BRINGING CULTURE INTO TOURISM: FESTIVAL TOURISM AND REGGAE SUNSPLASH IN

JAMAICA
Author(s): Keith Nurse
Source: Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 51, No. 1, Tourism in the Caribbean (MARCH 2002),
pp. 127-143
Published by: Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, University of the West Indies
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27865264 .
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Social and Economic Studies 51:1 (2002)

BRINGING
FESTIVAL

ISSN:0037-7651

CULTURE
TOURISM
IN

SUNSPLASH
Keith

INTO

TOURISM:

AND

REGGAE

JAMAICA

Nurse

ABSTRACT
The economic contributionof thecultural or entertainmentindustries to tourism
is largelyundervalued inCaribbean development policy. This article confronts
this lacuna and gives some insight into thecosts and benefitsoffestival tour

ism.The article argues thatfestival tourism is an efficaciousstrategygiven that

theCaribbean enjoys a healthy reputation in live entertainment, theperfor

mance arts and themusic industry.The case ofJamaica and Reggae Sunsplash
isused to illustratehowfestivals make a healthy return on investment in terms
ofarrivals, occupancy rates,visitor expenditures, internationalmedia exposure
and destination loyalty
from cultural tourists.The socio-economic and political

are also discussed. The article callsfor the

offestival
challenges
" management
"
culturalization of tourism and recommendsfestival tourism as an effective
means to enhance competitiveness in Caribbean tourism as well as bolster
cultural identityand confidence.

Introduction
The synergy between tourism and the cultural industries is largely
in the Caribbean. This state of affairs can be ex
under-researched
plained by the fact that the cultural industries have traditionally
been viewed as leisure and recreational activities and not as a com
mercially viable sector. Another problem is that the demand-pull
in
ifnot minimised
of the cultural industries tends to be excluded
analyses of the tourism industry. This is in spite of the fact that
festivals throughout the region contribute in a significant way to
and hotel occupancy
boost tourism arrivals, visitor expenditures
rates.

127-143

12 8

SOCIALAND ECONOMIC STUDIES

the Caribbean
this aspect of the tourist industry
Throughout
in the tourism calendar. Trinidad Carnival,
is gaining prominence
Cropover in Barbados, the Jazz Festival in St. Lucia and theMeringue
festival in theDominican Republic are prime examples. Each of these

festivals is known to have a significant impact on visitor arrivals,

rates with spillover effects on local
airlifts and hotel occupancy
car
and
the food, beverage and restaurant
rentals)
transport (e.g.
sectors. Actual data on the economic
impact of these festivals is
largely underdeveloped.

Where

there is data

the impact has been

considerable.

The St. Lucia

Jazz Festival, which has been in operation for

and
has
become the premier jazz festival in the region,
eight years
is estimated to have visitor expenditures of US$ 7.0 million ? a
healthy return on investment by any measure given the budget of
In the week of the festival tourist arrivals jump by
US$1.0 million.
8,000 and hotels have an occupancy rate of over 90%, which ishigher
than the peak winter tourism season. The festival also enjoys strong
international media coverage from print journalist and cable broad
cast on Black Entertainment

argue

that themedia

strategy
marketing
tourism budget.

Television

(BET). Festival organisers

the
festival enjoys aids in the niche
exposure
to the country's entire
and is equivalent

Carnival has long been viewed as the premier fes

in
tival
the region. It attracts over thirty thousand visitors each
year. The earnings in terms of visitor expenditures are estimated to
Trinidad's

be US$9.65
(see table 1 below) and the general economic impact of
the festival is estimated to be US$50-67 million. This is due to the
fact that the Trinidad carnival has an impact beyond that of festi
val tourism. The carnival has spawned an entertainment sector,
which has strong export capability. The three main artforms in the
costumes and calypso music,
carnival, the steel pan, masquerade
have generated export markets, especially in the over seventy over
seas Caribbean
and Europe. Conse
carnivals in North America

quently, after the carnival festivities, many carnivalists, especially

themusic bands, embark upon the annual circuit of carnivals and
other events where their services are employed (Nurse 1997; 1999).

