DAFTAR ISI

BAB TOPIK BAHASAN HALAMAN

Daftar isi …………………………………………………… i

Article 1 …………………………………………………… 1
Article 2 …………………………………………………… 4
Article 3 …………………………………………………… 7
Article 4 …………………………………………………… 12
1 Clause, Sentence and Phrase …………………………………… 14
2 Contextual Reference …………………………………………… 18
3 Definition and Description …………………………………… 21
4 Impersonal Passive …………………………………………… 24
5 Parallel Structure and Paired Conjunction …………………… 25
6 Relationship Showing Time …………………………………… 27
7 Relationship Showing Consequence …………………………… 31
8 Relationship Showing Opposition …………………………… 33
9 Relationship Showing Exemplification …………………… 35
10 Relationship Showing Explanation …………………………… 38
11 Relationship Showing Addition: Reinforcement + Similarity…… 39
12 Relationship Showing Conditions …………………………… 41
13 Comparative Sentences …………………………………… 44
14 Article 1 (ACC) …………………………………………… 47
15 Article 2 (ACC) …………………………………………… 49
16 Article 3 (ACC) …………………………………………… 52
17 Article 4 (ACC) …………………………………………… 56
Daftar Pustaka …………………………………………… 58

i
Article 1
Little Lettuces for Luscious Lunches

New Alchemists are not unlike typical American consumers. We like

salad: often for lunch and even more so for dinner. For almost a decade, we have
evaluated all types of lettuces for greenhouse production: loose-leaf, buttercrunch,
Bibb and Boston. We've favored many of the Dutch varieties because they have
proven themselves highly adaptable to our variable greenhouse climate. Until
recently, it has been a tedious process to obtain European strains of lettuce. Many
of the Dutch seed companies sell strictly wholesale and the one or two who sell
them to the retail market make it a painstakingly long process.
In 1985, one of our favorite seed companies, Johnny's Selected Seeds,
(Foss Hill Rd., Albion, Maine 04910) started to distribute three Dutch lettuce
varieties: Diamante, Salina and Vasco. Since we were familiar with Salina and
Vasco for hydroponic culture, we decided to plant them for spring production in
the Cape Cod Ark. Salina is a medium-small, compact, dark green Boston lettuce
that is bolt-resistant and mild tasting. It can be grown for spring, summer and fall
harvest. Vasco can be sown as a spring or fall crop; plant November through April
and late July through September. This variety forms light green heads with a mild
flavor; it, too, is bolt-resistant.
On Valentine's Day, we sowed the lettuce seeds in our standard seeding
mix: one part peat to one part vermiculite. Two seeds were sown in an individual
cell of one inch diameter; forty-eight cells filled a pack. They were placed on a
propagation mat for guaranteed successful seed germination; the soil thermostat
was set at 68 degrees F. A few weeks after germination, weak lettuces were
pricked out in order for one lettuce to develop in each cell. The lettuces were
planted out on March 26th in a randomized pattern in the two largest growing
beds in the Ark. The center bed contained 66 plants; the east end bed contained 88
plants. The lettuces were planted in a zig-zag pattern to ensure efficient use of the
growing area. Both beds were cultivated when necessary and both plantings were
fertilized with fish emulsion in mid-April.

1
 Naturally, March and April are dynamic months for growing in a
greenhouse, and within five short weeks, the lettuce was ready for harvest. We
started to harvest on April 24th and pulled the final heads on May 1st. Individual
lettuces were weighed after the roots and unmarketable leaves were removed.
Most of the lettuce was consumed by staff, students, interns and volunteers;
however, two or three dozen heads made it to the local natural food store. You can
imagine how happy health food fanatics were to see fresh, locally grown, organic
lettuce in April. When you're talking lettuce, taste is the bottom line, and both
varieties were flavorful; but we gathered some statistical information, too. We put
the lettuce varieties through a one-factor analysis of variance statistical program
with weight as the dependent variable. This test would indicate any significant
difference between the two varieties. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at
171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3
(S.D.=37.1) grams.
Eighteen heads of lettuce were lost to botrytis, commonly known as leaf
rot. Improved air circulation and a wider spacing between rows and individual
lettuces within the row would minimize this disease problem. We'd recommend
ten inches on center for spacing between heads.
Overall, we can recommend both varieties for spring lettuce production in
the greenhouse. Salina has a heftier weight and greener color. Both varieties were
vulnerable to wilt if not stored properly. This winter we will evaluate Diamante,
which has been suggested for winter lettuce production. Thank you, Johnny's
Selected Seeds, for distributing lettuce seeds that have been specifically bred for
greenhouse production. Now our home-scale greenhouse growers can raise top
quality lettuce in those unforgiving winter months.

Colleen Armstrong
Johnny's Selected Seeds; Foss Hill Road; Albion, Maine 04910 prints a catalog
for gardeners. Or write to them for further information on greenhouse-type
lettuce. Tell them we sent you.

2
Original Article from:
New Alchemy Quarterly
Fall, 1986, No. 25
© 1986, New Alchemy Institute, Inc.
237 Hatchville Road
East Falmouth, MA 02536
http://www.fuzzylu.com/greencenter/
Scanning & HTML conversion: FuzzyLu MultiMedia.

http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

3
Article 2
Solarization, green translucent mulch, "degradable" plastic, and 100%
recycled paper at New Alchemy
by Ralph DeGregorio

Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic. All
edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no holes are made in it, unlike
ordinary black plastic mulch. This practice was pioneered in Israel for control of
certain plant diseases and later weeds, and the one year I tested it at the University
of Connecticut, it killed almost all the weeds growing under the plastic. I tried it at
New Alchemy with several strips of ultra-thin, ultra-clear, ultra-tough plastic.
Unfortunately, the plastic did not contain an ultraviolet inhibitor and began
disintegrating before solarization had a chance to work.
However, I was still able to conduct a modified experiment. Clear plastic
bags were filled with water-saturated soil from New Alchemy on August 13, 1988
and sealed. Next, bags were placed on top of a few layers of black plastic
covering the ground in the sunniest spot at our Hatchville, MA, site. Sealed bags
of the same saturated soil were placed in a cellar as a control.
Soil temperature in bags outdoors reached 126'F on Aug. 31 and 121'F on
Sept. 21; maximum air temperature at a weather station a few miles away was
only 78' and 79'F on those days (we now have a weather station at New
Alchemy). Annual bluegrass (Poa annua) seed is reported to die if held at 108'F
for 2 hours.
Intern Sharon Barbour and I observed no broadleaf weeds growing in solarized
soil when it was spread out in trays and kept watered in a greenhouse from
October 10, 1988 to March 3, 1989, unlike the control. Though the control
averaged 2.7 times more weeds than solarized soil, differences were not
statistically significant. There is evidence that solarization can reduce plant
disease by repeated, rather than extreme, high temperature in the temperate zone.
Storing saturated soil in sealed bags in a cellar may have promoted rotting of
weed seed; storing it air-dry may have been a better "control" for solarization.

