Efficient Cooling in Hot Climates

A Thermodynamic Systems Approach to Quadrupling Average Efficiency

Peter Armstronga, Les Norfordb, Leon Glicksmanb
Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, bMassachusetts Institute of Technology

Project Objectives were to identify complementary cooling technologies and associated controls,

Thermal Energy Storage (TES): Several technical options (right) exist for a

Develop component and subsystem models including optimal control algorithms,

Prepare MatLab scripts for simulating and comparing baseline and several advanced HVAC configurations,
Estimate savings over a representative grid of building, climate and HVAC configuration:
Basic-, Medium- and High-Performance building (efficient envelope, lighting, and user-equipment)
Five climates from hot-and-humid (Houston) to northern-temperate (Chicago), and for
All combinations of the identified efficient cooling technologies
Extrapolate simulated energy use and savings to estimate national energy savings potential based on application of the
best-performing combination of technologies and controls to all new construction projects.

TES sub-system to enable load-shifting schemes such as night pre-cooling. For the
scoping task at hand, an idealized room-temperature phase-change material applied to all
room surfaces, is postulated. This idealized model has the intrinsic TES properties of low
transport energy and low losses, but is limited to one-day storage.

Common TES Options:

Water in stratified tank
Ice (not suitable for low-lift)
Building mass (intrinsic TES)
PCM floor, ceiling, walls
PCM in tank (discrete TES)
24
Q(t )
J =
t =1 chiller (t )

Peak-Shifting Controls: The peak-shifting algorithm for an Minimize

idealized TES determines the 24-hourly chiller loadings that satisfy the total
daily load (sensible plus latent plus DOAS compressor heat) with minimum subject to the daily load requirement:
input energy, J (right). This type of advanced control requires a 24-hour24
24
ahead cooling load forecast and an embedded chiller-distribution system
QLoad (t ) = Q(t )
performance model. Building-specific transient thermal response models, one
t =1
t =1
the objects of ongoing research, will be incorporated into next-generation and to the capacity constraints:
Envelope Measures: Efficient cooling in any climate means first minimizing sensible and latent cooling loads/ of
peak-shifting algorithms to prevent unnecessary overcooling or undercooling
0 Q(t ) QCap (TX (t ), TZ (t )) t = 1 : 24
sensible loads by insulation, by reflective wall and roof surfaces, by control of solar gains to just what is needed for
of building mass.
where
Chicago---baseline
daylighting, and by use of efficient office (or other user) equipment and efficient lighting/latent loads by preventing
chiller = chiller efficiency (kW/kBtuh or kW/ton)
infiltration, by conditioning only as much ventilation air as is needed, and by using exhaust enthalpy recovery. In short,
TX = outdoor dry- or wet-bulb temperature,
investment in an efficient cooling system should not outpace investment in the building envelope, lighting, and other
TZ = zone temperature,
80
efficiency measures--cost-effective performance is achieved by balanced investment.
Q = evaporator heat rate (positive for cooling),
60
QLoad = building cooling load, and
HVAC Measures: Even in hot climates, there is ample room for improving mechanical cooling and distribution
QCap = chiller cooling capacity.
performance by approaching the building and equipment as an integrated system. The main targets, transport energy
1.4
40
Outdoor Temperature (F)
R22
and compressor energy, must both be addressed. The systems approach combines several existing
efficient cooling
110
100
and distribution technologies that are particularly complementary:
1.2
90
20
90
Peak-Shifting by precooling the building mass at night
80
80
70
1.0
Radiant Cooling Panels (RCP) for sensible cooling load
0
60
70
0
50
Chicago---variable-speed chiller with RCP/DOAS
ou
Dedicated Outside Air Supply (DOAS) and conditioning
tdo
0.8
0
or d
60
ry -b
u lb
Low-Lift vapor compression cooling equipment.
50
tem
0.5
pe ra
o
ti
50
0.6
ture
What is Low-Lift? Vapor-compression and absorption devices
d ra
loa
(de
80
100 1
gF
pa rt
)
40
move heat against a temperature difference/which can be reduced by:
0.4
Tx
Using RCP & DOAS to increase evaporator temperature
work polygon in low-lift operation
30
60
Cooling at night to decrease condensing temperature and average load 20 Tz
0.2
work polygon in conventional
40
Using variable speed fans and pumps to reduce transport energy
system and operating mode
10
0.0
System (chiller, condenser,
Using a variable speed compressor to reduce flow losses and/
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
20
Chiller Part Load Percent
0
radiant slab) performance map
Achieve closer condenser and evaporator approach temperatures
Compressor work (blue area) for given cooling effect is thus greatly reduced 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 (center) informs the cost function (top right) to optimally
s (kJ/kg-K)
0
shift load (initial distribution shown at left) from day to
0
ou td
o or
0
night (lower outdoor temperaturehigher efficiency) and
dry
-bu
lb te
50
0.5
mp
to shave peaks and fill valleys (transformed distribution
o
e ra
rati
ture
ad
lo
(de
shown at right) when thermal energy storage is used.
100 1
g
pa rt

