A Survey of Puppetry in China

A Survey of Puppetry in China (Summers 2008 and 2009)
Author(s): Fan Pen Li Chen and Bradford Clark

Source: Asian Theatre Journal, Vol. 27, No. 2 (FALL 2010), pp. 333-365
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25782123
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A Survey of Puppetry inChina

(Summers 2008 and 2009)
Fan Pen Li Chen and Bradford Clark
Over
total of thirteen weeks, the authors

accompanied
Professor Ye Mingsheng
of
on a survey
and
his
student
Province,
Fujian
graduate
Huang
Jianxing
of
thirteen provinces and
string, rod, and glove puppetry. Covering
municipali
rehearsals and performances
con
ties, they documented
by both large, state-supported
temporary puppetry troupes and small, rural, traditional companies
engaged in ritual
Fuzhou,
Chinese
performances.
Fan Pen Chen
is an assistant
professor at State University ofNew York at Albany. She
on the Chinese shadow theatre in 1995 and has
research
two books and
began
published
numerous articles on the
topic.
a
Bradford Clark is professor and designer/director at Bowling Green State University
courses in
in Ohio,
serves as curator
puppetry and stage design. He
teaching
of collec
tions at the Center
Arts
in
Museum
Atlanta,
for Puppetry
Georgia.
In the summers
of 2008 and 2009, we accompanied

Professor
of Fuzhou,
and
his graduate
student
Fujian Province,
on a survey of Chinese
rod
(kuileixi),
Huang
Jianxing
string
(zhangtou
and glove puppetry
mu'ouxi),
(budaixi). Professor Ye, a scholar of pop
at the Fujian Provincial
ular Chinese
religions and senior researcher
Ye Mingsheng
Research
Institute
the excursion,
sive nationwide
for the Arts (Fujian Yishu Yanjiuyuan),

organized
as he was in the process of
a
researching
comprehen
survey of Chinese
religious and secular three-dimen
The Chinese
draw a distinction
between
(mu'ouxi).
puppetry
the mu'ouxi types of puppetry and the shadow theatre (yingxi), which
has enjoyed a greater degree of documentation
in recent years. Cov
thirteen
and
ering
provinces
Shang
municipalities
(Fujian, Zhejiang,
sional
hai, Jiangsu, Hunan,

Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu,
Sichuan,
Beijing, Hebei,
over a total of thirteen weeks, we viewed
and Hainan)
Guangdong,
Asian Theatre
Journal,vol. 27,no. 2 (Fall2010). ? 2010 byUniversityofHawai'i Press.All rightsreserved.
334
Chen and Clark
(and often commissioned)
and performances
by both large,
and
small,
rural, tradi
puppetry troupes
contemporary
state-supported
In major
tional companies
that had existed in families for generations.
cities and tiny villages, we attended public festivals and private ceremo
met with per
in family homes. We visited museums;
nial performances
rehearsals
formers, puppet makers, and scholars; collected books

and photographed
rials; videorecorded
performances;
and other mate

collections
of
theatre
puppets
scripts. Aside from rod, string, and glove puppet
a
we also found
to observe
performances,
rarely studied
opportunities
a shaman
form of shadow play, several local human-actor
and
operas,
istic nuo performance.
on modern
We
viewed performances
and rehearsals
urban
and
stages, in open-air village venues, in ancestral clan halls, in family court

on
stand-alone
stages, and even in a portable booth
yards,
spectacular
in such an ingenious manner
that collapsed
that the stage and the pup
a
could
be
carried
One
excellent
pets
by
single performer.
impromptu
performance
production
took place in a storage room. We expected

