Learning is defined as the acquisition of new information or skills, it involves a long-term

change in the mental representations or associations as a result of experience. (Ormrod, 2012, p.

158) After someone learns something, he or she must store the information, and then have the
ability to recall acquired information, which is referred to as memory. There are three memory
processes, encoding, storage, and retrieval. The dual store model is the most commonly depicted
model of the memory process that cognitive theorists support. The first section of the model is
the sensory register. The sensory register retains information long enough for it to run through
the preliminary stage of cognitive processing. The next stage is the working memory. If
information is to move from the sensory register into the working memory the subject must be
paying attention. Working memory is where active thinking occurs, it is also known as shortterm memory. Long term memory is the last section of the dual store model. Long term memory
is the most complex section, for further processing it is necessary for new information to be
paired with long- term information that is already in the memory. When people store information
in long-term memory, it is most successful when he or she can relate what they are storing to past
events. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 173) There are many different theories on how the memory system
works, and different approaches to learning that one can take to enhance his or her memory.
Research shows that students that are mastery-oriented, motivated to learn and active in their
education have the best retention of long-term memories.
The three memory processes encoding, storage and retrieval are necessary for a healthy
memory system. The first of the three memory process is encoding. Encoding is mentally
processing information so it can be entered into the memory. Sometimes information is encoded
effortlessly, this happens when the subject is intrigued by what he or she is hearing, personal
experiences , or even things such as basic motor skills. Other times effortful encoding is require,

where the subject has to pay special attention to the task at hand. Encoding methods by teachers
in the classroom environment in the form of the diary-method, where students write what he or
she has learned, as well as think-aloud protocols, that require students to express their thought on
a particular subject. (Ilker, Arslan, & Demirhan, 2014, p. 830)The next step in the stages of
memory, is memory storage, this is where the memory is maintained for a period of time. The
last step is retrieval, which is where information is retrieved from the memories that are stored.
Each of these processes are required to affectively transmit information from the sensory register
stage into the long-term memory stage.
Long-term memory provides a mechanism for saving information over a relatively long
time period. There are three types of long-term memory. Procedural memory, which is the basic
type of long term memory, it includes knowledge on how to do things such as motor skills,
problem solving and studying strategies. The second type of long-term memory is semantic
memory. Semantic memory includes the mental models of the environment as well as procedures
Examples of semantic information would be factual information, laws, languages, and the
meaning of words. The last category of long-term memory is episodic memory, this is memory
about events, people, and places. All categories of long-term memory are important and they
provide a knowledge base from which to interpret new information. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 184) The
major concept among the learning theorist is they believe that long- term storage involves a
process of construction, and this process leads us to build a reasonable understanding of the
world around us. Learning theorist believe that people build on what they already know, and this
thought is much like Vygotskys belief on learning. Vygotsky believed that there was a present
level of development, and then the potential level of develop that he or she could reach with
learning and scaffolding from a mentor, basically construct ideas of the world around them and

build their potential for development along the way. The constructive process is unique to each
individual based on what he or she knows, how they perceive what they are taking in, and then
how they interpret the information. Long- term memory storage is selective, constructive,
occasionally distortive, and to some degree dependent on a learners existing knowledge.
(Ormrod, 2012, p. 190) There are six cognitive processes that affect long-term memory storage,
selection, rehearsal, meaningful learning, internal organization, elaboration, and visual imagery.
The first of the six cognitive processes is the selection process. The selection process is
directed by the working memory, but the long-term memory also plays a critical role. Peoples
perception of the world, how they were raised, what they already know, will affect what they pay
attention to. And attention is key to move the information that is being selected into the working
memory, and then a step further into the long-term memory. In the classroom setting teachers can
help students by clearly stating which information is important, and redundancy into lectures.
(Ormrod, 2012, p. 191)
Rehearsal is the next step in the process. Rehearsal is repeating something over and over
in a short period of time. There are two main types of rehearsal, maintenance rehearsal and
elaborative rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal can also be referred to as rote learning. Rote
learning is frowned upon by most of the educational community because it is known as
superficial learning. Drills such as flashcards are considered rote learning and they keep the
information in the working memory, but superficial learning procedures like this, unfortunately
do not transfer the information to long-term storage. Research done by Ritchie suggest that
students tend to believe that the best way to learn new facts is by prolonged or repeated
exposure, but a body of evidence in cognitive psychology attests to the value of retrieval
practice for boosting of learning. (Ritchie, Della Sala, & McIntosh, 2013) Rote learning is being

edged out of the classroom, and replaced with different strategies such as Ritchies study where
he found that using simple self-testing methods such as asking students to make notes on their
learning could significantly improve their recall of the materials. Another study that informs the
public that rote learning may not be the best route is a study done by Larsen. Larsen found that a
method called test-enhanced learning is a process that involves learners repeatedly retrieving
information through test, which results in superior long-term retention of that information.
(Larsen, C Buttler, & L Roediger III, 2013, p. 675) She challenges her theory by asking if the
test-enhanced learning represent rote memorization or will the test taker be able to transfer or
apply the knowledge to a new setting. But the research found that repeated testing and selfexplanation both lead to superior long-term retention and transfer compared with repeated
studying of the same information. (Larsen, C Buttler, & L Roediger III, 2013, p. 681) A form of
rehearsal that does work for the retention of information is elaborative rehearsal. Rehearsal in
this way helps learners make associations between the new information and the things he or she
already knows. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 191) During the last thirty years research has been done on
how students approach academic tasks. Heikkila has coined the terms deep approach, an example
would be a form of elaborative rehearsal, and surface approach, which would be an example of a
form of rote learning such as flash cards. (Heikkila, Lonka, Nieminen, & Niemivirta, 2012, p.
456) Elaborative rehearsal is effective because the learner is require to organize the information,
link the information to existing knowledge, which in turn makes the information easier to
retrieve because of all the associations and processing it required.
The third step in the cognitive process is meaningful learning. Meaningful learning is
what is referred to as understanding and comprehension. The person learns more if he or she
relates the information to themselves, it can have a dramatic effect on learning, a phenomenon