BringingCulture IntoTourism 129

TABLE 1: ECONOMIC

IMPACT OF CARIBBEAN
Festival
Budget

FESTIVALS,

Visitor

1998

Expenditures

St. Lucia

Jazz

US$1.0

million

US$6.92

million

Trinidad

Carnival

US$2.0

million

US$9.65

million

and Festival Tourism

Cultural

important feature of cultural tourism1 is that of events or festi

vals. The experience with festivals and other cultural events is that
they tend to create a tourism demand that is resilient and less sus

An

to economic

ceptible

downturns.

festivals enhance

Successful

the

aid in the rejuvenation of cities in

image of tourist destinations,
new
create
and
economic
activities in rural or peripheral
decline,
areas. Cultural
tourism has emerged to be an important innova
tion and a new

source

in the tourism
for competitive advantage
it
is
that
the
being appreciated
relationship
industry. Increasingly,
between the tourism and cultural industries is such that cultural
for tourism while tourism generates
industries generate demand
additional markets and income for the cultural sector (Myerscough
1988: 91).

tourism and the

of the relationship between
Appreciation
to the
attention
with
industries
increased
has grown
cultural
a
British study notes
economic importance of the arts. For example,
that the contribution of the arts to the tourism economy was esti
to be 41% of overseas tourist spending. It is also that arts
mated
related tourists stay 75 per cent longer and spend 64 per cent more
per trip (Myerscough 1988: 85-86).
The benefits to tourism of the cultural

industries have gained

InNew York, itwas

in recognition on the other side of theAtlantic.

estimated
cultural

Cultural

40 percent of overseas visitors are

that approximately
to be a $2.5 billion industry
tourists, inwhat ismeasured

tourism

includes

and archaeological
heritage
and attending
exhibitions,

a broad

range of activities such as touring historical,

museums
art galleries,
and craft
sites, visiting
arts performances,
and festivals.
live entertainment

130

SOCIALAND ECONOMIC STUDIES

(Alliance for the Arts 1997; McKinsey

case of the UK cultural tourists who
longer, spend more
mances

and

& Company
1997). As in the
visit New York tend to stay
and have a keen interest in the arts, live perfor

festivals.

The economic

contribution

is also quite
the Edinburgh Festival

of festivals

signifi
cant. For example, in themid-1990s,
in Scot
land operated on a budget of ?5.0 million and generated income of
?13.4 million, approximately 70% of which came from non-festival
related activities like accommodation,
travel and food (Casey et al
1996: 100).
As illustrated,

is an important direct out

industry sector. It is also recognized
are
that tourists today
looking formore than just sand, sea and
surf. This is reflected in the growth of eco-tourism, adventure-tour

come

cultural

tourism

from a vibrant cultural

ism as well

Festivals

as festival tourism.

in Jamaica

The

Jamaica Tourist Board (JTB), having realized the viability of

festivals in terms of filling rooms and community response has
embarked on a program of promoting festivals locally. There are a

and cultural festivals throughout the

growing number of musical
island (see Table 2). These festivals promote everything from indig
enous food and craft to film and music. Private promoters runmost

of the festivals with

from the JTB in terms of external

assistance
and
marketing
logistical support. The main aim of the festivals is to
international
and domestic tourism. They are also a me
promote
dium through which the JTB demonstrates
to the local population
how

tourism can work

for their community by promoting indig

and
cultural
products and services.
specialty
In light of the success of the St. Lucia Jazz Festival, Jamaica has
three Jazz festivals: theOcho Rios Jazz,All That Heritage
developed
enous

and Jazz and Air Jamaica Jazz and Blues. The Air Jamaica Jazz
Festival is the largest of the three festivals in terms of attendance,
overseas

visitors, advertisement and promotions and budget. Air

the festi
Jamaica, the national airline and main sponsor, developed
val with the aim of generating overseas, diasporic, regional and
domestic

and air carrier

and branding
the destination
From
Air
Jamaica's perspective, themain
exposure.