richly detailed
state troupes, but even the
from the better-funded
values
sometimes
boasted
companies
visually sophisticated
designs,
on a smaller scale. The
though usually
complexity of the stage decora
tions, including
intricately carved scenic details, could be exquisite. At
private
the same
time, itwas
of modern
interesting to note the introduction
were
into
traditional
We
performances.
technologies
especially
to see
or
surprised
large ink-jet printouts of scenic renderings
pho
some rural puppet
used as backdrops
and
small
troupes
by
tographs
Since few small American
theatres, puppet
regional opera companies.
or
theatre
have
either
the technical
companies,
university
departments
or financial
of
such
this was an
capability
using
large-scale printouts,
scenic
especially
interesting
development.
Chinese
puppetry
a wealth of
enjoys
variety, and
how
different
many
genres are still
impressed by
performance
on their local
active.
of
quite
puppetry vary greatly depending
Styles
even
a
within
traditions,
genre. Rod puppets alone
given manipulation
from
the
rod
Hebei
range
very simple, foot-long
figures at Guantao,
we were
Contemporary
to the
scaled human
intricately adorned,
figures of the pup
of
Sichuan.
Some
rod
behind
their
curtains,
peteers
figures appear
in other forms both the
while
and
concealed,
operators
performers
seen
can
on
be
Because
local
histories,
puppets
stage simultaneously.
traditions often deter
folklore, and associated
opera or other musical
mine
the textual and musical
these
aspects of puppet performances,
as
well.
Performance
ensembles
include
different
vary greatly
many
combinations
of percussion,
reed, string, and brass instruments?in
Province,
one
case,
even
saxophone.
A Survey
of Puppetry
335
in China
number of performers
and audience mem
declining
in
survives
because
of its continuing
bers, puppetry
many areas, largely
within
traditional
of the
While
much
importance
religious practices.
Despite
an eco
is essentially
secular in nature, puppetry provides
repertoire
nomical manner
which
the
deities
be
entertained
after
may
by
having
been
or
invited
to confer
to visit for
thanksgiving
at celebratory
blessings
and vow-repayment
events. In general,
ceremonies,
non-govern
in the
particularly
in rural areas,
troupes
more
important to local religious practices.
Performances
that often last all day and/or all night are commissioned
the fact that the puppets may find themselves per
by families, despite
of puppetry
in such
forming exclusively for the gods. The importance
puppet
ment-sponsored
south, tend to be much
events provides
them to survive.
ceremonial
allows
income
for small private
companies
and
different degrees of success when

troupes demonstrate
Puppet
state companies
modern
Some
have
economy.
coping with China's
found themselves in the surprising and very fortunate position of being
over the land their theatres have
able to exercise ownership
occupied
for many years. The

for example,
has
Shanghai
Puppetry Troupe,
in the middle
been able to successfully use their property
of Shang
of a skyscraper, subsequently
hai's financial district for the construction
income
obtaining
while maintaining
from rentals
and
the management
of the building
and exhibition
spaces on
performance,
production,
one of the floors. The
of Jiangsu Province,
Yangzhou
Puppetry Troupe
rents a part of its building
to a karaoke
state company,
cafe
another
much
of
its
income
from
outside
and also derives
commissions,
using
to produce
skills
foam
company members'
giant
figures for
sculptural
theme parks, statues in temples, and
exhibitions,
advertising, parades,
Folk Art The
other installations
and events. The Shaanxi
Provincial
atre, which performs both rod puppetry and shadow plays, collaborated
artists
States director Ping Chong and other American
with the United
in the 2005 touring production
of Cathay: Three Tales ofChina. The pup
children's plays.
pet theatre of Beijing presently performs Western-style
The
of Nanchong,
has created a
of Large Puppets
Sichuan,
for itself in the tourist town of Mt. Emei by performing
daily,
Theatre
market
to packed
audiences
December,
(Figure 1). Tourist
are entertained
not only
of
who
busloads
spectators
provide
agencies
an
but
also
the
famed
by
extravagantly
produced
Large Puppets,
by
and
the
traditional
show
acrobatics,
dances,
operatic
featuring
variety
faces.
including the famous quick-change
specialties of Sichuan,
not all
However,
troupes are so fortu
government-sponsored
for example,
nate. The Taishun
of Zhejiang,
barely
Puppetry Troupe
March
survives;
through
itsmembers
participate
as volunteers.
Only
the director
and
336
deputy
Chen and Clark
director
of the troupe
receive
stipend
from the local cultural
bureau.
a
to be difficult for many
traditional
living continues
Making
rural performers, who are often peasants carrying on traditions handed
As their local audiences
down within
their families for generations.
or the
to
interest
in
due
decline
competi
religious activities
lessening
1. The Theatre
Figure
Bradford Clark)
of Large
Puppets
of Nanchong,
Sichuan.
(Photo:
A Survey
of Puppetry
tion of television
present
historical
337
in China
are
some
and other media,
performers
being hired to
traditions in tourist venues located outside of their
their local
territories. For example,

