Question: Omnivore, Hebivore, Carnivore, What's the

Difference?
A fish owner asked the question, "I was told that for
my community tank I should get fish that are
omnivores. What are omnivore, herbivore and
carnivore, and what is the difference? "
Answer: You've posed an excellent question that all
too few people concern themselves with.Not all fish
require the same diet. Like other organisms, a fish is
designed with a mouth, teeth, and an digestive tract
that is intended for certain types of food. It's
important to keep in mind that any living creature will
eat virtually anything if they are hungry enough. In
other words, don't make broad assumptions about the
dietary needs of a fish based on observation alone.Do
your homework and find out what the fish needs to
eat to remain healthy. There are three basic categories
that fish can be classified in, based on their dietary
needs. Those are: carnivore, herbivore, and omnivore.
Carnivores are meat eaters, generally requiring live
foods. They have a large mouth with sharp pointed
teeth that allow them to grasp their prey and tear off
large chunks of flesh, which is swallowed whole rather
than ground or chewed first.Carnivores have a short
intestinal tract, and a relatively large stomach
designed to hold an entire fish. Their digestive system
lacks the ability to digest vegetable matter, so even
though they might eat plants, they cannot derive
nutrients from them as other fish do. Because they will
chase down and eat other fish in the aquarium,
carnivores are not suitable for a community tank.
Herbivores are on the opposite end of the dietary

food chain from carnivores. Although herbivores can

sometimes be seen eating live foods, the proper diet
for an herbivore consists of plants, algae, and fruits.
They have no true stomach; instead they possess a
specialized intestine that is capable of breaking down
plant matter. Their teeth are flat, which allows them to
grind food before swallowing it. Because they lack a
stomach for holding large volumes of food, the
herbivore must eat frequently - at least several times
per day. Because herbivores require frequent feedings
of vegetables and fruits, they are often not the best
choice for a community tank.Omnivores eat a variety
of meat and vegetable matter. Although omnivores
can and will eat vegetable matter, they cannot digest
some types of grains and plants. Their teeth and
digestive tract possesses some of the traits of both
the carnivore and the herbivore.Omnivores are the
easiest of all fish to feed, as they eat flake foods as
well as live foods, and everything in between. For that
reason, omnivores are an excellent choice for a
community tank.As you can see, it's important to feed
your fish the proper diet, as their bodies are designed
for certain types of food. If you aren't sure what type
of food your fish needs, use the dietary type chart.

Coral Reef Fish

Of all vertebrate animals that
dwell on coral reefs, it is the fishes
that are by far the most numerous,
varied, and critical to coral reef
health.

In the Greater Caribbean region alone some

500-600 species of coral reef fish are
recognized; the Indo-Pacific region houses
perhaps 8-10 times that number.
While entire books can (and have) been written
about these fascinating animals, here we
provide an introduction to two broad aspects of
the biology and ecology of coral reef fishes: (1)
physical adaptations for coral reef life, and (2)
feeding strategies.

Adaptations For Coral Reef

Life
The coral reef environment has a physical
structure that is radically different than that of
the surrounding open ocean. Fishes that live in
reef habitats have therefore evolved a host of
specialized traits well suited to their colorful
and complex homes.

Reef Fish Shape

The body shape of fishes that dwell on coral
reefs differs in a number of crucial ways from
that of most other fishes.

Coral reef fish body plan

Many species have evolved thin, flattened

bodies that are effective in making sharp turns.
This trait greatly facilitates a fish's ability to
quickly maneuver about the solid reef.

The functionality of the pancake-like body

shape is further enhanced by specialized
positioning of the pectoral and pelvic fins.
These are situated and oriented on the body in
a way that facilitates sharp turns and sudden
stops.

Coral Reef Fish Color Patterns

Coral reef fishes are perhaps best known for
their bold, striking color patterns, which differ
greatly from the typical monotonic "silvery"
sheen we usually associate with fishes in
general.