tourism

through media

BringingCulture IntoTourism 131

TABLE 2: CALENDAR OF MUSICAL
MONTH
January

FESTIVAL
Air

Jamaica

Accompong
Festival
Rebel
February

MONTH
Jazz Festival
Maroon

July

Birthday

ni Fat Tyre

April

Drax Hall

June

Ocho

Kite

August

Jamaica
Festival

Spice

and Music
Festival

Jazz Festival

Festival

Reggae Sumfest

October

Mento

Yard

All That Heritage

Festival
November

Caribbean
Jamerican
Festival
Caribbean
Festival

Source:

Jamaica

Tourist

Board,

Food

Reggae
Sunsplash
Jerk Pork Festival

Jamaica Carnival
Yam Festival
Trelawny
Rios

FESTIVAL

Shrimp

Salute

Bob Marley
Celebrations
Ne

AND CULTURAL EVENTS

and Jazz

Music

Expo
Film & Music

Heritage

1999.

aim of the festival is to attract new visitors to Jamaica and create

awareness
for the island, especially
during the winter season.
visitor
the
last
inOcho Rios reached
accommodation
festival,
During

its peak, with approximately

half of the estimated 3,500 to 4,000
rooms filled with jazz enthusiasts. According
toAllan Chastenet of
Air Jamaica, "cultural events such as these not only help to pro

the island, but are also a good source of foreign exchange,

since cultural tourists have a tendency to spend more.... Tourists
who visit Jamaica for the Jazz and Blues festival go out more often
and visit more attractions. In terms of advertising, it is estimated

mote

television exposure worth well over US$1

Observer
1999:6).
(Sunday
A survey conducted by the JTB (2000) estimates that 16,700
persons attended the fourth annual Jazz festival over the four days
of events. Local attendance was as high as 65% suggesting that as
much as 35% of the attendees were overseas visitors. There is no
that the island received

million/'

data on the exact number of visitors

for the festival or their expen

132

SOCIALAND ECONOMIC STUDIES

ditures. A survey conducted

6-7):

by the JTB indicates

that (JTB 2000:

60% spent five nights or more in Jamaica.

42% of the visitors (460) came on an Air Jamaica Vacations
package.

During
full.

the festival most hotels

All-inclusive

in the region were

close to

?
5%
30%.
an impact in the range of 40% ? 90%.

hotels estimate a boost of between

EP hotel enjoyed

An analysis of this data suggests that approximately

1,100 visitors
came for the festival and on average spent at least 5 nights. With an
average expenditure of US$100 per person per night, the foreign
exchange impact can be put conservatively at $550,000.00. There is
no data

to support an analysis of the impact of domestic tourism,

by all indications, appears to be very considerable. The level
is small relative to the budget of the festival,
of visitor expenditure
which is in excess of $750,000. The festival's main impact appears to

which

be in improved hotel occupancy rates and media exposure, but not

in visitor arrivals, which would benefit Air Jamaica more directly.
It is no small wonder
that in spite of the significant overall

from the festival over the past four years

has
decided
to postpone
the 2001 festival. The
Jamaica
main explanation given relates to the high cost of the festival and
the relatively low returns toAir Jamaica compared to other benefi
ciaries, for example, the hoteliers and the tourism economy at large.
benefits that have derived
that Air

one of free riding. Air

to be essentially
appears
problem
a
has
level
of sponsorship and in
been
for
Jamaica
calling
higher
as
as
vestment from the JTB
like the
well
from other beneficiaries

The

hotel sector. In fact, it is because of the lack of hotelier sponsorship

in its second year
that the Air Jamaica Jazz festival was moved
in
fromMontego
to
the
Bond
Beach
Oracabesa, which is
James
Bay
near to Ocho Rios. The postponement
of the 2001 Air Jamaica Jazz
and Blues

festival along with the continued absence of Reggae

leaves only two festivals that are strong tourist-pull
Sunsplash
factors on Jamaica's tourism calendar: Ocho Rios Jazz and Reggae

Sumfest.