System Integration: Chiller Ventilation Control

FLEOH

T (C)

Chiller System Specific P ower (kW/Ton)

FLEOH

Chiller Component and System Models

F)

Optimal Control of Chiller-Distribution

Chiller and distribution components to be modeled include:

Compressor
Evaporator
Condenser
Transport (fan and pump) power
Radiant Cooling Panel
CV and VAV Fan-Coils

Evaluation Schema and Results

Case/Building/Climate Evaluation Grid: The base Technology SubsetCombinations(TSC)

HVAC system is modeled as a variable-air-volume (VAV) no-reheat

system fed by a central chiller to condition the occupied spaces.
Hourly building cooling loads from DOE-2.2 simulation are input to a
separate
simulation model of the chiller and distribution system. The
Compressor performance must be accurately characterized at very low pressure ratios (1:1 to 1:1.5) and low displacement rates (to 25% or less of rated speed). This is previously described system performance maps ensure an apples-toapples
comparison
by using identical chiller components for the
accomplished by fitting a semi-physical model that reliably extrapolates below the regions covered by available
baseline, partial, and full TSC configurations. In addition to the basic
performance data (above right). The model reflects:
HVAC system (Case 1, right), seven alternative HVAC systems (six
1.2
Polytropic Compression
110
110F partial and the full TSC configuration) were analyzed. The evaluation
F
100
Suction gas heating decreases with speed
grid also covers three building energy performance levels (below) and
1
90
100F
Flow and Friction Losses increase with speed
F
five climates.
80F
Volumetric Efficiency = f (, Pd/Ps, rpm)
2

2000 m
Office prototype

Compressor Performance Map (right)

is based on Effectiveness-NTU models of
Evaporator (assume zero superheat)
Desuperheater (Hiller effectiveness model)
Condenser (assume zero subcooling)

Chiller Specific Power (kW/Ton)

\chimodel\20070320\map5.xls EER|x

90F

70F

0.8

60F

80F
50F

0.6

Base Case: VAV with 2-Speed Chiller

Technology Elements Applied One at a Time
VAV with Variable-Speed Chiller
Radiant Cooling and 2-Speed Chiller
VAV, 2-speed Chiller, and Thermal Storage
Two-Element Combinations
Radiant Cooling and Variable-Speed Chiller
Variable-Speed Chiller and Thermal Storage
Thermal Storage and Radiant Cooling
All Three Elements
Radiant Cooling, Variable-Spd Chiller, TES

70F
60F

0.4

Component
Wall-Roof U-Factor(a)
Window U-Factor and SHGC(a)
Window-to-Wall-Ratio
Light and Plug Loads (W/m2)
Fan Power (W/(m2/s))

on-HVAC Energy Performance Levels

Standard
Mid-Performance High-Performance
90.1-2004
2/3 of 90.1-2004
4/9 of 90.1-2004
90.1-2004
2/3 of 90.1-2004
4/9 of 90.1-2004
40%
20%
20% + Shading(b)
0.121+0.059
0.081+0.039
0.054+0.020
0.471
0.314
0.210

Chiller, Fan and DOAS Input Energy (kWh/yr)