Warning coloration

Granted, some of these patterns might seem

outlandishly "showy" when viewed in artificial

(e.g., aquarium) settings.

Nonetheless these color patterns - garish as
they are - serve any number of functional roles
in the lives of these animals, including
concealment, mate recognition, and warning.

Mouths And Teeth" Feeding

Apparatus
Coral reefs offer a vast array of different types
of possible fish prey items. As might be
expected then, there are varieties of coral reef
fish species well adapted to make use of each of
these ready food resources.

Parrotfish beak

For example, the herbivorous parrotfishes

(photo, right) have evolved large, beak-like
mouths perfectly adapted to scrape microalgae
from the surfaces of coral colonies.
In contrast, the equally herbivorous
surgeonfishes have small mouths armed with
numerous small teeth adapted for cutting and
eating macro-algae.
Many carnivorous reef fishes like the
pomadasyids (grunts) and lutjanids (snapper)
possess generalized mouths that enable them
to take all sorts of small to medium-sized prey
such as small fishes and invertebrate animals.

Diversity of Coral Reef

Fishes
We arranged some of the major families of
coral reef fishes by feeding strategy, with four
major groups recognized: herbivores,
planktivores, benthic carnivores, and
piscivores.
These categories are not mutually
exclusive. For example, many so-called
"herbivores" sometimes feed on small animals,

while some "piscivores" may also occasionally

take larger invertebrates. Some species may
feed as planktivores while young but switch to a
piscivorous lifestyle as adults.

Herbivores
Herbivorous fishes are those that feed
mainly or entirely on plant material.

Parrotfishes are the largest and most colorful of

coral reef herbivores. They are named for their
brilliant hues and beak-like mouths. Parrotfishes are
believed to play a key role in maintaining coral reef
health through their feeding activities.

Surgeonfishes and the closely related rabbitfishes

(see below) are the mid-size models of herbivorous
coral fishes. The name "surgeonfish" stems from the
retractable scalpel-like spines at the base of each side
of the tail, used as defensive weapons.

Rabbitfishes are named for their blunt, elongated

snouts. These herbivores are closely allied with the
surgeonfishes, and are common members of reef fish
assemblages throughout the Indo-Pacific region from
Hawaii to the Red Sea.

Dameslfishes: Unlike the wide-ranging parrotfishes,

surgeonfishes, and rabbitfishes, small herbivorous
damselfishes are more sedentary, territorial "farmers"
that maintain and vigorously guard small patches of
algae on the reef.

Planktivores
Planktivorous coral reef fishes are those that
prey upon small animal plankton
(zooplankton).

Open Water Plankton Feeders: The daytime openwater plankton feeding "fraternity" of coral reef fish
consists of a hodgepodge of species of diverse
heritage, including damselfishes, wrasses, snappers,
sea basses, and surgeonfishes.

Benthic Planktivores: A diverse group of small

daytime plankton feeders - such as the jawfish - avoid
the dangers of open-water hunting by remaining close
to the safety of the reef or other nearby benthic
habitats while capturing their tiny prey.

Nocturnal Planktivores: As darkness falls, the "day

shift" of planktivores seeks shelter within the reef and
are replaced by a "night shift" of species adapted to
low light conditions. These night hunters include
cardinalfishes, squirrelfishes and soldierfishes.

Benthic Carnivores

The term "benthic carnivores" (also sometimes

referred to as benthivores) is used here to

describe fishes that prey on a variety of
animals living on or near the sea floor.

Butterflyfishes are among the most ubiquitous and

colorful of daytime reef benthivores. Their forcep-like
mouths armed wih fine comblike teeth serve them
well in browsing on exposed coral polyp tentacles and
other tiny reef invertebrates.

Triggerfishes (pictured left) - and their close

relatives the filefishes, trunkfishes, and puffers - have
evolved to become masterful benthic carnivores, often
feeding far from the shelter of the reef. This of course
requires strong defenses like stout spines.