4
Cape Cod is cooler and breezier than interior southern New England, and
maximum daily air temperatures may occur earlier in the summer than we started
testing, so I am optimistic about solarization for southern New England.
In another experiment here, clear plastic mulch with holes punched for
setting transplants eventually resulted in death of a considerable amount of weed
leaf tissue. This was not expected to happen; transplant holes are supposed to
prevent the necessary heat buildup.
In 1989, interns Albert Wurzberger, Heidi Hopkins, Joshua Levine, Judy
Browne, Guillermo Iranzo-Berrocal and researcher Mark Schonbeck and I
compared green translucent plastic to photo-degradable clear and ordinary black
plastic mulch. We used early lettuce followed by tomatoes as test crops. All data
have not been statistically analyzed yet, but soil temperature under translucent
green averaged slightly higher than under black plastic. Lettuce yields did not
differ significantly between plastics. It was obvious that this green plastic ripped
less than the black we used, despite the black being thicker. This may have been
due to the black not containing a UV inhibitor. Thus, be careful about hardware
store, multi-purpose black plastic for longer-term outdoor uses. The translucent
product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is designed to absorb most of the red and
blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow weed growth underneath the plastic. At
the same time, translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic.
Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch does not warm soil very much, but
may cause crop leaves to overheat.
Two companies in 1990 are selling brown translucent plastic mulches that
are also reported to be the best of both worlds: warmer soil than black plastic and
fewer (an insignificant amount of) weeds than clear plastic (see their large ads in
the April 1990 issue of American Vegetable Grower). While we would all like not
to use plastic, given a choice between crops grown with plastic mulch or
herbicides (chemical weed killers), most prefer plastic.
If you visit New Alchemy soon, these plastics may still visible on the tour
route, though exposed parts of the clear photo-degradable strips have almost

5
totally disintegrated. In our Visitor Center there is a neat display on film mulches
made by me and our site education coordinator, Betty Greene.
Beginning early in 1989, interns Albert Wurzberger, Lisa Parks and I
tested paper mulch - first one made in southern New England from virgin fiber,
and now others made from recycled paper. Our firs t experiment to delay the too-
rapid breakdown of the buried paper edges was successful. A second greenhouse
experiment attempting to confirm the first is almost completed, and uses two
completely recycled wastes. Suzanne Cady and I are also testing recycled paper
mulch vs. black plastic in her New Alchemy market garden. Stay tuned.
We are also working with shredded newspaper as bedding, a variation on
work Bruce Fulford and New Alchemy did in the mid-'80s. We hope to interest
cellulose insulation producers in diversifying into this product to save farmers
money on bedding, create jobs, and decrease the amount of paper being landfilled,
incinerated or shipped overseas. This may also reduce a problem sawdust creates
when manure and sawdust bedding is applied to soil: nitrogen immobilization (tie
up), which can cause nitrogen deficiency. Dioxin and heavy metals are not
problems with newsprint, but another class of substances, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), in a worst case scenario, may limit application of
newspaper to 400 1bs/acre; composting, however, reduces PAHs somewhat, and
at least 40 newspapers are already using very low PAH carbon black.

Funding is needed to further research and develop a recycled paper mulch and
animal bedding, and solarization of containers of soil for greenhouses and
nurseries. Contact New Alchemy if interested.
Original Article from:
New Alchemy Quarterly, No. 39
© 1990, New Alchemy Institute, Inc.
237 Hatchville Road
East Falmouth, MA 02536
http://www.fuzzylu.com/greencenter/
Scanning & HTML conversion: FuzzyLu MultiMedia.

6
http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm

7
Article 3
Growing Mulch in Place
No-till broccoli using unconventional cover crops
by Mark Schonbeck and Ralph DeGregorio

Mark Schonbeck, Ph.D., is a New Alchemy researcher working on cover crops

and winter greenhouse vegetable production. Ralph DeGregorio, Ph.D. candidate,
is New Alchemy's research director.

Many New England vegetable growers use cover crops to protect their soil
against erosion, control weeds, replenish soil organic matter and hold nutrients
(Schonbeck 1988a, 1988b). Those who cannot afford to take land out of
production for an entire season use winter annual crops such as rye (Secale
cereale). Rye planted as late as October 15 in southern New England can suppress
weeds, prevent erosion and produce ample organic matter by spring. However,
since rye is not a legume, it does not have nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria in its
roots, and in fact may temporarily tie up soil nitrogen after it is turned under.
Also, because of its coarse, tough texture, rye gets tangled in the tines of
rototillers, decomposes slowly and may grow back, thus requiring additional
tillage and delaying seedbed preparation. Some growers use oats (Avena sativa)
because they winterkill and are thus easier to manage in spring. However, oats
must be planted by mid August to ensure adequate soil protection.
Most legumes form a symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria in root nodules
which fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use. Hairy vetch is a
hardy winter annual legume whose rhizobia fix large amounts of nitrogen, and
which has overwintered as far north as central Vermont. Hairy vetch and rye
grown together may give greater benefits than either alone, including more
organic matter, better weed control and support for the vetch vines in the spring
(Schonbeck 1988c). Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decomposition
of rye when the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination
sometimes maintains soil organic matter levels more effectively than does the

8
legume alone (Gliessman, 1987). According to DeGregorio & Ashley (1985), two
other winter annual legumes which may be hardy at least in southern New
England are crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) and Austrian winter field peas
(Pisum sativum ssp. arvense). We conducted a study at New Alchemy Institute to
compare the ability of several legume-grass combinations to produce organic
matter and nitrogen,' control weeds and provide nutrients to a subsequent
vegetable crop.
On August 26-27, 1988, we planted 10'x 10' plots at New Alchemy with
rye alone and in combination with each of these three winter annual legumes. We
also planted oats+ hairy vetch. Because oats are winterkilled north of Maryland,
this combination might be easier to manage than rye+ vetch, but oats offer little
support for vetch vines in spring. Treatments were replicated four times so that we
could make statistical comparisons. One replicate was eaten by rabbits, leaving us
three.
All cover crops grew vigorously, produced over 3000 pounds per acre of
dry matter by late May, and effectively suppressed weed growth (Figure 1). Rye +
crimson clover produced the largest biomass, significantly more than rye + hairy
vetch. Austrian winter peas were partially winterkilled, resulting in lower
biomass. However, rye growing with this crop appeared greener and more
vigorous than rye alone, suggesting that it may have benefited from symbiotically
fixed nitrogen from the peas. Nitrogen analyses showed that rye grown with any
of the legumes had significantly higher tissue nitrogen concentrations (1.1-1.4%)
than rye grown alone (1.0%).
In a similar experiment planted at Maplewood Farm in Amherst, MA, both
crimson clover and winter peas were winterkilled, whereas hairy vetch + rye
performed well, producing a combined biomass of 5600 pounds per acre. The
crops were planted too late (September 9), and suffered a-12 F freeze without
snow protection. It seems worthwhile to try crimson clover and winter peas again
in western Massachusetts, planting in mid-late August.
We decided not to till the cover crops in at New Alchemy, but to mow
them, leaving the clippings on the surface as a mulch. This has several possible

9
advantages, including soil moisture conservation, weed suppression, and savings
on tillage. More importantly, tilling stimulates weed germination, may cause too
rapid breakdown of organic matter and may increase erosion. Many farmers use
no-till methods to save soil, time and fuel, and to reduce weed pressure, but they
often must use toxic herbicides such as paraquat to kill existing vegetation prior to
planting their crops. Winter annual cover crops can be killed by mowing after they
start to flower, thus making a no-till, no-herbicide system possible.
We tried this system in 1988 for producing tomatoes, and found that the
mulch lowered soil temperatures and thus slowed growth and reduced early-
season yield in this heat-loving cmp (Schonbeck & Doherty, 1988). However, it
also reduced weed growth and conserved soil moisture during the drought, and we
felt that the mulch might be advantageous for a cool-season crop such as broccoli.
In 1989, we mowed the cover crops in late May, when the rye had just shed its
pollen and all legumes were beginning to flower. On June 3, we transplanted
seedlings of 'Emperor' broccoli through the mulch, providing each with a heaping
teaspoon of bonemeal and a cup of water to get started. The seedlings grew
vigorously, but rabbits, slugs, earwigs and climbing cutworms soon came to the
banquet table, destroying half the crop. New Alchemy intern Albert Wurzberger
noted many spiders throughout the experiment, a potential predator of some pests.
We spent many frantic hours erecting a fence, replacing devastated plants with
seedlings purchased from a nearby nursery, picking nocturnal pests by flashlight,
and applying natural pest control sprays and dusts.
By the time we had all the varmints under control, we noticed that broccoli
plants in rye plots were far smaller and less green than plants in the other four
cover crops. On July 3, we gave each plant in all treatments a heaping teaspoon of
an organic fertilizer, but the size difference between the rye-only and the legume
treatments just kept on increasing. The bone meal and fertilizer together supplied
only 32 pounds of nitrogen, 23 pounds of phosphorus and 11 pounds of potassium
per acre, and the experiment was conducted on a soil testing low to medium in all
three nutrients. Leaf tissue tests showed that broccoli after grass + legume cover
crops had significantly higher foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentration than