of
peasant puppeteers
performing
in Shaanxi, practicing the only surviving form ofmarionette
the
Heyang
a restaurant theatre in Xi'an,
atre in northern China,
at
perform daily
next to the famed Big Goose
of the Tang dynasty (618-907).
Pagoda
that we did not observe, husband
and wife, are reput
Two performers
troupe in northern China. They
edly the single surviving glove puppet
can be found
at
in
where they perform in a theme
Hebei,
only
Wuqiao
traditional
entertainments.
park featuring
A new government
certain
program
recognizes
ists as provincial
and national
Inheritors of Intangible
traditional
Cultural
art
Heri
a
new
since Chen conducted
tage. This has been
major
development
shadow theatres in the late 1990s, and it has gen
fieldwork on Chinese
The
title not only catapults a "lowly"
excitement.
erated tremendous
him with a
into prominence,
but also provides
peasant
performer
guaranteed living stipend. Ranging from 400 to 800 yuan ($59-118)
sum to peasant per

this stipend represents a considerable
per month,
also
and
national
"treasures"
formers. Such provincial
bring honor and
additional
government
support to the local cultural bureaus. Reacting
to the mass destruction
of traditional culture during the Cultural Revo
and the rapid extinction of what has been revived
lution (1966-1976)
to preserve
is attempting
tradi
These
Inheritors of Intangible
must be able to document
that they themselves are
Cultural Heritage
and they must
of
the recipients of multiple
knowledge,
generations
a
on
manner
concrete
to
a
in
their knowledge
commitment
make
pass
then, the Chinese
tional culture through
since
government
this program.
to their successors.
in the vil
took place
One of the most enjoyable
performances
from
Hebei
kilometers
about
of
Guantao,
(Figure
thirty
Tanshang,
lage
a
the conflicts
2). Here
simple, secular form of rod puppetry depicted
form
a daughter
As a nonreligious
and her mother-in-law.
between
but no longer so, this form has little
of puppetry, once very popular
in
in
this
economic
area;
fact, we were told that some consid
viability
ered
the performance
lacked
manipulation
as little more
the
than a form of begging. While
and artistry of many of the forms
the virtuosity
nature of
the lively, melodic
Clark greatly enjoyed
encountered,
as well as the
of
the songs and accompaniment,
recognizable
portrayal
as an
themes. The form had been recognized
domestic
important cul
were freed
tural property on the provincial
level, and some monies
reed instru
vertical
instruments
musical
of
the
for
(the
up
acquisition
were espe
ments of the sheng family, not seen in other performances,
we
cially interesting).
338
Chen and Clark
is unavoid
in this heritage program
for recognition
Competition
at
level.
The
fact
the
that
national
only two art
ably fierce, particularly
to
heri
istsmay be selected
represent any single form of endangered
tension among
and has created
tage also intensifies the competition
some
cultural bureaus
Some
have been
of the performers.
regional
to record the works of local artists
to spend large sums of money
for
documentation
them to submit elaborate
traditions, enabling
known
and
at the provincial
levels (there
and national
consideration
government
sti
are also lower levels of recognition
that do not include a financial
.
our local contacts came
of
the
of
Many
through representatives
pend)
would
have been very difficult
such meetings
local cultural bureaus;
as we documented
means.
to arrange
perfor
Ironically,
through other
we ourselves were often videorecorded
mances
and
and collections,
as itwas
hoped
photographed,
artists
would prove
traditional
ognition and stipends.
that a record
invaluable
when
of our
interest
applying
in these
for state rec
to
intended
troupes,
by government-sponsored
areas
in
rural
for
from
differ
city children,
plays presented
of all ages. Government-sponsored
both deities and audiences
compa
of
founders
members
the
best
of
included
whose
private
nies?many
Performances
entertain
Figure 2. Rod puppets perform domestic