Many grunts and snappers shelter on the reef by

day and venture out only at night to feed in open sand
and seagrass habitats. On Caribbean reefs, some
species migrate nightly to foraging areas 1/4 mile or
more away from their "home" reef.

Some other common daylight benthic

carnivores that hunt and feed on or near the
reef include the blennies (Blennidae), gobies
(Gobiedae), wrasses (Labridae), and goatfishes
(Mullidae).

Piscivores
Piscivorous coral reef fish are those that prey
mainly or entirely upon other fishes.
There are three different basic hunting
strategies employed by such predators (see
below).

Pursuing Predators are those that rely on sheer

speed to run down prey in open water. These fishes

have streamlined bodies, and are capable of

extremely fast attack speeds. Examples include the
jacks (Carangidae, pictured left), mackerels, and
many sharks.

Stalking Predators utilize stealth to approach their

prey before striking. Common coral reef fish
employing this strategy include barracudas,
needlefishes, and trumpetfishes. All have slender,
elongated bodies that present a minimal head-on
profile to prey.

Ambush Predators rely on disguise and stillness to

hunt. They wait motionless for unsuspecting victims to
stray into striking range. Common ambush piscivores
include frogfishes, lizardfishes (pictured left),
flatfishes, groupers, and scorpionfishes.

Coral reef fish feeding behavior

in the Caribbean
Published: April 2, 2014, 2:51 pm
Author: Mark McGinley
Topic Editor: Judith S. Weis
Topics: Marine Ecology
Animal Behavior
Oceans and seas

By User:violetto_mm (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Introduction
Fishes living in the Caribbean Sea rely on a variety of food
sources including plants, plankton, invertebrates, and other
fishes. Fishes can feed either on the reef or off of the reef in
the sandy bottoms or sea grass beds. Fishes can feed either
diurnally (during the day) or nocturnally (at night). Their diet
and mode of feeding strongly influences their morphology.
Moreover, their foraging strategy should affect their
susceptibility to predators and thus influence their antipredator mechanisms.

Herbivorous Fishes
Only 10 25% of species on a Caribbean reef fishes are
herbivores. Although there are relatively few herbivorous fish
species, these species tend to have relatively large population
sizes such that the total biomass of herbivores is high.
Herbivorous fishes are most common in shallow water which
is not surprising because light levels are higher in shallow
water which promotes algal growth. In general, herbivores are
the most common fishes above 30 feet whereas carnivores are
the most common fishes below 30 feet. On shallow reefs
herbivores may take over 150,000 feeding bites per meter
each day and consume from half to all of the daily algal
production (one reason that there is limited algal growth on a
healthy reefs).

Nomadic Herbivores

Stoplight Parrotfish. ''Reef Fish Identification'', New World Publications 1994.

Nomadic herbivores such as parrotfishes (Family Scaridae),

surgeonfishes (Family Acanthuridae), and chubs (Kyphosus
sp.) may forage across wide areas of the reef. Parrotfishes use
their strong jaw and fused teeth (beak) to scrape algae off of
the surface of corals and bite off chunks of corals. Nutrients
are digested and the remaining materials (up to 75 percent of
the gut content of parrotfish is inorganic material) are
excreted. A large adult parrotfish can excrete over 1 ton of
sand per year!
Surgeonfishes are diurnal herbivores that feed all around the
reef. Blue Tang (Acanthurus coeruleus) are specialized algal
browsers who may feed as solitary individuals or in groups.
Blue Tang may benefit in feeding groups in two ways. First,
they may be able to overwhelm the defense of a territorial
damselfish by invading an individual damselfishs territory
with overwhelming numbers. Second, they may experience
some protection from predators. Ocean Surgeonfish
(Acanthus bahianus) and Doctorfish (Acanthurus chigurgus)
are specialized grazers. Doctorfish typically feed above the
reefs and surgeonfish typically feed in sandy areas and sea
grass beds adjacent to the reef. They have a gizzard that helps
them break up and digest detritus and invertebrates that are
held in the sediments. Chubs forage in schools that can travel
long distances. Some days chubs can be common in a
particular location, but then they will disappear from that
section of the reef for several days.