10
broccoli after rye alone. The legume supplied nitrogen to the broccoli, and at least
indirectly improved phosphorous nutrition.
Main heads of broccoli were ready for harvest between July 22 and July
31. Broccoli heads produced in the four legume treatments were substantially
larger and heavier than broccoli heads from rye plots (Table 1).
Weeds were never pulled or hoed during the experiment, and no additional
mulch was brought in. On August 3, after broccoli harvest was finished, the center
square meter of each plot was weeded and weed dry weight was determined. Plots
mulched with a rye-only cover crop had by far the most weeds, and broadleaves
were largely responsible for the difference (Figure 2). Rye plots contained far
more horseweed (Conyza canadensis), a serious weed of no-till agriculture, than
did grass+ legume plots. Weeds in the latter were so sparse that they cast
essentially no shade on the broccoli. Furthermore, very little cover crop regrowth
occurred in any treatment. This was accomplished without weeding or herbicides,
and since nitrogen deficiency and weeds are normally the organic farmer's biggest
headaches, mow-killed rye+ legume cover crops may be an important strategy.
Although oats died in winter and oats+ hairy vetch weighed less in May
than other cover crops, they still suppressed weeds well. However, tree leaves
blown across the plots from nearby compost piles accumulated in the oats + vetch
plots in amounts exceeding 3000 pounds of dry matter per acre, whereas other
treatments collected only 100-900 pounds per acre of leaves. The erect oat plants,
unlike the prostrate rye and legumes, trapped leaves effectively, a useful trait for
growers near urban areas who want to spread municipal leaves in the fall. The
leaves increased the total amount of dry matter mulching the oats + vetch plots to
over 7000 pounds per acre, higher than other treatments. Without this "subsidy,"
the oats + vetch may not have suppressed weeds any better than rye alone.
In 1990, we are repeating this experiment on rye, hairy vetch, rye + vetch,
and vetch + oats. Cover crops will be turned under in some plots, and mow-killed
in others, to determine how the two management systems influence weeds, crop
nutrition, soil temperature and moisture, and certain pests and beneficial
organisms in broccoli grown after the cover crops.

11
 Acknowledgments: We thank Albert Wurzberger for long hours spent
observing and controlling various pests. Also thanks to Dave Simser for technical
assistance, and to Judy Browne, Guillermo Iranzo-Berrocal, Heidi Hopkins,
Peggy Elder, Joshua Levine and Lucia Rossoni for their help with the experiment.
References DeGregorio, Ralph E. and Richard A. Ashley, 1985. Screening living
mulches and cover crops for weed suppression in no-till sweet corn. Proceedings
of the Northeast Weed Science Society. 39: 80-84.
Gliessman, Stephen R., 1987. Species interactions and community ecology in low
external-input agriculture. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture. 2: 160-
165. Schonbeck, Mark. 1988a. Cover crop research at New Alchemy Institute:
why, what and how. New Alchemy Quarterly 33 (Fall): 3-4.
-. 1988b. Cover Cropping and Green Manuring on Small Farms in New England
and New York: an Informal Survey. New Alchemy Institute Research Report No.
10.
- 1988c. Hairy vetch and winter rye: mutual support. New Alchemy Quarterly 33
(Fall): 11. Schonbeck, Mark and Wendy Doherty, 1989. Cover crops for
Northeast vegetable farms: a report on research at New Alchemy Institute. The
Natural Farmer (Spring): 1213.

Web Site Index

Original Article from:
New Alchemy Quarterly
Winter 1989-90, No. 38
© 1990, New Alchemy Institute, Inc.
237 Hatchville Road
East Falmouth, MA 02536
http://www.fuzzylu.com/greencenter/
Scanning & HTML conversion: FuzzyLu MultiMedia.

http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm

12
Article 4
A New Garden Irrigation System
Fall, 1984

If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then water

conservation may be a priority for the eighties. In 1980, we consumed a record
high average of 450 billion gallons of water a day. Most of this - 83% - was used
for irrigation, passing through systems that, in fact, "lose" 50 to 80 percent of the
total supply to evaporation. Cities and towns use about seven percent of the
overall fresh water, and the amount is steadily increasing. Home consumption is
up from 95 gallons per capita per day in 1900 to 190 gallons in 1984.
At the New Alchemy Institute, town water costs us $1/100 cubic feet (750
gallons). So it's no surprise that we have been using water-conserving
technologies for many years. In the auditorium, we have installed two low-flow
toilets that use only one-sixth of the water of normal flush toilets. Our outdoor
fish ponds are filled by the rains and snow of winter. In the gardens, we've used
drip irrigation systems, and also recycled nutrient-rich fish pond water to irrigate
vegetable crops.
In 1983, we were introduced to a new garden irrigation system designed to
cut water consumption by 40-60% compared with conventional systems. As yet,
we have had limited experience with this system, and so cannot make
recommendations. However, we're excited by the prospects for an efficient garden
irrigation system that could be self-regulating, cost-effective and long-lived.
The system is based on a one-inch porous rubber hose manufactured from
old tires. The hose is placed several inches below lawns or gardens and linked to a
header tank and thence to the faucet. The header tank is fitted with a ball cock -
similar to those in flush toilets - and this maintains a constant pressure throughout
the irrigation system. Water seeps from the buried hose, spreading laterally for a
total width of three or four feet. When the soil is saturated, and water pressure
within the soil is equal to that produced by the header tank, the system stops. As

13
plants absorb water, reducing soil water pressure, the system starts up again. If the
manufacturer's claims are accurate, irrigation labor is reduced to virtually zero.
There are also other advantages. The system comes with a ten-year
warranty. Evaporation losses and soil erosion are reduced dramatically. Once
installed, the system is virtually maintenance-free. Because the irrigation hose is
buried, germination of weeds in the dry soil surface should be retarded.

If you would like more information about this irrigation system, contact either of
the following: Aquanetics, 50 Radcliffe Avenue, Providence, Rl 02908 or
Moisture-Matic, Inc., 1751 Main Street, East Hartford, CT 06108. John Quinney

John Quinney, Executive Director of the New Alchemy Institute, is a specialist in

tree crops.