BringingCulture IntoTourism 133

Reggae

Sunsplash

Perhaps, the best example of people identification with the

tourism product by way of heritage promotion is the devel
opment of Sunsplash, the reggae festivalwhich attracts cer
tain

visitors

to Jamaica

reason

for that

and

none

other,

to

share in the heritage of popular music which is the creation

of the people of Jamaica and now deemed as natural to it as
are the sun, the sand and the sea (Nettleford 1990: 9).
Reggae Sunsplash had a significant impact during its lifetime.
Although now defunct, the festival served to help promote Jamaica
as a destination and provided an important showcase
for reggae
talent from Jamaica and abroad. It drew
and entertainment and media personnel

crowds

of reggae lovers
from all over the world.

institution which was not only the

Reggae Sunsplash was.an
forerunner to all other reggae festivals, but it accomplished
great
feats which proved to benefit the tourist trade" (The Gleaner, March
set a precedent for festival tourism in
29, 1999). Reggae Sunsplash
the Caribbean.

It also established

locally and internationally.

The firstReggae Sunsplash,

the model

which was

for reggae

concerts

conceived

by Synergy
Productions,2 was held in the summer of 1978. The idea for creating
a week-long programme of musical entertainment came as a result
?
? which had been
of an event tourism project
"Singles Week"

a New York based

public
organized by the JTB in association with
relations firm, Peter Martin and Associates
(PMA). Singles Week
was designed
to attract 2,000 young upwardly mobile
visitors

during the summer of 1978 to enjoy sun, sea and surf. Synergy
saw an opportunity for staging a reggae festival given
Productions
the dearth of nightly entertainment activities at the time. Synergy
the JTB and PMA and from that point, a new festival
approached

was

Reggae

Presenting Jamaica's premier

first class production.

production

of

reggae artistes on stage

in a

that guided
Synergy's
objectives
were
as
follows
(Burke 1993:19):
Sunsplash

born. The

and
Reggae
Sunsplash
and Ronnie
Don Taylor

Synergy
Burke.

Productions

were

started

by Tony

Johnson,

134

SOCIALAND ECONOMIC STUDIES

tourism.
Jamaica's music as a vehicle for developing
summer
season
in
tourist
the
dormant
Reviving
Montego

Using
Bay.

to our art and craft producers

Providing employment
our rich cultural heritage.
linking tourism with

by

The first staging of Reggae Sunsplash was held on June 23,1978 in a

sports club called JarrettPark, in the tourist resort ofMontego
Bay.
The festival was a musical
success, but a financial nightmare
because of the large number of unpaid patrons. Nonetheless,
the

festival got overwhelmingly

positive reviews from the few inter
were
in attendance. As testimony to this,
who
journalists

national

the following year as many as 120 international journalists de

scended on Jamaica for the second edition of Sunsplash. This was
also the year that Bob Marley
and theWailers
along with Third

World

young

and theMaytals made an appearance at the festi

rave reviews of the journalists did much to establish the
festival as the world's greatest reggae festival.

and Toots

val. The

in the summer months

Synergy Productions held Sunsplash
of July and August, which was the trough period for hoteliers be
fore the festival got started. At the outset, the festival attracted a
foreign crowd. In spite of this, the festival was often
predominately
in a negative
represented
light due to the stereotypes that were
associated with reggae music (e.g. smoking marijuana and violence)
at the time. The hoteliers and corporate community were therefore

to sponsor and or invest in the festival. Moreover,

the
festival generated significant economic benefits for a large number
of actors, most of whom did not contribute to the financing of the
reluctant

event.