Herbivorous fishes need to be able to hover in the water

column and must be able to maneuver in and out of tight
places. This need has selected for narrow compressed bodies
and flexible pectoral and ventral fins that they use as paddles
that allow them to precisely control their position in the water
column. Their mouths are small and contain small incisor-like
teeth that can occasionally be fused to form a beak-like
structure (e.g., parrotfishes). The digestive tracts of
herbivorous fishes may contain protistan and bacterial
endosymbionts that aid in the digestion of the plant material.

Sedentary Feeders

Yellowtail Damselfish. ''Reef Fish Identification'', New World Publications 1994.

Damselfishes (Family Pomacentridae) are the most important

sedentary herbivores on the reef. In fact, they are the most
abundant herbivores on the reef. Many damselfishes care for
algae gardens or lawns that they defend from other
herbivores.

Planktivorous Fishes
Most reef fishes eat plankton during their juvenile stage and
some continue to feed on plankton after they have matured.
Planktivores feed either above the reef or feed near the reef or
sandy bottom and may feed during the day or at night.

Diurnal planktivorous fishes that feed above the reef are able
to capture the plankton before it reaches the species living on
the reef. Some of these species are very large (e.g., Giant
Manta (Manta birostris) and Whale Sharks (Rhincodon
typus)) and swim through the water column with their mouths
open picking up plankton. Because they are so large, they
generally do not need to worry about predators. These species
often forage alone.

Blue Chromis. ''Reef Fish Identification'', New World Publications 1994.

Smaller planktivores feeding in the water column could be

subject to predation because they are removed from the safety
of the reef. Thus, these fishes are often found in schools, which
have been shown to provide some protection from predators.
Sometimes these schools contain multiple species (e.g., Blue
Chromis (Chromis cyanea), Brown Chromis (Chromis
multilineata), and Creole Wrasse (Clepticus parrae)). These
fishes rely on speed to escape predators so they are more
elongated and streamlined than species that live on the reef
and they have forked tails. They tend to have monochromatic
coloration; their blue or silver coloration makes them harder
to see in open waters. Their keen eyesight, binocular vision,
small upturned mouths, and protrudable jaws allow them to
pluck plankton from the water column. In addition, many
planktivores have closely spaced, long gill rakers that prevents
ingested food from escaping through the gills.
Other planktivores feed on plankton that falls to the reef or
sandy bottom. Fairy Bassletts (Gramma loreto) are common

reef-inhabiting planktonivores. They remain close to the reef

and they have the unusual habit of keeping their belly near the
substrate, happily swimming upside down beneath ledges.
Yellowhead Jawfish (Opistognathus aurifrons) inhabit sandy
bottoms. They hover just above the sand, near holes they have
dug, picking up plankton. If they are disturbed then they will
back up into their holes for safety.
Some planktivorous fishes, including cardinal fishes (Family
Apogonidae) and some squirrelfishes (Family Holocentridae)
are nocturnal. Obviously, locating prey is much more difficult
at night so these species have evolved large and sensitive eyes.
Nocturnal planktivores have lost some visual acuity so they
are forced to feed on larger prey than their diurnal
counterparts. Nocturnal fishes hiding under ledges in the coral
reefs during the day. At dusk they leave the shelter of the reef
in search of food.

Carnivorous Fishes
Carnivorous fishes make up from 41 - 68% of species on the
reef.

Fishes That Eat Invertebrates

Baloonfish. Coral Reef Alliance Photobank.