Bradford Clark)
scenes inTanshang, Hebei.
(Photo:
A Survey
of Puppetry
339
in China
or county
technical
skills and original
troupes?emphasize
to
aim
entertain
inculcate
and
didactic
values in young
They
Private troupes, however, represent the richness of tradition,
audiences.
in operatic
form, and sometimes with relatively less technical
mainly
provincial
creations.
For many, their value lies in their ceremonial

functions.
the
in
best-known
marionette
China
is Fujian
company
Perhaps
Province's Quanzhou
of
Quanzhou
Puppetry Troupe
City (Zayton in
a
Western
of the Quanzhou
sources),
troupe. Members
state-supported
sophistication.
company are often admired by other performers for their skillful manip
ulation
skills. They have toured extensively, and videodiscs
have been
state
of
their
As
other
with
troupes, their rep
performances.
produced
are famous for

scenes
they
performing
that showcase complex, highly skilled manipulation.
(Many troupes in
comes
China
share similar pieces
in their repertoires;
this apparently
to emulate
about from a common
desire
the success of successful
ertoire
is secular
in nature,
and
are trained. However,

in which performers
troupes and the methods
more
aware of the intrinsic
economic
has
made
troupes
competition
we visited the Quanzhou
value of their intellectual property.) When
of the troupe were rehearsing a scene from
company, young members
com
the model
for a national
opera, The Red Lantern, in preparation
of
the
young professional
organized
by
petition
performers
Shanghai
Puppetry Troupe (Figure 3). Although puppetrywas often used in the

we were sur
operas during the Cultural Revolution,
staging of model
we would
to see one still
later attend an
prised
being rehearsed,
though
of
in
extensive dia
The
conventional
model
operas
Chengdu.
evening
was quite a
for the performers, and we were impressed
logue
challenge
was
it
transmitted through stylized, operatic gestures.
by how well
we observed
In Xi'an,
Provincial
the government-sponsored
rendition of Thrice Beating theWhite

rehearse a modern
from Journey to theWest, using a huge cast of beautifully
characters. Rather than using live orchestras
crafted, cartoonlike
(such
as those that almost
private, rural performances),
invariably accompany
music and dia
official troupes tend to use sophisticated
prerecorded
to
is
local
central
While
forms, in
traditional,
operatic
logue.
singing
to a
to
is
is
hard
modern
learn)
very
puppetry
kept
singing (which
use
are
them
fast moving
and
minimum.
The tales
Mandarin,
making
to nonlocal
skills allowed
audiences.
accessible
Chen, whose
language
Folk Art Theatre
Skeleton Demon
her
to follow
performance
the puppets
the narrative,
highly
found
the Provincial
Gauze
entertaining.
rehearsal
(leading
masks
Folk Art Theatre's
protected
to the mistaken
the faces of
us
speculation
during
that they were intended as a topical H1N1
reference), but were quickly
to videotape
the process.
taken off when we asked for permission
been the cen
Creative
ingenuity and technical skills have always
340
Chen and Clark
tral concerns
of the official troupes. Before

the creation of modern,
didactic
of
intended
for young audiences,
the
genres
puppetry
largely
on
old masters who initially formed the government
worked
troupes
while
their
technical
skills
traditional
(In
perfecting
enacting
plays.
one
city,
we heard
concerns
that with modern
productions
no
longer
Guli, a son
Qiao
requiring
technique,
eroding.)
and student of some of the great masters of a bygone generation
of the
Shaanxi Provincial
Folk Art Theatre,
demonstrated
for us his amazing
technical virtuosity in some re-created
traditional rod puppetry pieces
As
he
Qiao
(Figure 4).
solely in puppetry manipulation,
specialized
a
to
for singers and
live orchestra of local Qin opera music
arranged
accompany
such
his performance.
such
skills are
Manipulating
the rods
Figure 3. Members of theQuanzhou

Puppetry Troupe
tern,a model opera. (Photo: Bradford Clark)
inside
the sleeves
rehearse The Red Lan
4. Qiao Guli demonstrates

Bradford
Clark)
(Photo:
Figure
traditional
rod puppetry manipulation.
342
Chen and Clark
a range of characters,
includ
of the puppets, Qiao
Guli performed
a ch'ou (clown), Sun
a scholar, an
Wukong
ing
elegant young woman,
a
coun
and
(Monkey King),
painted-faced
general. Like their human
water
movements
and
sleeve
the
demonstrated
expert
terparts,
figures
arts
martial
The
choreography.
clown balanced
on either end. He
shoulder, goods suspended
his head and switched it to his other shoulder.
on his
pole
then lifted the pole over
a bamboo
The aggressive Monkey

