:
The chosen political theorist/philosopher should be one of some stature
and should not have covered the specific case in detail (usually light on
methods in the rationalist social science sense)

Four typical projects

4) The critical post-structuralist project (post-rationalism)
Seeks to analyse and unsettle dominant notions of the truth
Design: Demonstrates different notions of truth via, for example,
discourse analysis and/or suggests how different notions of truth can
produce alternative possible (and desirable) political
outcomes/consequences
Example: How does the ideology of neoliberalism underpin the current
development paradigm in Africa?
What it requires:
The epistemological (how to know) and ontological (what can be known)
point of departure should be clearly spelled out

Conclusion

Empirical
analysis

Operationalisation

Method

Theory

Problem
formulation

Operationalisation

Operationalisation:
It should be feasible
The theoretical concepts should be able to reach all the way down to
the empirical level
Logical flow from the problem formulation, via theory and methods, to
the empirical data
Translates into concrete research strategy:
What is it that Im asking?
What am I asking with?
How do I judge X?

Conclusion

Empirical
analysis

Operationalisation

Method

Theory

Problem
formulation

Empirical data

Empirical data:
Is it available?
Is it manageable?
Is it relevant?
Less is often more!

Checklist
1) Do your problem formulation, theory, method, data and conclusion make
up a coherent whole?

Can the method indicated actually produce an appropriate answer to the

question posed in the problem formulation?

Checklist
2) How can theory and data be connected and what is the status of each?

For example, is it the case which is most important and is theory mainly used
to explain it? Or is the most important thing to test the theory?

Checklist
3) Does a specific philosophy of science position follow from the choice of
theory, empirical focus and/or problem formulation

A) Is the combination commonly accepted within Global

Studies/International Relations, International Development Studies? If it
is a controversial combination, this needs to be discussed

B) If the project is designed as a synthesis of several theories, they need to

be epistemologically compatible

C) If the problem formulation indicates a philosophy of science focus, then

this of course needs to be discussed explicitly in the project

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Checklist
4) Does a specific set of rules apply to the method used?

A) Quantitative methods, qualitative methods and discourse analysis each

have their own rules of procedure

B) Use that methods literature which focuses specifically on the method you
are applying (often the same method can be used differently within
different social science disciplines and in relation to different theories)

C) If possible, reference other exemplary studies within the discipline which

have successfully applied the method

Checklist
5) How and why is the method relevant to the project?

The method chapter/section should be focused on the actual project. No

repetition of textbooks (this only shows that you have read them, not that
you have understood how to use methods!)

Explain in concrete terms why, for example, a discourse analysis or a specific

case study is exactly right for your project

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Checklist
6) What are the specific selections and deselections, and how are they
justified?

Selections and deselections in the process of narrowing down the problem

formulation should be discussed, as should selections and deselections with
respect to theory, methods and empirical data. Demonstrate that yours is the
best possible project design under the circumstances.

Concrete example: speeches of decision makers

Are perhaps relevant data for a poststructuralist
Perhaps an intervening variable for a classical IR realist
Not relevant for a structuralist

Implications

Conclusion

Empirical
analysis

Operationalisation

Method

Theory

Project design

Problem
formulation

Problem area

Outline of typical project

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Literature (mainly GS/IR)

Jackson, P.T. (2011) The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations: Philosophy of
Science and Its Implications for the Study of World Politics, London and New York:
Routledge.
Klotz, Audie & Cecelia Lynch (2007): Constructivist analysis: Strategies for Research
in Constructivist International Relations, New York: M.E. Sharpe.
Alvesen, Mats & Kaj Skldberg (2000): Reflexive Methodology. New Vistas for
Qualitative Research, London: Sage.
George, Alexander L. & Andrew Bennett (2005): Case Studies and Theory
Development in the Social Sciences, Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press.
Bennett, Andrew & Colin Elman (2006): Qualitative Research: Recent Developments
in Case Study Methods, Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.9, pp.455-76.

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