Most invertebrate prey are well hidden, camouflaged, or are

protected by chemical or physical means. Thus, they present

special problems to the fishes that use them as food. The fact
that relatively few species with relatively small population
sizes feed on invertebrates during the day suggests that
feeding on invertebrates is a difficult way to make a living. In
order to successfully feed on invertebrates on the reef, fishes
must possess precise swimming ability so that they can reach
in and pull prey from inaccessible areas. Thus, they have
morphologies similar to the herbivores: good close-up vision
with mouths that can grasp prey and deal with prey defenses
(e.g., crushing shells). Many of the invertebrate-eaters have
beaklike mouths, strong jaws, and pharyngeal teeth.
Because species attempting to capture hidden prey have better
luck when foraging alone, these species do not rely on
schooling to protect them from predators and need to rely on
other means of protection. Filefishes (Family Monacanthidae),
triggerfishes (Family Balistidae), trunkfishes (Family
Ostraciidae), and porcupinefishes (Family Diodontidae), have
evolved interesting solutions to this problem. Pufferfishes
enlarge by taking in water to make them hard to swallow;
some species may produce toxins. Filefishes and triggerfishes
have spines on their backs that they can extend to make
themselves more difficult to swallow. Porcupinefishes are
covered with protective spines and are also able to make
themselves larger. Trunkfishes have a series of fused body
plates that surrounds them with armor. Because they are welldefended against predators and they are trying to catch
primarily immobile prey, these species dont have to be fast.
Thus, many of these species have odd shapes and swim by the
coordinated use of all of their fins.
There are also several small sedentary species that primarily
feed on invertebrates including sea horses (Family
Syngnathidae), some blennies (Family Labrosomidae), and

some gobies (Family Gobiidae).

Spotted Goatfish. ''Reef Fish Identification'', New World Publications 1994.

Species that feed off of the reef face some problems including
greater risk of predation, finding prey that are hidden beneath
the sand, and dealing with prey protected by large shells.
Thus, relatively few species feed on invertebrates off of the
reef. Species feeding in this way use a variety of strategies.
Spotted Eagle Rays (Aetobatus narinari) feed on clams,
oysters, and gastropods that are buried beneath the sand.
They crush the shells of their prey using specialized dental
plates. Goatfishes (Family Mullidae) feed in the sand, but
generally remain near the safety of the reef. They have
appendages near their chins, barbells, which they use to detect
prey by touch and taste. Trunkfishes are so well protected
from predators that they are able to move far from the safety
of the reef. When they identify signs of prey, they uncover the
prey by shooting a jet of water out of their mouths. Hogfishes
(Family Labridae) are large enough that they are safe from
most predators. They have large jaws and teeth that allow
them to feed on well-protected prey.
At night, invertebrates come out to feed on the sand flats and
in sea grass beds. Thus, there is a lot of food for invertebratefeeders at night off of the reef. Because it is dark, predators
can not rely on vision to detect their prey. Instead they rely on
touch, taste, smell, and their lateral lines. Because these
senses are not as effective as sight in determining the exact
location of a prey item, they have had to come up with

different mechanisms for capturing prey. Most nocturnal

invertebrate-eaters have large mouths that they open wide to
create suction that draws in a lot of water and, hopefully, their
intended prey. They close their mouths to expel the water and
strain out the prey.

French Grunt. ''Reef Fish Identification'', New World Publications 1994.

Grunts (Family Haemulidae) and snappers (Family

Lutjanidae) hang around the reef in small groups during the
day. At sunset, they form schools that travel to foraging areas
up to half a mile away following trails along the bottom. When
they reach their feeding grounds, they split up and forage
solitarily for the rest of the night. Before sunup, they regroup
and return home. Squirrelfish, bigeyes, and some cardinalfish
also forage for invertebrates off of the reef at night, but they
do not move as far as snappers and grunts.
Although there is a lot of invertebrate activity on the reef at
night, the darkness makes it hard for the fish to see the
invertebrates. Thus, there are not many fishes that feed on
invertebrates at night on the reef (thats why the invert activity
is highest at night).
Sponges are the simplest of all invertebrates. Because sponges
are low in nutritive value, contain a lot of indigestible
material, and are protected by chemical and physical means,
they are not a particularly good food source for fishes. Only 11
species of Caribbean fishes regularly eat sponges. Species that
feed on sponges have evolved relatively recently suggesting

that competition forced them to evolve to eat a less-preferred

food source.
Sponges make up the majority, 70 95%, of the diet of most
angelfishes (Family Pomacanthidae). Angelfishes prefer to
feed on the sponges with the lowest content of protective
spicules. Sponge-feeding fishes have strong jaws that contain
overlapping rows of tightly packed teeth that they use to teach
through the tough sponge material. They secrete a thick layer
of mucous around the pieces of food to protect their stomachs
during digestion.