known as the self-reference effect. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 193) People can store nonverbal material
more easily when it has meaning for them. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 193) That being said there is a
certain aspect of motivation that plays a role in the memory process, after all attention is the
prerequisite if any memories are to be transferred to the long-term memory. Research done by
Ong discusses the concept of mastery goal orientation in the learning process. Mastery goal
orientation is when the learner is moving towards personal growth with an achievement related
behavior. The learner can self-regulate their learning, persistence, self-efficacy and preference for
challenges. Mastery oriented learners are motivated and committed to their study and employ
deep learning strategies. (Ong, 2014, p. 164) Performance oriented learners are quite the
opposite. They are interested in competition, demonstrating their competence, and outperforming
others. Performance oriented does not look to the mastery of the subject, but wither or not a
fellow pupil is outperforming them. The study showed that students who adopt mastery goal
orientation may apply motivation, cognitive and deep learning strategies towards their lifelong
learning over time. This will ultimately result in good attainment in their academic undertakings.
(Ong, 2014, p. 164) Learners that are motivated such as mastery oriented learners, had the
highest rank in the study , which means mastery learning can be integrated with deep learning
strategies so that they are in line to produce better learning outcomes(Ong, 2014, p. 165)
The fourth step in the cognitive process is internal organization. A body of new
information is stored more effectively and remembered more completely when the various pieces
are interconnected in some way. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 194) A common approach to internal
organization is grouping, which is also known as mapping. Generally coding strategies serves an
important aim as making connection between information already storage to long term memory
and new information that we decide how important remembering is. (Kafadar & Bayrm , 2014,

p. 264) In the study done by Kafadar, he discusses the five sub-groups of cognitive learning
styles. These groups are attention strategy, storage strategies in short time memory, coding
strategies, restoration strategies and monitoring strategies. (Kafadar & Bayrm , 2014, p. 259)
Learning strategies are closely related to the students learning style. According to Kafadar,
learning strategies can by learned and changed, while learning styles remain stable and
unchanged. (Kafadar & Bayrm , 2014, p. 260) Grouping is a type of coding strategy. Some
scholars argue that ideas such as concept maps, which are a form of grouping, are very effective,
but Kafadars research shows that they are one of the least used strategies. But in order for the
material that is being learned to be processed effectively it must be organized, and then the
student must organize the information in his or her mind.
Elaboration is the fifth cognitive process. Elaboration involves using prior knowledge to
embellish on new information and storing the embellished version. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 195)
Elaboration only really work if the subject made correct assumptions and interpretations, and if
the process went smoothly if facilities both storage and retrieval. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 196)
Elaboration helps tie information together it is considered a deep approach. Learners can
sometimes construct an entirely new idea or concept by elaboration. Elaborated information is
less likely to be confused with other, similar information stored in long-term memory.
Elaboration provides additional means through which a piece of information can later be
retrieved. Also elaboration may help in making inferences about what the information was likely
to have been if the information itself can be recalled. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 196)
The last cognitive process is visual imagery. Visual imagery is the mental pictures that
captured how the figures actually looked. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 197) Visual images can be a
powerful way to store information in the long-term memory. People tend to remember

information better when it is presented verbally and visually. When new information is concrete
and can be easily visualized, learners sometimes create their own mental images, which helps the
learner learn the material more effectively . (Ormrod, 2012, p. 197)
There are many factors that affect how individuals store information in the long-term
memory. There are cognitive factors such as working memory, prior knowledge , prior
misconceptions and expectations, as well as behavioral factors such as verbalization, enactment,
repetition, and review that affect the storage of information into the long-term memory. As
mentioned before long-term memory storage is more effective when new material is connected
with existing knowledge. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 200) The less working memory learners have to
make connections between concepts the less room they have to draw inferences. Prior knowledge
is one of the most important factors affecting long-term storage. Learners who have a large body
of information have many more ideas which they can relate their new experiences and more
easily engage in meaningful learning and elaboration. (Ormrod, 2012, p. 201) Many studies have
shown the importance of prior knowledge for encoding and storing new information. When there
are prior misconceptions, this impedes the storing process. When the learners knowledge is false
they do not have a stable base to use the process of elaboration. Expectations also can influence
how learners encode and store new information in long-term memory. In many cases people
perceive and learn something more quickly when we have a good idea ahead of time about the
information that he or she is going to receive. Verbalization can also affect how well learners can
facilitate long-term memory storage. If learners can properly verbalize or write what he or she
has learned, he or she may not be processing on a high enough level to transfer the memory to a
long-term memory. Factors such as enactment, repetition and review and automaticity can affect
the transfer of a memory into a long-term memory. Each of these requires attention and in-depth

processing of the memory. The learner has to reflect what is being learned then he or she must be
able to review and practice the information and ultimately be able to automatically process the
memory and use it without thinking.
From all the research and data, the most realistic approach to learning to recall
information is a complex process that does not have just one approach. Although one can never
hope to be a mastery in all categories of the cognitive processes of learning, there are ways to
improve each individuals long-term memory, if he or she does not have any health problems that
impair the learning/ memory process. There is a lot of research that supports learning
environments where the student leads the instruction. Learner-directed instruction is veering
away from the traditional teacher directed instruction. The basic principles of learning still
apply the student learns more if their prior knowledge is activated, students will more likely
engage in learning if he or she is motivated, proper instruction is necessary for the student to
organize, prioritize and file the information and summaries promote learning and retention.