his
the
hand having slipped
twirled
staff,
manipulator's
King expertly
the
into the puppet's
sleeve. As we often saw with the rod puppets,
in
of
the
feet
moved
the
with
sync
puppet.
performer's
choreography
We
also watched
rod puppet
opera
presenta
Qin
and in
tions by rural, private troupes in Zhouzhi,
Shaanxi
Province,
In these, the puppeteers
Gansu Province.
both
performed
Yongdeng,
to the accompaniment
of the puppets
the singing and manipulation
In the rural
of live orchestras.
of more
have been
of the puppets. One

local songs associated
new
letting
traditional
and singing seemed

troupes, music
than the virtuosity in the manipulation
to
importance
troupe leader noted
the difficulty of learning the

these puppet
traditions; he had resorted to
tunes from other
better-known
sing
regions.
with
performers
in the mountains
of central Fujian, an extraordi
Pingnan,
traditional
marionette
nary
Siping
performance
(Siping tixian mo'ouxi)
took place
in the small, isolated village of Xiekeng
in Lingxiaxiang
an
two
In
Plate
ancestral
clan
hall,
brothers, Lu
5).
County
(Figure 5,
Near
and Lu
Shaocan
one the
Shaokuan,
manipulator
and vocal chorus, performed
and
singer, and
the
other
the musician
Red
cadres destroyed half of the figures (different characters)

set. As a result, once itwas safe to
a
set
perform again,
complete
be assembled
from the remaining puppets.
with
exquisite
string
costumes.
figures that featured utterly unique
ornament
Unlike
the embroidered
used in puppet
commonly
were
and opera
silk
these
costumes,
garments
printed with wooden
in. Strips of wood, soaked and
blocks; details were subsequently painted
in gold, provided
softened, woven, pressed, and painted
flexible, orna
mental details for armor, headdresses,
and other costume elements.
It was a miracle
that any of these exquisite
figures survived the
Cultural Revolution.
Two sets had existed before that time; the local
Guard
in each
could
In
a solo
Province, we commissioned
City, Hunan
a
Liu
glove puppet performance
by
Yongzhang,
sixteenth-generation,
Inheritor
national-level
of Intangible
Cultural
Heritage.
Thought
extinct until 2002, this form of one-man
puppetry would have disap
if itwere not for the efforts of Qin Baolai,
a retired
peared
completely
member
Shaoyang
of
the Cultural
trips to the remote
village
Bureau
of Shaoyang
nine
City. Qin made
a
of Yanwoling
in mountain
valley south of
of Puppetry
A Survey
343
in China
and eventually
tracked down
Shaoyang
as a
at
the river port
longshoreman
ing
records, an ancestor of the Liu family
in 1663 with a
from Jiangxi Province
who was work

Liu Yongzhang,
to clan
of Shaoyang. According
arrived
at this area
as a
refugee
set. Conve
puppetry
income for the family
nient and cheap, the art provided
supplementary
a
heirloom
for the men of
and eventually became
guarded
jealously
and ten pup
this clan village. The village had more
than a hundred
cen
nineteenth
end
of
the
"sets"
its
the
around
petry
during
heyday
remnants
of
the
had
Liu
and
his
Liu
brother
tury.
Yong'an
Yongzhang
one-man
two only surviving "sets" in the

located them.
village when Qin Baolai
Lui Yongzhang
is currently teaching this tradition to two students. We
observed
his performance
of Mountain
of theBlue Dragon,
supposedly
from Journey
Three Kingdoms.
derived
to theWest, as well
as a scene
from Romance
of the
one-man
"set" (Figure 6) ismost
puppetry
design of this
that used by the original glove puppetry
ingenious and may represent
or budaixi
The budaixi in Taiwan, Fujian,
"cloth
(literally
bag drama").
The
to
and Zhejiang
all feature noncollapsible
stages with no relationship
a
one-man
in
cloth bags. We saw
show at Shanmenzhen
glove puppet
an elaborate
in
Ye
Province
the
Fuzhao
by
sixty-five-year-old
Zhejiang
Figure
5. Preparing
for a Siping marionette
performance.
(Photo: Bradford
Clark)
IHiHiHiHiHiHE*
H^H^H^H^H^H^H^HI^H^H^H^H^H^H^HHH^HiHIH^HHH^HEHî*3n^Hr
*SHHKH^H^H^H^H^H?^-M^^22!!ÎibHP**':
?_^H^H^H^H^H^H^H^HHHHHHSH|HH^H^H^H|^H^H^H^H|HH
Figure
6. Liu Yongzhan's
HS-IHH^HHHl-!???^îssis~
collapsible
"
:Wm
stage. (Photo: Bradford Clark)
in China
of Puppetry
A Survey
345
instruments and
stationary stage. The entire stage, with all the musical
can
a
in
be folded into bag and wrapped
puppets of Liu's "set," however,
can be stuffed with cotton
an
that
floral
"blanket"
cloth
sheet
(a
indigo
the stage and which an itinerant performer
can then be car
traveling (Figure 7). This arrangement
on
a
to
is used
ried
shoulder pole, which
prop up the stage and can
serve as a weapon,
is carried
ifnecessary. The puppeteer's
small bench
in the winter)
can use when
that adorns
on the bench within the