Gray Angelfish. ''Reef Fish Identification'', New World Publications 1994.

The larger species of angelfishes are protected from predation

because their large size and thin bodies make them a difficult
mouthful for predators. They typically feed by following wellused paths through territories that are defended for mating,
rather than feeding purposes. Gray Angelfish (Pomacanthus
arcuatus) live as mated pairs in large territories. They move
and feed slowly, taking 3-4 bites per minute. Sponges make up
70% of their diet with the rest of their diet consisting of
gorgonian polyps, other invertebrates, and algae. Although
algae make up only 10% of their diet, foraging for algae takes
up about a third of their foraging time. French Angelfish
(Pomacanthus paru) forage in a similar manner, but they
consume less gorgonian polyps and algae. The diet of Queen
Angelfish (Holocanthus ciliaris) is made up almost entirely of
sponges, 97%, with the balance made up of algae and
invertebrates. Rock Beauties (Holocanthus tricolor) also eat

mostly sponges, 96% of their diet, although half of their

foraging time is spent scraping algae off of rocks.
Some fishes feed on corals. They can feed on corals in two
ways. Pufferfishes, filefishes, triggerfishes, and butterflyfishes
(Family Chaetodonidae) actively consume individual coral
polyps. Surgeonfishes and parrotfishes remove coral polyps to
get the algae or invertebrates that have bored into the coral
skeleton.

Fishes That Eat Fish

Great Barracuda. ''Reef Fish Identification'', New World Publications 1994.

The structure of the reef provides a lot of places for fish to

hide from their predators. Thus, most fish dont stray too far
from the reef. Because larger fish are generally able to swim
faster than smaller fish, larger fish are able to move farther
away from the reef than smaller fish. Piscivorous fishes use
three foraging strategies, pursuit, stalking, or ambush.
Pursuit predators begin their attack on the move and may
attack from long distances. They thus rely on speed to capture
prey. Common pursuit predators include jacks (Family
Carangidae), Great Barracudas (Sphyraena barracuda), and
Yellowtail Snappers (Ocyurus chrysurus). These species
rapidly swim long distances across the reef. Their torpedoshaped streamlined bodies, thin caudal peduncle, and stiff

distinctively-shaped tails allow them to swim rapidly. Their

large eyes provide them with good vision they use to identify
their prey. Pursuit predators are primarily silver in color. Bar
Jacks (Caranx rubber) are common reef pursuit predators.
They tend to hunt in groups, but they can also be observed
shadowing rays foraging across the sandy bottom.

Trumpetfish. ''Reef Fish Identification'', New World Publications 1994.

Moray eels (Family Muranidae) may hunt for fishes and other
prey at night either in the open or by using their long narrow
bodies to travel into the protected crevices in the reef where
other fishes are sleeping.
Stalking predators begin their attacks from a stationary
position. They attempt to maneuver themselves into position
and wait for prey to approach close enough to attack. Their
bodies are thin and elongated in order to reduce the area
exposed to prey. Their tails have large surface area needed to
provide the power necessary for a rapid strike. Trumpetfish
(Aulostomus maculates) are classic stalking predators found
on coral reefs. They use their expandable jaws to suck in
fishes. They are capable of swallowing unexpectedly large prey
so it is possible to observe a bulge in the stomach of a fish who
has recently fed. Trumpetfish often orient themselves
vertically among sea fans or soft corals. Foraging trumpetfish
may make 2-3 strikes per hour. Researchers have observed 8
successful strikes out of 45 attempts in 19 hours of
investigation.