Original Article from:

New Alchemy Quarterly
Fall 1984, No. 17
© 1984, New Alchemy Institute, Inc.
237 Hatchville Road
East Falmouth, MA 02536
http://www.fuzzylu.com/greencenter/
Scanning & HTML conversion: FuzzyLu MultiMedia.

http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htm

14
CHAPTER ONE
CLAUSE, SENTENCE AND PHRASE

Naturally, March and April are dynamic months for growing in a

greenhouse, and within five short weeks, the lettuce was ready for harvest. We
started to harvest on April 24th and pulled the final heads on May 1st. Individual
lettuces were weighed after the roots and unmarketable leaves were removed.
Most of the lettuce was consumed by staff, students, interns and volunteers;
however, two or three dozen heads made it to the local natural food store. You can
imagine how happy health food fanatics were to see fresh, locally grown, organic
lettuce in April. When you're talking lettuce, taste is the bottom line, and both
varieties were flavorful; but we gathered some statistical information, too. We put
the lettuce varieties through a one-factor analysis of variance statistical program
with weight as the dependent variable. This test would indicate any significant
difference between the two varieties. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at
171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3
(S.D.=37.1) grams.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

In 1989, interns Albert Wurzberger, Heidi Hopkins, Joshua Levine, Judy

Browne, Guillermo Iranzo-Berrocal and researcher Mark Schonbeck and I
compared green translucent plastic to photo-degradable clear and ordinary black
plastic mulch. We used early lettuce followed by tomatoes as test crops. All data
have not been statistically analyzed yet, but soil temperature under translucent
green averaged slightly higher than under black plastic. Lettuce yields did not
differ significantly between plastics. It was obvious that this green plastic ripped
less than the black we used, despite the black being thicker. This may have been
due to the black not containing a UV inhibitor. Thus, be careful about hardware
store, multi-purpose black plastic for longer-term outdoor uses. The translucent
product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is designed to absorb most of the red and

15
blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow weed growth underneath the plastic. At
the same time, translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic.
Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch does not warm soil very much, but
may cause crop leaves to overheat.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm

A. Clause And Sentence

Examples :
1. We started to harvest on April 24th and pulled the final heads on
May 1st.
We = Subject
started = V1
pulled = V2
and = Conjunction
2. Most of the lettuce was consumed by staff, students, interns and
volunteers; however, two or three dozen heads made it to the local
natural food store.
Most of the lettuce = Subject
was consumed = V1
made = V2
however = Conjunction
3. In 1989, interns Albert Wurzberger, Heidi Hopkins, Joshua Levine, Judy
Browne, Guillermo Iranzo-Berrocal and researcher Mark Schonbeck and
I compared green translucent plastic to photo-degradable clear and
ordinary black plastic mulch.
Albert Wurzberger, Heidi Hopkins, Joshua Levine, Judy Browne,
Guillermo Iranzo-Berrocal and researcher Mark Schonbeck and I =
Subject
Compared = V
4. All data have not been statistically analyzed yet, but soil temperature
under translucent green averaged slightly higher than under black plastic.

16
 All data = Subject1
soil temperature = Subject2
analyzed = V1
averaged = V2
but = Conjunction
5. Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch does not warm soil very
much, but may cause crop leaves to overheat.
black plastic mulch = Subject
does not = V1
may = V2
but = Conjunction

B. Phrase
Examples :
1. Nominal Phrases
• A greenhouse • The lettuce
• Individual varieties
lettuces • Green translucent
• The roots plastic
• Tomatoes
• Black plastic
2. Verbal Phrases
• Growing • Used
• Weighed • Did not
• Gathered • Have been due
• Would indicate • Designed
• Compared
3. Adjectival Phrases
• Naturally
• Significant

17
• Statistically
• Slightly higher
• Significantly

18
4. Adverbal Phrases
• In April
• In 1989
• In Israel
CHAPTER TWO
CONTEXTUAL REFERENCE

New Alchemists are not unlike typical American consumers. We like

salad: often for lunch and even more so for dinner. For almost a decade, we have
evaluated all types of lettuces for greenhouse production: loose-leaf, buttercrunch,
Bibb and Boston. We've favored many of the Dutch varieties because they have
proven themselves highly adaptable to our variable greenhouse climate. Until
recently, it has been a tedious process to obtain European strains of lettuce. Many
of the Dutch seed companies sell strictly wholesale and the one or two who sell
them to the retail market make it a painstakingly long process.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

Many New England vegetable growers use cover crops to protect their soil
against erosion, control weeds, replenish soil organic matter and hold nutrients
(Schonbeck 1988a, 1988b). Those who cannot afford to take land out of
production for an entire season use winter annual crops such as rye (Secale
cereale). Rye planted as late as October 15 in southern New England can suppress
weeds, prevent erosion and produce ample organic matter by spring. However,
since rye is not a legume, it does not have nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria in its
roots, and in fact may temporarily tie up soil nitrogen after it is turned under.
Also, because of its coarse, tough texture, rye gets tangled in the tines of
rototillers, decomposes slowly and may grow back, thus requiring additional
tillage and delaying seedbed preparation. Some growers use oats (Avena sativa)
because they winterkill and are thus easier to manage in spring. However, oats
must be planted by mid August to ensure adequate soil protection.
Most legumes form a symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria in root nodules
which fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use. Hairy vetch is a
hardy winter annual legume whose rhizobia fix large amounts of nitrogen, and
which has overwintered as far north as central Vermont. Hairy vetch and rye
grown together may give greater benefits than either alone, including more
organic matter, better weed control and support for the vetch vines in the spring
(Schonbeck 1988c). Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decomposition
of rye when the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination
sometimes maintains soil organic matter levels more effectively than does the
legume alone (Gliessman, 1987). According to DeGregorio & Ashley (1985), two
other winter annual legumes which may be hardy at least in southern New
England are crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) and Austrian winter field peas
(Pisum sativum ssp. arvense). We conducted a study at New Alchemy Institute to
compare the ability of several legume-grass combinations to produce organic
matter and nitrogen,' control weeds and provide nutrients to a subsequent
vegetable crop.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm

Examples :
1. Many of the Dutch seed companies sell strictly wholesale and the one or
two who sell them to the retail market make it a painstakingly long
process.
Who = Many of the Dutch seed companies
2. Those who cannot afford to take land out of production for an entire
season use winter annual crops such as rye (Secale cereale).
Who =
3. Hairy vetch is a hardy winter annual legume whose rhizobia fix large
amounts of nitrogen, and which has overwintered as far north as central
Vermont.
Whose = Hairy vetch
Which = Hairy vetch
4. According to DeGregorio & Ashley (1985), two other winter annual
legumes which may be hardy at least in southern New England are
crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) and Austrian winter field peas
(Pisum sativum ssp. arvense).
Which = two other winter annual legumes
5. Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decomposition of rye when
the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination sometimes
maintains soil organic matter levels more effectively than does the legume
alone (Gliessman, 1987).
CHAPTER THREE
DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION

A. Definition
Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic. All
edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no holes are made in it, unlike
ordinary black plastic mulch. This practice was pioneered in Israel for control of
certain plant diseases and later weeds, and the one year I tested it at the University
of Connecticut, it killed almost all the weeds growing under the plastic. I tried it at
New Alchemy with several strips of ultra-thin, ultra-clear, ultra-tough plastic.
Unfortunately, the plastic did not contain an ultraviolet inhibitor and began
disintegrating before solarization had a chance to work.
… Thus, be careful about hardware store, multi-purpose black plastic for
longer-term outdoor uses. The translucent product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is
designed to absorb most of the red and blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow
weed growth underneath the plastic. At the same time, translucent green allows
more light to enter than black plastic. Contrary to popular belief, black plastic
mulch does not warm soil very much, but may cause crop leaves to overheat.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm

Most legumes form a symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria in root nodules

which fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use. Hairy vetch is a
hardy winter annual legume whose rhizobia fix large amounts of nitrogen, and
which has overwintered as far north as central Vermont. Hairy vetch and rye
grown together may give greater benefits than either alone, including more
organic matter, better weed control and support for the vetch vines in the spring
(Schonbeck 1988c). Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decomposition
of rye when the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination
sometimes maintains soil organic matter levels more effectively than does the
legume alone (Gliessman, 1987).
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm
 Eighteen heads of lettuce were lost to botrytis, commonly known as leaf
rot. Improved air circulation and a wider spacing between rows and individual
lettuces within the row would minimize this disease problem. We'd recommend
ten inches on center for spacing between heads.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

Examples :
1. Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic.
2. The translucent product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is designed to absorb
most of the red and blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow weed
growth underneath the plastic.
3. Hairy vetch is a hardy winter annual legume whose rhizobia fix large
amounts of nitrogen, and which has overwintered as far north as central
Vermont.
4. Eighteen heads of lettuce were lost to botrytis, commonly known as leaf
rot.