pole. Sitting
to
instruments and
different
booth,
percussion
a wooden
He
with a foot pedal as
played percussion
clapper by strings.
he performed,
puppets,
singing, and pro
simultaneously manipulating
on
the other
Liu's
end of the shoulder
feet were
attached
a whistle
inside his mouth
(a puppet
to a British Punch and
the
similar
world,
throughout
of two thin pieces of pork bone, the
swazzle). Made
Judy performer's
whistle could create music as well as simulate sounds of all kinds, such
viding
device
dialogues.
common
He
often used
as those of animals, birds, wind, rain, and battles.

the
As many of Liu's
teachers' puppets were destroyed during
from
the
collection
he rebuilt
Cultural Revolution,
memory.
largely
character designs were based
that the charming
presumed
that they were his own innova
but
Liu
old
models,
upon very
explained
animation.
influenced
tions,
by contemporary
Clark
Figure
had
7. Liu Yongzhan's
stage ready for travel. (Photo: Bradford Clark)
346
Chen and Clark
A most
areas of
form of puppetry
is found inmountain
nuo
a
of
ritual
named
ancient
exorcist
where
type
unusual
northern
Sichuan,
a
survives.
Considered
drama, this par
tiyangxi
"living fossil" of Chinese
ticular type of nuo ritual-drama
consists of three components:
thirty-two
dei
tianxi (heavenly dramas),
involving string puppets
representing
and
ties; thirty-two dixi (earthly dramas),
by both masked
performed
renxi (human dramas), humorous
unmasked
characters; and numerous
actors. We
inter
and lewd skits performed
late at night by unmasked
the twelfth-generation
Inheritor in the region of She
viewed Li Dafu,
Sichuan Province),
Prefecture,
(Yuanba District, Guangyuan
jianxiang
he and other villagers used the clan hall altar and string puppets
the arrival of the deities. Liu Xiaofen
(from the cultural
us to the cultural bureau
of Shejian
bureau
of Yuanba)
accompanied
where
to demonstrate
received us and dispatched

which graciously
(under her jurisdiction),
officials to take us to Longhui
Village, where Li Dafu resided. These
rituals are rarely performed
these days, but the local cultural bureau
very kindly provided
us with a
videorecording
of a performance.
themselves for conduct
Occasionally
opportunities
presented
In
that was not necessarily
related to puppetry.
ing valuable fieldwork
in
of
also
this
mountainous
Prefecture,
Wangcang
County
Guangyuan
were made
for us to observe
region of northern Sichuan, arrangements
a ritual nuo
that featured masked
actors, but not puppets.
performance
to take place
The shaman priest arranged
in an
for the performance
ancient temple at the top of a mountain.
To get there entailed
traveling
two different cars and a one-and-a-half-hour
hike up treacherous,
by
roads. We returned at midnight
in pitch dark
barely existing mountain
ness, aided by one large flashlight for each group of five or six people.
The physical challenges
(Chen twisted her knee and
notwithstanding
and
Professor
Ye
would
have
tumbled
down the mountain
twice
ankle,
if a strong young man had not kept a constant hold on his
backpack),
the performance
turned out to have been one of highlights of the trip.
Professor Ye later conjectured
that our host may have desired
that we
as
we
be kept some distance
were
from populated
to
witness
areas,
and document
rituals (such as the exorcism of evil spirits) that nor
should
for religious purposes.