Peacock Flounder. Coral Reef Alliance Photobank.

Ambush predators wait for prey to get close to them and then
they grab them. Ambush predators are often well camouflaged
and possess upturned mouths that they use to capture their
prey. For example, the foraging strategy of groupers (Family
Serranidae) is to sit, wait, and inhale. They capture their prey
by the suction created by the rapid expansion of their jaws and
the flaring of their gill covers. Nassau Groupers (Epinephelus
striatus) tend to be somewhat territorial and can live in the
same home range for a number of years. Their diet includes
fishes, including parrotfish, grunts, and snappers, lobsters,
and mollusks.
Fish make up 80% of the diet of Grasbys (Cephalopholis
cruentatus). Their favorite food is Brown Chromis, but they
also feed on Bicolor Damselfish (Stegastes partitus), Blue
Chromis, and Yellow Goatfish (Mulloidchthys martinicus).
The remainder of their diet consists of invertebrates, mostly
crustaceans. Coneys (Cephalopholis fulvus) prefer to live on
isolated patch reefs. Their diet is made up of an equal mix of
small fishes and invertebrates.
Flounders (Family Bothidae) are the master of camouflage.
They can change colors to match their surroundings and lie in
wait until and unsuspecting prey passes by. Other ambush
predators include scorpionfishes (Family Scorpaenidae),
toadfishes (Family Batrachoididae), and lizardfishes (Family
Synodontidae).

MarineEcosystems

Like all ecosystems, marine ecosystems are mostly self-sustaining systems of life forms and the physical environment. In these ecosystems mate
have certain things in common and marine ecosystems have a few unique twists to these cycles. We can begin this discussion with describing the mak

Baby two spot octopus showing chromatophore cells (in orange and black) that it can use to change color. These cells cover the skin of m
and come in a variety of colors - both orange and black are seen here. The pigment in these cells can be stretched to create different ski
octopus can either stand out against the background -or- blend in remarkably well. Image by Shane Anderson

Almost all life forms are made of a cell (if they are unicellular) or cells (if they are multicellular) and the products of the cell(s). To sustain life, these
chemical reaction called cellular respiration.

Cellular respiration equation.

Cellular respiration is the life sustaining process for all life forms, including both plant and animal types. It is where a cell uses what we call 'cell fo
carbohydrate molecule - usually glucose made of six carbons, twelve hydrogens, and six oxygens) in the presence of oxygen to make the 'cell energy' (
molecule we call ATP) and with a waste product of carbon dioxide. The ATP is used to repair the cell and keeps it alive. A few organisms can cellularly r
but it is not as efficient and we call these critters 'anaerobes.' Most critters need oxygen to stay alive and 'cell food.' The cell food is obtained by eating i
consumers) and by photosynthesis in critters we call plants (also called producers).

Photosynthesis equation.

Photosynthesis is the food-making process for producers, which we often call plants. In the marine environment many of the producers are micros
kingdom called Protoctista, along with the algae. But, they are still like plants in that they photosynthesize no matter what group they are classified as. P
carbon dioxide and water are combined within a specialized part of a cell (called a chloroplast), in the presence of light, to form the 'cell food' molecule c
a waste product of oxygen. In a sense it is cellular respiration in reverse but it will only happen in cells with chloroplasts (in which there is the molecule c
involved). It is a complicated reaction but the end product provides the recycling of carbon dioxide back to oxygen for the cycle of these two gases. With
life forms (plants and animals) would use up the oxygen on Earth and it would only be found as carbon dioxide (not usable in cellular respiration).