The problem of stigmatization continued as the years went

of the increase in the size of the local audience. This shift
because
by
also reflected a change in Jamaican music. By the mid-1980s,
the
roots rock reggae associated with Bob Marley, Peter Tosh and Jimmy

Cliff had begun to give way to the dancehall or DJ style of music

from the likes of Yellowman, Lt. Stitchie, Super Cat and Ninja Man.
Dancehall was more popular with themass of the Jamaican popu
lation. Dancehall

achieving

a peak

night emerged as the premier event of the festival

in attendance of 40,000 in the early 1990s.

BringingCulture IntoTourism 135

In 1980, the third year of the festival's existence Reggae
to Kingston
and was
moved
staged at the Ranny
Sunsplash
Entertainment Center. Itwas also during this time that
Williams
the JIB took an active interest in the festival. In the fourth and fifth
year, 1981 and 1982, the festivalmoved back to JarrettPark, Montego
new venue, the Bob Marley Perform
Bay. 1983 saw the festival at a
ing Center inMontego Bay. JarrettPark, the former venue, had long
been inadequate forwhat had become an internationally acclaimed
In 1988, with the growth in dancehall music,
the festival
to
boost local
introduced the Sound System Clash, which did much
The
1991
14th
and
15th
of
and 1992,
staging
Sunsplash,
participation.
event.

the introduction of Caribbean night and World Beat night.

The year 1992 marked the final year that the festival was held
inMontego Bay. The organizers sought an alternative venue due to
that had
the decline in sponsorship from the hotel sector. Hoteliers

heralded

or concessionary
rates to the festival
for
and festival staff)
artists
(for example,
organizers
performing
to
became suc
when
the
festival
had begun
withdraw
sponsorship
faced with increased cost and uncooperative
cessful. Sunsplash,
previously

offered discounted

hoteliers, decided tomove the festival to a new location. This strat

egy backfired. Within six weeks of Reggae Sunsplash's departure a
from Montego
businessmen
group of tourism and banking
(Summerfest Productions)
pulled together a rival reggae
and called itReggae Sumfest. It is noted thatMontegonians

festival
"could

not afford to let the revenue

that Sunsplash
generated slip away
from their city, particularly during the summer (the slowest of
tourist seasons for the popular MoBay)"
(Meschino 1995: 14).
Itwas at this point that Sunsplash went back to Kingston.

This move

impacted negatively on the festival. In 1993 and 1994 the

held at Jamworld Entertainment Center in Portmore,
St. Catherine, and 1994 became the last year that Reggae Sunsplash
festival was

was

promoted and organized by Synergy, mainly because of finan

cial problems. The festival was sold in 1995 to Radobar Holdings
International. The 15thReggae
and was renamed Reggae Sunsplash
Sunsplash was held inDover, St. Ann, which proved to be a finan

in 1996, the
cial disaster. After another poor financial performance
in 1997. Reggae Sunsplash was re-estab
festival was suspended
lished in 1998 with some assistance from theMinistry of Tourism.

136

Itwas

SOCIALAND ECONOMIC STUDIES

decided

to move

the festival to Ocho

Rios

and to shift the

event to thewinter

season and to coincide with Bob Marley's birth

on
6th.
The goal was to forge a collaboration with the
day
February
in
Bob Marley Foundation's
staging of Bob Marley Week, which
volved activities like a church service, a songwriters' workshop
and symposia.

20 also saw the introduction of a

staging of Sunsplash
on
the
closing night, which drew the largest crowd of
Gospel Night
the festival (approximately
6,000). A relatively low turnout at
Sunsplash 20 led to another postponement. The Bob Marley Foun
The

dation, however, continued with its activities in 1999. In addition,

Sunsplash was upstaged by the hosting of the Bob Marley All-Star
Tribute in December
1999, which featured a pan-genre line-up of

superstars: Erykah Badu, Sheryl Crow, Lauryn Hill, Queen Latifah,

and Ziggy
Busta Rhymes, Sarah McLachlan,
Seal, Rita Marley
was
concert
tribute
'One
Love'
Makers.
The
and
the
Marley
Melody
broadcast

The

on the cable network

'TnT'.