50F
Chiller Solver: given load and conditions
must determine the maximum-COP operating point: 0.2
Tsource = 52F
Compressor, fan and pump shaft speeds
Tsource = 72F
Suction and Discharge pressures
(a)
0
ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 prescribed U-factor varies by climate
Refrigerant mass flow rate
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(b)
To completely shade the solar direct beam at all times
Condenser fraction for desuperheating
90000
Part Load Percent
2-Speed Chiller, VAV
A bicubic response surface of COP is fit to data computed on a grid of part-load fraction and outdoor temperature. The bicubic
Var-Speed Chiller, VAV
Baseline
form, which evaluates very fast, is critical to the peak shifting control algorithm within which chiller performance is evaluated Standard Building: Annual energy savings for 80000
2-Speed Chiller, VAV, TES
Var-Speed Chiller, VAV, TES
millions of times. The response surfaces for load-side temperatures of 22C (radiant panel case) and 11C (fan coil case) are
the RCP system with variable-speed chiller and TES 70000
2-Speed Chiller, RCP/DOAS
Full
TOS
shown above. Note the inflections at low part-load fraction for 22C load-side temperature on the 10C and 15.6C outdoor
Var-Speed Chiller, RCP/DOAS
compared to the VAV system with two-speed chiller
temperature lines; the compressor is bypassed and refrigerant-side economizer mode is invoked below these inflection points.
2-Speed Chiller, RCP/DOAS, TES
range from 74% for a hot climate (represented by 60000
Var-Speed Chiller, RCP/DOAS, TES
Houston) to 70% for milder cooling climates (represented
50000
by Los Angeles and Chicago). Note, moreover, that the
savings for the full TSC compared to the next best partial 40000
Outdoor
Refrigerant-Side Economizer: All-air systems use
TSCin which the chiller operates in 2-speed in-stead of
Air
cool outside air for free cooling when conditions permit; this is
full variable-speed modeare significant ranging from 30000
Sight
Condenser
Glass
not possible with RCP systems. Connecting to a maintenance27% (Houston) to over 32% (Los Angeles). Note also that
20000
intensive cooling tower is costly. An alternative--which may make
RCP/DOAS performs the best of partial TSC systems
Outdoor
RCP-based cooling more attractive to building owners--is to use
involving one element, and TES with RCP/DOAS 10000
Air
Bypass
air-cooled chillers with refrigerant-side economizers. This
performs the best of systems involving two elements.
Bypass
0
Compressor
approach is illustrated to the right. Our model solves condenser
TXV
Houston
Memphis
Los Angeles
Baltimore
Chicago
fan and chilled water pump speeds that satisfy a given load
Climate (Represented by City)
with minimum transport energy. Separate bicubic response
High-Performance Building: Savings for
2-Speed Chiller, VAV
surface is fit to the performance data computed on a grid of partVar-Speed
Chiller,
VAV
the full TSC are 71% for Houston, 57% for Chicago, and 30000
Evaporator
2-Speed Chiller, RCP/DOAS
load fraction and outdoor temperature. When outdoor temperature
34.5% for Los Angeles. The percent savings for the full
2-Speed Chiller, VAV, TES
Chilled Water
is above room temperature the vapor-compression chiller map
Var-Speed Chiller, VAV, TES
TSC compared to the next best partial TSC are 25000
Var-Speed Chiller, RCP/DOAS
applies; when outdoor temperature is below room temperature
significantly better than those of the standard and mid2-Speed Chiller, RCP/DOAS, TES
both are evaluated and the less power intensive result is applied.
performance buildings, ranging from 30% (Chicago) to
Var-Speed Chiller, RCP/DOAS, TES
20000
35% (Houston). The RCP/DOAS configuration again
DOAS Conditioning: A dedicated outdoor air system
Exhaust
Return
performs
best
of
the
partial
TSC
systems
involving
one
circulates about 15% of the air required by an all-air systemjust
Air
Air
element, and TES with RCP/DOAS still performs the best 15000
enough to remove and maintain acceptably low air contaminant
of systems involving two elements. For Los Angeles,
concentrations. 100% of this reduced air flow is outside air.
however, VAV is retained in the best-performing one- and 10000
Enthalpy recovery equipment has been shown capable, in tight
two-element configurations. This reflects the reduced
buildings, of saving 50-80% of the heating and cooling energy
specific-fan-power design of the high-performance
needed to condition outside air. In cooling mode the DOAS must
5000
building, which benefits the air-side economizer (VAV
Outdoor
Supply
satisfy any remaining latent cooling (dehumidification) load. A
Air
Air
cases), while refrigerant-side economizer (RCP/DOAS)
variable-speed vapor-compression machineas shown at right
0
performance is unchanged. Thus the best partial TSC
EXV
downstream of the supply-air-conditioning enthalpy wheelcan be
Houston
Memphis
Los Angeles
Baltimore
Chicago
involving one element in Los Angeles is the TES system.
Climate (Represented by City)
used to convert the latent load to sensible load by cooling the
Sponsors. MIT work funded by Masdar Institute of Science and Technology; initial work funded by U.S. Dept. of Energy.
supply air to the required dew point and then reheating the air by rejecting all of the heat produced in the
Pacific Northwest National Laboratorys Wei Jiang, S. Katipamula and Dave Winiarski made substantial contributions.
dehumidification process. Thermally regenerated desiccant dehumidification will also be evaluated.

Special Subsystem and Control Models

T6

P2

E2

H3, T7

T5

E1

E3

P1

T3

T2

Condenser

Compressor

Evaporator

F3

Chiller, Fan and DOAS Input Energy (kWh/yr)

T4