B. Description
In 1989, we mowed the cover crops in late May, when the rye had just
shed its pollen and all legumes were beginning to flower. On June 3, we
transplanted seedlings of 'Emperor' broccoli through the mulch, providing each
with a heaping teaspoon of bonemeal and a cup of water to get started. The
seedlings grew vigorously, but rabbits, slugs, earwigs and climbing cutworms
soon came to the banquet table, destroying half the crop. New Alchemy intern
Albert Wurzberger noted many spiders throughout the experiment, a potential
predator of some pests. We spent many frantic hours erecting a fence, replacing
devastated plants with seedlings purchased from a nearby nursery, picking
nocturnal pests by flashlight, and applying natural pest control sprays and dusts.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm
 At the New Alchemy Institute, town water costs us $1/100 cubic feet (750
gallons). So it's no surprise that we have been using water-conserving
technologies for many years. In the auditorium, we have installed two low-flow
toilets that use only one-sixth of the water of normal flush toilets. Our outdoor
fish ponds are filled by the rains and snow of winter. In the gardens, we've used
drip irrigation systems, and also recycled nutrient-rich fish pond water to irrigate
vegetable crops.
There are also other advantages. The system comes with a ten-year
warranty. Evaporation losses and soil erosion are reduced dramatically. Once
installed, the system is virtually maintenance-free. Because the irrigation hose is
buried, germination of weeds in the dry soil surface should be retarded.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htm

Examples :
1. On June 3, we transplanted seedlings of 'Emperor' broccoli through the
mulch, providing each with a heaping teaspoon of bonemeal and a cup of
water to get started.
2. In the gardens, we've used drip irrigation systems, and also recycled
nutrient-rich fish pond water to irrigate vegetable crops.
3. Once installed, the system is virtually maintenance-free. Because the
irrigation hose is buried, germination of weeds in the dry soil surface
should be retarded.
CHAPTER FOUR
IMPERSONAL PASSIVE

In 1983, we were introduced to a new garden irrigation system designed to

cut water consumption by 40-60% compared with conventional systems. As yet,
we have had limited experience with this system, and so cannot make
recommendations. However, we're excited by the prospects for an efficient garden
irrigation system that could be self-regulating, cost-effective and long-lived.
The system is based on a one-inch porous rubber hose manufactured from
old tires. The hose is placed several inches below lawns or gardens and linked to a
header tank and thence to the faucet. The header tank is fitted with a ball cock -
similar to those in flush toilets - and this maintains a constant pressure throughout
the irrigation system. Water seeps from the buried hose, spreading laterally for a
total width of three or four feet. When the soil is saturated, and water pressure
within the soil is equal to that produced by the header tank, the system stops. As
plants absorb water, reducing soil water pressure, the system starts up again. If the
manufacturer's claims are accurate, irrigation labor is reduced to virtually zero.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htm

Examples :
1. In 1983, we were introduced to a new garden irrigation system designed to
cut water consumption by 40-60% compared with conventional systems.
2. However, we're excited by the prospects for an efficient garden irrigation
system that could be self-regulating, cost-effective and long-lived.
3. The system is based on a one-inch porous rubber hose manufactured from
old tires.
4. The hose is placed several inches below lawns or gardens and linked to a
header tank and thence to the faucet.
5. When the soil is saturated, and water pressure within the soil is equal to
that produced by the header tank, the system stops.
CHAPTER FIVE
PARALLEL STRUCTURE AND PAIRED CONJUNCTION

A. Parallel Structure – Single Conjunction

New Alchemists are not unlike typical American consumers. We like
salad: often for lunch and even more so for dinner. For almost a decade, we have
evaluated all types of lettuces for greenhouse production: loose-leaf, buttercrunch,
Bibb and Boston. We've favored many of the Dutch varieties because they have
proven themselves highly adaptable to our variable greenhouse climate. Until
recently, it has been a tedious process to obtain European strains of lettuce. Many
of the Dutch seed companies sell strictly wholesale and the one or two who sell
them to the retail market make it a painstakingly long process.
In 1985, one of our favorite seed companies, Johnny's Selected Seeds,
(Foss Hill Rd., Albion, Maine 04910) started to distribute three Dutch lettuce
varieties: Diamante, Salina and Vasco. Since we were familiar with Salina and
Vasco for hydroponic culture, we decided to plant them for spring production in
the Cape Cod Ark. Salina is a medium-small, compact, dark green Boston lettuce
that is bolt-resistant and mild tasting. It can be grown for spring, summer and fall
harvest. Vasco can be sown as a spring or fall crop; plant November through April
and late July through September. This variety forms light green heads with a mild
flavor; it, too, is bolt-resistant.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

Examples :
1. Many of the Dutch seed companies sell strictly wholesale and the one or
two who sell them to the retail market make it a painstakingly long
process.
2. Since we were familiar with Salina and Vasco for hydroponic culture, we
decided to plant them for spring production in the Cape Cod Ark.
3. It can be grown for spring, summer and fall harvest.
4. Vasco can be sown as a spring or fall crop.
 B. Parallel Stucture – Paired Conjunction
On Valentine's Day, we sowed the lettuce seeds in our standard seeding
mix: one part peat to one part vermiculite. Two seeds were sown in an individual
cell of one inch diameter; forty-eight cells filled a pack. They were placed on a
propagation mat for guaranteed successful seed germination; the soil thermostat
was set at 68 degrees F. A few weeks after germination, weak lettuces were
pricked out in order for one lettuce to develop in each cell. The lettuces were
planted out on March 26th in a randomized pattern in the two largest growing
beds in the Ark. The center bed contained 66 plants; the east end bed contained 88
plants. The lettuces were planted in a zig-zag pattern to ensure efficient use of the
growing area. Both beds were cultivated when necessary and both plantings were
fertilized with fish emulsion in mid-April.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

In a similar experiment planted at Maplewood Farm in Amherst, MA, both

crimson clover and winter peas were winterkilled, whereas hairy vetch + rye
performed well, producing a combined biomass of 5600 pounds per acre. The
crops were planted too late (September 9), and suffered a-12 F freeze without
snow protection. It seems worthwhile to try crimson clover and winter peas again
in western Massachusetts, planting in mid-late August.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm

Examples :
1. Both beds were cultivated when necessary and both plantings were
fertilized with fish emulsion in mid-April.
2. In a similar experiment planted at Maplewood Farm in Amherst, MA, both
crimson clover and winter peas were winterkilled, whereas hairy vetch +
rye performed well, producing a combined biomass of 5600 pounds per
acre.
CHAPTER SIX
RELATIONSHIP SHOWING TIME

New Alchemists are not unlike typical American consumers. We like

salad: often for lunch and even more so for dinner. For almost a decade, we have
evaluated all types of lettuces for greenhouse production: loose-leaf, buttercrunch,
Bibb and Boston. We've favored many of the Dutch varieties because they have
proven themselves highly adaptable to our variable greenhouse climate. Until
recently, it has been a tedious process to obtain European strains of lettuce. Many
of the Dutch seed companies sell strictly wholesale and the one or two who sell
them to the retail market make it a painstakingly long process.