Since 1999 Reggae Sumfest has filled the void leftby Sunsplash.
in attracting much of the same local
former has succeeded

For example, Appleton

sponsorship as its predecessor.
Rum
of
and
Restaurants
Jamaica (which also sponsored
Jamaican
franchise holders forKentucky Fried Chicken, have been
Sunsplash),
corporate

sponsors since inception while Wray & Nephew Rum Cream joined
in 1996. Other sponsors for Sumfest 2000 included VP Records,
Matterhorn, Red Stripe beer, CVM Television, The Gleaner and X
and radio stations likeHot 102 and Irie FM. The
News newspapers,

festival also enjoys a partnership with the Jamaica Tourist Board

and Air Jamaica. The festival has been extended to six nights and
has introduced rhythm and blues artists to the line-up. Sumfest
has been able to draw crowds of up to 50,000 and much of the
international media

Much Music,
Economic

formusic

VH1, MTV

such as Billboard, Rolling Stone, Vibe,

and BBC.

Impact Assessment

From 1978 to 1994, Reggae Sunsplash

by Synergy Productions. Thereafter,

was managed
and organized
itwas sold to Radobar Hold

the late 1980s

ings Limited. Synergy Productions estimates that by
as
and generat
as
visitors
was
the festival
10,000
many
attracting

BringingCulture IntoTourism 13 7

million) inspending (Henry

ingapproximatelyUS$12 million (J$66

1989). The injection of foreign exchange from tourists and the earn
tourism had a substantial
ings from domestic
impact on several

as vendors,
artisans,
artists, musicians,
car
rental agencies and taxi operators.
guesthouses,
It is evident from the visitor arrivals that Sunsplash
actors

such

hotels,

almost
a trough in the tourism cal
single-handedly
endar to a summer season that rivalled the traditional peak season
during the winter months. In addition, it is noted that the festival
a high percentage of repeat visitors, which had a spillover
enjoyed
tourism economy. It can also be argued that the
into the wider
converted what was

festival helped to put Jamaica on the world map of tourism. The

case of the Japanese is instructive. A 1994 Japanese survey of trav
ellers placed Jamaica in 9thposition among preferred destinations.
The ranking of Jamaica was attributed largely to the popularity of

came in fourth inmost popu

reggae in Japan. For example/reggae
in
lar images after the Pyramids of Egypt, Anne of Green Gables
in
and shopping
Prince Edward
Island, Canada,
Hong Kong (PSI
1997).

to give some indication of the

The principal data available
room occupancy rates. Table
of
is
hotel
impact
Sunsplash
a
week in February, the peak of the
3 draws a comparison between
to evaluate the
tourism season, and theweek of Reggae Sunsplash
economic

levels in
impact of tourist arrivals and hotel occupancy
in
and
for
The
shows
that
table
1981,
every year from
Bay.
Montego
levels attributed to Sunsplash
1983 until 1992, the hotel occupancy
relative

in the winter tourist season. The

that of a peak week
outstripped
hotel occupation
levels for Sunsplash grew progressively
through
out the period peaking in 1987 and again in 1992.
The data for the period

1995,1996

and 1998 does not allow

for

the same

level of rigor in determining the economic impact of the

festival but gives some indication of the overall effect. It is observed

new management
(Radobar
Sunsplash, although under
a
new
venue
at
and
(Ocho Rios), was able to impact posi
Holdings)
levels. The data for this period is not as
tively on hotel occupancy
that Reggae

convincing in that it ismonthly occupancy rates rather than weekly

it does illustrate that a month outside of the
figures. Nonetheless,
traditional peak tourist season can enjoy high occupancy rates with

138

SOCIALAND ECONOMIC STUDIES

a festival tourism strategy. In 1998, the festival was

usual July/August month but during February.
Table

in Montego
Hotel Occupancy
in February & Week
of Reggae

3: Average
First Week

IstWEEK IN
FEBRUARY (%)