Multicellular adult two spot octopus individual with most of its orange chromatophores turned on so that its skin appears orange. Notice th
where blue chromatophore cells are turned on making spots that appear as large eyes and thus its common name. Its real eyes are just abo
Image by Genny Anderson

Both unicellular (one celled) and multicellular (more than one cell) individuals are found in the marine ecosystem taking on various levels of inter
unicellular plants and animals. There are multicellular plants and animals as well. The multicellular species may be very simple or more complex with ce
tissues, organs, and organ systems depending on the species. Whether or not a species is simple or complex they each have their place in the ecosyst
stories about their life histories.

Two (or more) two spot octopods in an area would be a population. Notice that these individuals have turned off most of the orange chromat
pattern on their skin that almost matches their environment - octopus are very good at blending in due to their chromatophore skin cells
Anderson

Populations are groups of organisms of one species living in an area and interacting. Interactions between individuals of the same species are term
interactions and can be positive (like cooperation), negative (like competition) or anything in between.

A simple community associated with the two spot octopus (seen above, left, out hunting in the tidepools at low tide) would include its food

the kelp crab (kelp, right). In reality the community would be more complex including a variety of food items for the octopus (fish, clams) a
Images by Genny Anderson

Communities are composed of populations of many species living in an area and interacting. Interactions between species are termed interspecific
interactions, can be positive, negative or anything in between.

Tidepool habitats of the two spot octopus include many species interacting in a complex community. It could even be considered a small eco
of the interactions occur here and it is pretty much self-sustaining (although the tide brings in new species and nutrients with each cycle
Anderson.

Ecosystems are areas where the community, or communities, are rather self-sustaining. This involves what we call food chains and webs - that i
who and following the energy flow (in the form of food) all the way to what we call the bottom of the food chain. The bottom is where the producers are f
are the photosynthesizers and depend on carbon dioxide and light so that they can make their own food. Gases are cycled and recycled in ecosystems
respiration and photosynthesis. Nutrients are cycled by decomposers (bacteria and fungi) in ecosystems that are involved with rotting (decomposing) an
releasing the nutrients from these cells. Food is cycled through what we call trophic pyramids - always with the producers at the base. Ecosystems can
large areas (like the entire planet Earth) or smaller subunits (like a tidepool habitat shown here) depending on how strict one uses the term 'self-sustain

The trophic pyramid of an ecosystem. Kelp could be placed on the bottom as a producer, the kelp crab on the middle layer (as a primary co
and the two spot octopus on the top (as a secondary consumer or carnivore).

Trophic pyramids in the ocean are similar to those on land with the base always larger than the upper trophic levels. The base is the producers. Th
level of the critters that eat the producers (we call these herbivores, or plant eating animals). The third level is composed of critters that eat the herbivor
carnivores, or animal eating animals). As you move between the levels there is always a loss of biomass because the transfer of energy is usually only
This means that if there were 100 pounds of producers in an area there would be enough food for 10 pounds of herbivores but the 10 pounds of herbivo
1 pound of a carnivore. So you see, as you move up the food chain (or trophic pyramid) there is a smaller and smaller biomass that can be supported. S
the second and third levels of the trophic pyramid as primary consumers (the herbivores) and secondary consumers (the first order carnivores). There c
(each with a loss of 90 percent biomass average) with tertiary consumers (carnivores eating the secondary consumers) and so on.

Marine producers are either seaweeds and/or phytoplankton and must be found where there is enough light for photosynthesis. Therefore the mari
the ocean, the area we call the photic zone. Animals can be found everywhere, in both the photic and aphotic zones, because they are not limited by lig
ocean bottom so their distribution is limited to the edges of continents and islands where the depth is within the photic zone. These seaweeds account f
ocean because they are so geographically limited. Most of the ocean is open ocean, away from the edges of land and over deep water. It is here, near
plankton) dominates. Phytoplankton is also found in the same coastal areas as the seaweeds. Both types of producers are important in marine ecosyst
ecosystems are more common. The importance of the phytoplankton is one of the things that make marine ecosystems unique and different from land e
generally microscopic. Land based ecosystems are based primarily on large land plants but marine ecosystems are based primarily on tiny, microscopi