In 1985, one of our favorite seed companies, Johnny's Selected Seeds,

(Foss Hill Rd., Albion, Maine 04910) started to distribute three Dutch lettuce
varieties: Diamante, Salina and Vasco. Since we were familiar with Salina and
Vasco for hydroponic culture, we decided to plant them for spring production in
the Cape Cod Ark. Salina is a medium-small, compact, dark green Boston lettuce
that is bolt-resistant and mild tasting. It can be grown for spring, summer and fall
harvest. Vasco can be sown as a spring or fall crop; plant November through April
and late July through September. This variety forms light green heads with a mild
flavor; it, too, is bolt-resistant.
On Valentine's Day, we sowed the lettuce seeds in our standard seeding
mix: one part peat to one part vermiculite. Two seeds were sown in an individual
cell of one inch diameter; forty-eight cells filled a pack. They were placed on a
propagation mat for guaranteed successful seed germination; the soil thermostat
was set at 68 degrees F. A few weeks after germination, weak lettuces were
pricked out in order for one lettuce to develop in each cell. The lettuces were
planted out on March 26th in a randomized pattern in the two largest growing
beds in the Ark. The center bed contained 66 plants; the east end bed contained 88
plants. The lettuces were planted in a zig-zag pattern to ensure efficient use of the
growing area. Both beds were cultivated when necessary and both plantings were
fertilized with fish emulsion in mid-April.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic. All
edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no holes are made in it, unlike
ordinary black plastic mulch. This practice was pioneered in Israel for control of
certain plant diseases and later weeds, and the one year I tested it at the University
of Connecticut, it killed almost all the weeds growing under the plastic. I tried it at
New Alchemy with several strips of ultra-thin, ultra-clear, ultra-tough plastic.
Unfortunately, the plastic did not contain an ultraviolet inhibitor and began
disintegrating before solarization had a chance to work.
Two companies in 1990 are selling brown translucent plastic mulches that
are also reported to be the best of both worlds: warmer soil than black plastic and
fewer (an insignificant amount of) weeds than clear plastic (see their large ads in
the April 1990 issue of American Vegetable Grower). While we would all like not
to use plastic, given a choice between crops grown with plastic mulch or
herbicides (chemical weed killers), most prefer plastic.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm

Hairy vetch and rye grown together may give greater benefits than either
alone, including more organic matter, better weed control and support for the
vetch vines in the spring (Schonbeck 1988c). Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may
accelerate decomposition of rye when the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-
legume combination sometimes maintains soil organic matter levels more
effectively than does the legume alone (Gliessman, 1987). According to
DeGregorio & Ashley (1985), two other winter annual legumes which may be
hardy at least in southern New England are crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum)
and Austrian winter field peas (Pisum sativum ssp. arvense).
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm
 If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then water
conservation may be a priority for the eighties. In 1980, we consumed a record
high average of 450 billion gallons of water a day. Most of this - 83% - was used
for irrigation, passing through systems that, in fact, "lose" 50 to 80 percent of the
total supply to evaporation. Cities and towns use about seven percent of the
overall fresh water, and the amount is steadily increasing. Home consumption is
up from 95 gallons per capita per day in 1900 to 190 gallons in 1984.
The system is based on a one-inch porous rubber hose manufactured from
old tires. The hose is placed several inches below lawns or gardens and linked to a
header tank and thence to the faucet. The header tank is fitted with a ball cock -
similar to those in flush toilets - and this maintains a constant pressure throughout
the irrigation system. Water seeps from the buried hose, spreading laterally for a
total width of three or four feet. When the soil is saturated, and water pressure
within the soil is equal to that produced by the header tank, the system stops. As
plants absorb water, reducing soil water pressure, the system starts up again. If the
manufacturer's claims are accurate, irrigation labor is reduced to virtually zero.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htm

Examples :
1. Until recently, it has been a tedious process to obtain European strains of
lettuce.
2. Since we were familiar with Salina and Vasco for hydroponic culture, we
decided to plant them for spring production in the Cape Cod Ark.
3. A few weeks after germination, weak lettuces were pricked out in order
for one lettuce to develop in each cell.
4. Both beds were cultivated when necessary and both plantings were
fertilized with fish emulsion in mid-April.
5. Unfortunately, the plastic did not contain an ultraviolet inhibitor and began
disintegrating before solarization had a chance to work.
6. While we would all like not to use plastic, given a choice between crops
grown with plastic mulch or herbicides (chemical weed killers), most
prefer plastic.
7. Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decomposition of rye when
the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination sometimes
maintains soil organic matter levels more effectively than does the legume
alone (Gliessman, 1987).
8. If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then water
conservation may be a priority for the eighties.
9. The header tank is fitted with a ball cock - similar to those in flush toilets -
and this maintains a constant pressure throughout the irrigation system.
10. If the manufacturer's claims are accurate, irrigation labor is reduced to
virtually zero.
CHAPTER SEVEN
RELATIONSHIP SHOWING CONSEQUENCE

If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then water

conservation may be a priority for the eighties. In 1980, we consumed a record
high average of 450 billion gallons of water a day. Most of this - 83% - was used
for irrigation, passing through systems that, in fact, "lose" 50 to 80 percent of the
total supply to evaporation. Cities and towns use about seven percent of the
overall fresh water, and the amount is steadily increasing. Home consumption is
up from 95 gallons per capita per day in 1900 to 190 gallons in 1984…
In 1983, we were introduced to a new garden irrigation system designed to
cut water consumption by 40-60% compared with conventional systems. As yet,
we have had limited experience with this system, and so cannot make
recommendations. However, we're excited by the prospects for an efficient garden
irrigation system that could be self-regulating, cost-effective and long-lived.
The system is based on a one-inch porous rubber hose manufactured from
old tires. The hose is placed several inches below lawns or gardens and linked to a
header tank and thence to the faucet. The header tank is fitted with a ball cock -
similar to those in flush toilets - and this maintains a constant pressure throughout
the irrigation system. Water seeps from the buried hose, spreading laterally for a
total width of three or four feet. When the soil is saturated, and water pressure
within the soil is equal to that produced by the header tank, the system stops. As
plants absorb water, reducing soil water pressure, the system starts up again. If the
manufacturer's claims are accurate, irrigation labor is reduced to virtually zero.
There are also other advantages. The system comes with a ten-year
warranty. Evaporation losses and soil erosion are reduced dramatically. Once
installed, the system is virtually maintenance-free. Because the irrigation hose is
buried, germination of weeds in the dry soil surface should be retarded.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htm
 This may have been due to the black not containing a UV inhibitor. Thus,
be careful about hardware store, multi-purpose black plastic for longer-term
outdoor uses. The translucent product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is designed to
absorb most of the red and blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow weed
growth underneath the plastic. At the same time, translucent green allows more
light to enter than black plastic. Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch
does not warm soil very much, but may cause crop leaves to overheat.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm

Examples :
1. If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then water
conservation may be a priority for the eighties.
2. As yet, we have had limited experience with this system, and so cannot
make recommendations.
3. As plants absorb water, reducing soil water pressure, the system starts up
again.
4. If the manufacturer's claims are accurate, irrigation labor is reduced to
virtually zero.
5. Thus, be careful about hardware store, multi-purpose black plastic for
longer-term outdoor uses.
CHAPTER EIGHT
RELATIONSHIP SHOWING OPPOSITION