YEAR
1979
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992

45

77.2

36

45.1

52.3

69.4

66.5

72.6

75.4

70.8

78.5

60.7

74.2

68.6

82.6

79.6

82.7

67.8

77.3

59.3

73.8

59.9

76.6

46.8

74.9

48.6

85.2

52.8

71.1

*1994

57.5

45.9

Tourist

Jamaica

Reggae

Sunsplash

held

1979?1994

WEEK REGGAE
SUNSPLASH
(%)

*1993

Source:

in the

Sunsplash

75.5

*1980

Bay,

not held

Board,

Annual

Travel

several

Statistics,

years

in Kingston

Festival Management
received worldwide
acclaim from the interna
Reggae Sunsplash
tional media and this undoubtedly
served to formalise reggae as an
artform. The media
established musical
exposure of the festival
also created a strong tourism demand-pull. However,
the festival
ran into systemic
so many
like
free
with
which
riding
problems
other festivals are plagued. The following observations
the dimension of the problem (UNCTAD1999:57):
...the

economic

benefits

of

the

festival

have

illustrates

remained

limited forboth the private owner and the Jamaican economy.

Although the Jamaican Tourist Board supports themarket

In 1981

the winter

election

violence.

season was

impacted

by the negative

press

from the 1980

BringingCulture IntoTourism 139

ing of Sunsplash, this is insignificant compared with many
European festivals. In 1996 this event attracted up to 70
artists. The price of admission at the gate was US$420; how
no

ever,

was
the

profit

was

made

littlevalue-added

the

by

and

owner/organizer,

there

activity,with only one CD stall selling

product.

...the

event

fails

as

package

to capture
a
On

a whole.

the value
five-day

added

of

package

the

holiday,

tourism
for ex

ample, the airfare is fromUS$300 plus ground transfer costs,

the hotel is US$60 per night, food and water are US$40 and
souvenirs

etc.

cost

about

US$100.

by the tourist of US$1,200

and

cent,
per

The

the Jamaican

Out

of overall

expenditure

the event receives less than 10 per

economy

as

a whole

no more

than

50

cent.

above

analysis illustrates why the festival was so reliant on

the box office as themajor source of revenue. Furthermore, for sev

eral years

the organizers did not increase ticket prices.4 However,

they did, the attendance declined
significantly. The several
of
location
and
dates
also
contributed to the festival's de
changes

when

cline. In particular, themove from the resort area of

Montego Bay to
on
the city of Kingston
the
domestic
tourism
impacted
generated
classes and also affected overseas visitors given the
by the middle
city's reputation for violence.
The state of the local economy, devaluation

of the dollar, lack

of financial support from the state, limited corporate
sponsorship
and increases in artist fees resulted in the festival
an accu
having
mulated deficit and even owing back taxes. The emergence of a rival
reggae festival, Reggae Sumfest, which was held inMontego
Bay,
the firsthome of Reggae Sunsplash, also proved to be a great threat
as both festivals were
competing for the same audience, corporate
attention and pool of talent. The result was
sponsorship, media
that Jamaica could not sustain two reggae festivals.
Another
issue that has often been raised in relation to the
of the festival was

the role of the government. Festival

that
the
organizers complain
government's financial investment in
was
not
the festival
commensurate with the benefits to the tourism
sector and the wider economy. They also argue that the demand

management

One

festival goer observes

that ticket prices
the years 1982 to 1992 (Hickman
1992).

had

only

increased

by US$5.00

in

140

SOCIALAND ECONOMIC STUDIES

pull and themedia exposure generated

returns than many of the promotional
employed at the JIB. The governmental

by the festival had greater

and marketing
strategies
sector has often countered

of the festival and/

these arguments by criticizing themanagement
or questioning
the economic claims made by the festival organiz
ers. No economic
impact assessment was ever conducted on the
festival and

so the contribution

documented.