In 1983, we were introduced to a new garden irrigation system designed to

cut water consumption by 40-60% compared with conventional systems. As yet,
we have had limited experience with this system, and so cannot make
recommendations. However, we're excited by the prospects for an efficient garden
irrigation system that could be self-regulating, cost-effective and long-lived.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htm

In 1989, we mowed the cover crops in late May, when the rye had just
shed its pollen and all legumes were beginning to flower. On June 3, we
transplanted seedlings of 'Emperor' broccoli through the mulch, providing each
with a heaping teaspoon of bonemeal and a cup of water to get started. The
seedlings grew vigorously, but rabbits, slugs, earwigs and climbing cutworms
soon came to the banquet table, destroying half the crop. New Alchemy intern
Albert Wurzberger noted many spiders throughout the experiment, a potential
predator of some pests. We spent many frantic hours erecting a fence, replacing
devastated plants with seedlings purchased from a nearby nursery, picking
nocturnal pests by flashlight, and applying natural pest control sprays and dust.
Although oats died in winter and oats+ hairy vetch weighed less in May
than other cover crops, they still suppressed weeds well. However, tree leaves
blown across the plots from nearby compost piles accumulated in the oats + vetch
plots in amounts exceeding 3000 pounds of dry matter per acre, whereas other
treatments collected only 100-900 pounds per acre of leaves. The erect oat plants,
unlike the prostrate rye and legumes, trapped leaves effectively, a useful trait for
growers near urban areas who want to spread municipal leaves in the fall. The
leaves increased the total amount of dry matter mulching the oats + vetch plots to
over 7000 pounds per acre, higher than other treatments. Without this "subsidy,"
the oats + vetch may not have suppressed weeds any better than rye alone.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm
Examples :
1. As yet, we have had limited experience with this system, and so cannot
make recommendations. However, we're excited by the prospects for an
efficient garden irrigation system that could be self-regulating, cost-
effective and long-lived.
2. The seedlings grew vigorously, but rabbits, slugs, earwigs and climbing
cutworms soon came to the banquet table, destroying half the crop.
3. Although oats died in winter and oats+ hairy vetch weighed less in May
than other cover crops, they still suppressed weeds well.
4. Although oats died in winter and oats+ hairy vetch weighed less in May
than other cover crops, they still suppressed weeds well. However, tree
leaves blown across the plots from nearby compost piles accumulated in
the oats + vetch plots in amounts exceeding 3000 pounds of dry matter per
acre, whereas other treatments collected only 100-900 pounds per acre of
leaves.
CHAPTER NINE
RELATIONSHIP SHOWING EXEMPLIFICATION

Naturally, March and April are dynamic months for growing in a

greenhouse, and within five short weeks, the lettuce was ready for harvest. We
started to harvest on April 24th and pulled the final heads on May 1st. Individual
lettuces were weighed after the roots and unmarketable leaves were removed.
Most of the lettuce was consumed by staff, students, interns and volunteers;
however, two or three dozen heads made it to the local natural food store. You can
imagine how happy health food fanatics were to see fresh, locally grown, organic
lettuce in April. When you're talking lettuce, taste is the bottom line, and both
varieties were flavorful; but we gathered some statistical information, too. We put
the lettuce varieties through a one-factor analysis of variance statistical program
with weight as the dependent variable. This test would indicate any significant
difference between the two varieties. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at
171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3
(S.D.=37.1) grams.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic. All
edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no holes are made in it, unlike
ordinary black plastic mulch. This practice was pioneered in Israel for control of
certain plant diseases and later weeds, and the one year I tested it at the University
of Connecticut, it killed almost all the weeds growing under the plastic. I tried it at
New Alchemy with several strips of ultra-thin, ultra-clear, ultra-tough plastic.
Unfortunately, the plastic did not contain an ultraviolet inhibitor and began
disintegrating before solarization had a chance to work.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm
Examples :
• This test would indicate any significant difference between the two
varieties. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0)
than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3 (S.D.=37.1) grams.
1. This test would indicate any significant difference between the two
varieties. For example, Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4
grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3
(S.D.=37.1) grams.
2. This test would indicate any significant difference between the two
varieties. Salina yielded, for example, a heavier mean weight at 171.4
grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3
(S.D.=37.1) grams.
3. This test would indicate any significant difference between the two
varieties. For instance, Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4
grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3
(S.D.=37.1) grams.
4. This test would indicate any significant difference between the two
varieties. Salina yielded, for instance, a heavier mean weight at 171.4
grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3
(S.D.=37.1) grams.
• Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear
plastic. All edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no holes are
made in it, unlike ordinary black plastic mulch.
1. Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic.
For example, All edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no
holes are made in it, unlike ordinary black plastic mulch.
2. Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic.
All edges of the plastic are covered, for example, with soil and no
holes are made in it, unlike ordinary black plastic mulch.
3. Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic.
For instance, All edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no holes
are made in it, unlike ordinary black plastic mulch.
4. Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic.
All edges of the plastic are covered, for instance, with soil and no
holes are made in it, unlike ordinary black plastic mulch.
CHAPTER TEN
RELATIONSHIP SHOWING EXPLANATION

Naturally, March and April are dynamic months for growing in a

greenhouse, and within five short weeks, the lettuce was ready for harvest. We
started to harvest on April 24th and pulled the final heads on May 1st. Individual
lettuces were weighed after the roots and unmarketable leaves were removed.
Most of the lettuce was consumed by staff, students, interns and volunteers;
however, two or three dozen heads made it to the local natural food store. You can
imagine how happy health food fanatics were to see fresh, locally grown, organic
lettuce in April. When you're talking lettuce, taste is the bottom line, and both
varieties were flavorful; but we gathered some statistical information, too. We put
the lettuce varieties through a one-factor analysis of variance statistical program
with weight as the dependent variable. This test would indicate any significant
difference between the two varieties. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at
171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3
(S.D.=37.1) grams.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

Examples :
1. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0) than
Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3 (S.D.=37.1) grams.
2. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0) than
Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3 (S.D.=37.1) grams.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
RELATIONSHIP SHOWING ADDITION :
REINFORCEMENT + SIMILARITY

A. Addition Showing Reinforcement

On August 26-27, 1988, we planted 10'x 10' plots at New Alchemy with
rye alone and in combination with each of these three winter annual legumes. We
also planted oats+ hairy vetch. Because oats are winterkilled north of Maryland,
this combination might be easier to manage than rye+ vetch, but oats offer little
support for vetch vines in spring. Treatments were replicated four times so that we
could make statistical comparisons. One replicate was eaten by rabbits, leaving us
three…
Weeds were never pulled or hoed during the experiment, and no additional
mulch was brought in. On August 3, after broccoli harvest was finished, the center
square meter of each plot was weeded and weed dry weight was determined. Plots
mulched with a rye-only cover crop had by far the most weeds, and broadleaves
were largely responsible for the difference (Figure 2). Rye plots contained far
more horseweed (Conyza canadensis), a serious weed of no-till agriculture, than
did grass+ legume plots. Weeds in the latter were so sparse that they cast
essentially no shade on the broccoli. Furthermore, very little cover crop regrowth
occurred in any treatment. This was accomplished without weeding or herbicides,
and since nitrogen deficiency and weeds are normally the organic farmer's biggest
headaches, mow-killed rye+ legume cover crops may be an important strategy.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm

Examples :
1. On August 26-27, 1988, we planted 10'x 10' plots at New Alchemy with
rye alone and in combination with each of these three winter annual
legumes. We also planted oats+ hairy vetch.
 2. Weeds in the latter were so sparse that they cast essentially no shade on
the broccoli. Furthermore, very little cover crop regrowth occurred in any
treatment.