The result was

of Sunsplash
has remained un
that Reggae Sunsplash,
through most
sector
little support from the governmental

of its history, found

either in terms of the provision of an adequate venue or in t?rms of
overseas marketing and promotion. Festival organizers argue that
the government was able to free ride on their investment inmuch

the same way that the hoteliers had done.

The JTB, since the mid-1990s
has paid greater attention to
festivals and events as components in the tourism strategy. The JTB

currently funds and contributes to several cultural events, for ex

ample, Air Jamaica Jazz and Blues festival, the Caribbean Music
Expo and the Jamerican Film and Music festival. Beyond funding, it

also provides marketing and promotional support, managerial

and
technical assistance and logistical support in linewith its core com
petencies. The JIB has resisted calls for it to play a more interven
tionist role, arguing for example, that its role and core competence

is not that of a festival promoter and that this is best handled by the
private sector. Critics point to the beneficial contribution from pub
lic sector tourism agencies in territories like St. Lucia and St. Kitts &
These countries are much smaller than Jamaica and have a

Nevis.

sector upon which to draw for entre

the
essential
point is that festivals have
preneurship.
had a difficult experience in Jamaica because of the high level of free
riding and the failure of themarket to sustain private sector entre
less developed

entertainment

However,

preneur ship.
There is limited data on the performance of Sumfest from a
tourism standpoint. A visitor survey has not been administered.
Consequently,
are
audience

there is no

information on what

percentage of the
anecdotal
evidence and

foreign visitors. However,

reports suggest that the number of foreign visitors to the
reggae festival has declined. This is partly explained by the shift
To counter this the
away from roots reggae toward dancehall.

media

BringingCulture IntoTourism 141

festival organizers have in recent years resorted to putting hip hop
artists on the bill to boost flagging attendance and media coverage.
This strategy has come in for severe criticism and has not had the
effect. In many respects the Sumfest festival has been un
the tourism pull and the media
that
exposure

desired
able

to match

Sunsplash

had achieved

in its heyday.

Conclusion
The analysis of the international and regional experience with cul
tural and festival tourism suggests that there is much scope for
growth. It also appears to be an effective means by which a country
can differentiate and diversify its tourism
product in the increas
as
illustrated in the case
ingly competitive world of global tourism,

of Trinidad

Carnival

calls for increased

and the St. Lucia

investment

Jazz Festival. This strategy

in the cultural industries as well as

the identification of additional

In part, this goal can be achieved
and cultural tourism.

synergies with the tourism sector.

focus on festival
by a marketing

A sustainable festival tourism strategy must create a signifi

cant pyscho-cultural
impact. A critical aspect of festivals, espe
cially indigenous ones, is theway inwhich they allow for creative
and bolster the cultural identity and confidence of a
expression

promotion and
people. This ismanifest in strong word-of-mouth
and
Festivals
the cultural
that
the general good-feel
they generate.
can further per
industries are a means by which the Caribbean

transplant its culture and values and thus influence

global culture, media and public opinion.
The decline of Reggae Sunsplash and the recent postponement
of theAir Jamaica Jazz and Blues festival signal that a festival tour
petuate

and

ism strategy is difficult to sustain on pure market terms. As the two

festivals illustrate, events of this type cannot generate enough
revenue from gate receipts. If they are also subject to free riding

from corporate entities like hoteliers and airlines then they suffer
the fate of market failure. This explains why most large festivals
are financed in large part through governments when
worldwide
is insufficient. Financing a festival strategy
corporate sponsorship
to be a worthy
in other Caribbean
investment
has proven
territories.

SOCIALAND ECONOMIC STUDIES

142

The Jamaican tourism sector, on the other hand, has not found
the right mix of public and private investment to sustain its key
festivals. For Jamaica the time may have arrived for the govern
ment to provide a higher level of leadership in bringing the key

in the tourism economy into a joint festival strategy. If

the festivals are left to the winds of the market and government
indifference the Jamaican tourism industry may find that it has

stakeholders

its initial advantage

squandered

in this dynamic

area of tourism

development.

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