B. Addition Showing Similarity

We are also working with shredded newspaper as bedding, a variation on
work Bruce Fulford and New Alchemy did in the mid-'80s. We hope to interest
cellulose insulation producers in diversifying into this product to save farmers
money on bedding, create jobs, and decrease the amount of paper being landfilled,
incinerated or shipped overseas. This may also reduce a problem sawdust creates
when manure and sawdust bedding is applied to soil: nitrogen immobilization (tie
up), which can cause nitrogen deficiency. Dioxin and heavy metals are not
problems with newsprint, but another class of substances, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), in a worst case scenario, may limit application of
newspaper to 400 1bs/acre; composting, however, reduces PAHs somewhat, and
at least 40 newspapers are already using very low PAH carbon black.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm

Example :
1. We hope to interest cellulose insulation producers in diversifying into this
product to save farmers money on bedding, create jobs, and decrease the
amount of paper being landfilled, incinerated or shipped overseas. This
may also reduce a problem sawdust creates when manure and sawdust
bedding is applied to soil: nitrogen immobilization (tie up), which can
cause nitrogen deficiency.
CHAPTER TWELVE
RELATIONSHIP SHOWING CONDITIONS

In 1989, interns Albert Wurzberger, Heidi Hopkins, Joshua Levine, Judy

Browne, Guillermo Iranzo-Berrocal and researcher Mark Schonbeck and I
compared green translucent plastic to photo-degradable clear and ordinary black
plastic mulch. We used early lettuce followed by tomatoes as test crops. All data
have not been statistically analyzed yet, but soil temperature under translucent
green averaged slightly higher than under black plastic. Lettuce yields did not
differ significantly between plastics. It was obvious that this green plastic ripped
less than the black we used, despite the black being thicker. This may have been
due to the black not containing a UV inhibitor. Thus, be careful about hardware
store, multi-purpose black plastic for longer-term outdoor uses. The translucent
product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is designed to absorb most of the red and
blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow weed growth underneath the plastic. At
the same time, translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic.
Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch does not warm soil very much, but
may cause crop leaves to overheat.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm

Example :
• Observation
Soil temperature under translucent green averaged slightly higher than
under black plastic.
• Conclusion
1. This is shows that translucent green allows more light to enter than
black plastic.
2. This indicates that translucent green allows more light to enter than
black plastic.
3. This is an indication that translucent green allows more light to enter
than black plastic.
4. This is a sign that translucent green allows more light to enter than
black plastic.
5. This means that translucent green allows more light to enter than black
plastic.
6. We may conclude that translucent green allows more light to enter
than black plastic.
7. So, translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic.
8. Therefore, translucent green allows more light to enter than black
plastic.
• Generalization
1. If Soil temperature under translucent green averaged
slightly higher than under black plastic, translucent green allows more
light to enter than black plastic.
2. If Soil temperature under translucent green averaged
slightly higher than under black plastic, then translucent green allows
more light to enter than black plastic.
3. When Soil temperature under translucent green
averaged slightly higher than under black plastic, translucent green
allows more light to enter than black plastic.
• Recommendation
1. Soil temperature under translucent green
averaged slightly higher than under black plastic. This is shows that
translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic. This
deficiency should be corrected by used translucent black.
2. Soil temperature under translucent green
averaged slightly higher than under black plastic. This is shows that
translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic. This
deficiency can be correted by used translucent black.
• Prediction
1. If translucent green
allows more light to enter than black plastic, soil temperature under
translucent green will averaged slightly higher than under black
plastic. This deficiency should be corrected by used translucent black.
2. If translucent green
allows more light to enter than black plastic, soil temperature under
translucent green will averaged slightly higher than under black
plastic. This deficiency can be corrected by used translucent black.
3. If translucent green
allows more light to enter than black plastic, soil temperature under
translucent green will averaged slightly higher than under black
plastic. In order to correct this deficiency, translucent black should be
spread used.
4. If translucent green
allows more light to enter than black plastic, soil temperature under
translucent green will averaged slightly higher than under black
plastic. In order to correct this deficiency, translucent black can be
spread used.
5. If translucent green
allows more light to enter than black plastic, soil temperature under
translucent green will averaged slightly higher than under black
plastic. In order to remedy this deficiency, translucent black should be
spread used.
6. If translucent green
allows more light to enter than black plastic, soil temperature under
translucent green will averaged slightly higher than under black
plastic. In order to correct this deficiency, translucent black can be
spread used.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
COMPARATIVE SENTENCES

Most legumes form a symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria in root nodules

which fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use. Hairy vetch is a
hardy winter annual legume whose rhizobia fix large amounts of nitrogen, and
which has overwintered as far north as central Vermont. Hairy vetch and rye
grown together may give greater benefits than either alone, including more
organic matter, better weed control and support for the vetch vines in the spring
(Schonbeck 1988c). Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decomposition
of rye when the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination
sometimes maintains soil organic matter levels more effectively than does the
legume alone (Gliessman, 1987). According to DeGregorio & Ashley (1985), two
other winter annual legumes which may be hardy at least in southern New
England are crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) and Austrian winter field peas
(Pisum sativum ssp. arvense). We conducted a study at New Alchemy Institute to
compare the ability of several legume-grass combinations to produce organic
matter and nitrogen,' control weeds and provide nutrients to a subsequent
vegetable crop.
All cover crops grew vigorously, produced over 3000 pounds per acre of
dry matter by late May, and effectively suppressed weed growth (Figure 1). Rye +
crimson clover produced the largest biomass, significantly more than rye + hairy
vetch. Austrian winter peas were partially winterkilled, resulting in lower
biomass. However, rye growing with this crop appeared greener and more
vigorous than rye alone, suggesting that it may have benefited from symbiotically
fixed nitrogen from the peas. Nitrogen analyses showed that rye grown with any
of the legumes had significantly higher tissue nitrogen concentrations (1.1-1.4%)
than rye grown alone (1.0%).
By the time we had all the varmints under control, we noticed that broccoli
plants in rye plots were far smaller and less green than plants in the other four
cover crops. On July 3, we gave each plant in all treatments a heaping teaspoon of
an organic fertilizer, but the size difference between the rye-only and the legume
treatments just kept on increasing. The bone meal and fertilizer together supplied
only 32 pounds of nitrogen, 23 pounds of phosphorus and 11 pounds of potassium
per acre, and the experiment was conducted on a soil testing low to medium in all
three nutrients. Leaf tissue tests showed that broccoli after grass + legume cover
crops had significantly higher foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentration than
broccoli after rye alone. The legume supplied nitrogen to the broccoli, and at least
indirectly improved phosphorous nutrition.
Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm

Examples :
1. Hairy vetch and rye grown together may give greater benefits than either
alone, including more organic matter, better weed control and support for
the vetch vines in the spring (Schonbeck 1988c).
2. Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decomposition of rye when
the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination sometimes
maintains soil organic matter levels more effectively than does the legume
alone (Gliessman, 1987).
3. Rye + crimson clover produced the largest biomass, significantly more
than rye + hairy vetch.
4. However, rye growing with this crop appeared greener and more vigorous
than rye alone, suggesting that it may have benefited from symbiotically
fixed nitrogen from the peas.
5. Nitrogen analyses showed that rye grown with any of the legumes had
significantly higher tissue nitrogen concentrations (1.1-1.4%) than rye
grown alone (1.0%).
6. By the time we had all the varmints under control, we noticed that broccoli
plants in rye plots were far smaller and less green than plants in the other
four cover crops.
7. Leaf tissue tests showed that broccoli after grass + legume cover crops had
significantly higher foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentration than
broccoli after rye alone.