The
only have been performed
our
well
have
felt
to
that
isolation
could
minimize
priest may very
help
to his
should negative
damage
professional
reputation
repercussions
result (the unnecessary
invocation of gods and spirits being potentially
mally
dangerous).
The
performance
invited and bid farewell
involved
liturgical chanting, rituals that both

to deities, and skits
actors accom
by masked
In addition,
the priest directed
several stunts
an orchestra.
by
With
the aid of prayers,
(Figure 8).
panied
"holy water,"
and
the blood
from a
Figure 8. Making
ford Clark)
a nwo ritual performance.

offerings during
(Photo: Brad
348
Chen and Clark
to con
(the priest bit its comb and used the resulting blood
over a
secrate paper, which was subsequently
burned),
acolytes walked
a wok of
in
their
hands
knife
immersed
of
twelve
blades,
bridge
sharp
red rooster
over a bed of burning coals, and glided the bottoms of

boiling oil, tread
over
a
that the "secret"
their feet
red hot iron plow. The priest claimed
resided in his sprinkling of "holy water," which he consecrated
through
ritual.
events were
of the most
however, many
exciting
shows performed with their requisite religious rituals and participants
us.
for the benefit of locals, rather than those performed
solely for
to
Chinese
their
have
theatres, probably owing
puppet
always
antiquity,
a pup
more
been considered
sacred than human
theatres. Whenever
Ultimately,
pet troupe
the human
and
a human
theatrical
opera
troupe perform for the same event,
troupe has to defer to the former and refrain
from starting until the puppet

has begun.
Some
tradi
performance
so sacred that women
are forbidden
to touch
tions consider puppets
of a
them. Yang Li, daughter
of a shadow figure carver and manager
in
located
Lanzhou
for
the
of
Gansu
publicity company
city
Qingyang,
shadow plays herself, but carefully refrained from
performed
the
trunk
she arranged
for us to see and pho
of the puppets
touching
store that fea
tograph. A small theatre was housed within the company
tured specialties of Qingyang.
Like the puppeteers
of Xiaoyi, Shanxi,
Province,
those inQingyang performed puppet plays during the daytime and
plays at night. The government-sponsored

publicity company
would hire different local troupes from around Qingyang
to
perform
in Lanzhou,
at this "publicity"
the capital city of the province. Although
shadow
the traditionally performed

religious playlets and rituals were
the
of
red
cloth on the puppet
trunks; the
(including
spreading
a
a
to the wor
bowl of the cooked meat
goat and offering of
killing of
the
of
and
mock
and
candles,
incense,
money;
shipped god;
burning
the setting off of firecrackers),
beliefs
The
young
religious
persisted.
and manager
told us of an evening when a young
college graduate
woman
sat on a shadow puppet
trunk. That night the
unknowingly
theatre
absent
light bulb flickered and burnt out so many times that the performance
could not continue.
burned mock money
and
Finally, the performer
prayed to thepatron god of their theatre.The lightbulb flickeredonce

and
then all was
fine for the rest of the

evening.
so condemned
before
the 1980s
Religion
by communism
that some rituals can no longer be
At
performed.
Yanlingtou
Village of
a
City, Fujian, we interviewed Jiang Anmin,
Pucheng
101-year-old
(by
one
Chinese
life as one year old) marionette
reckoning where
begins
a
performer who described
closing ritual, but this Inheritor of Intan
was
Cultural
to perform when we
unable
it.
gible
Heritage
requested
was
of Puppetry
A Survey
349
in China
at the end of the Zhuanzixi

shows of Pucheng,
Traditionally,
puppet
a puppet
the main puppeteer,
in hand, would
exorcize
evil spirits by
to
the
of
drum
and
beats. After
stomping fiercely
gong
accompaniment
a small stool and
the curtain from the stage area out of his way,

then throw the puppet away,
sending it flying off across the
to
of
the
end
the
exorcistic
ritual.
punctuate
stage
to survive. The most
Other rituals managed
religiously oriented
shows we observed were performed
in remote regions in south
puppet
ern China. Near
the city of Putian, Fujian Province, we attended
two
a
to
ensure
of
ritual
intended
the
welfare
of
and
bless
days
three-day
of Huang
Yuanxin
and thirty-eight members
ings from the ancestors
kicking
he would
of his clan. The
complex
three-day event, held for the first time since
the days of Huang's
took a year to prepare and cost
great-grandfather,
than
The rituals were conducted
70,000-80,000
$10,000).
yuan (more
a local
of
sect
(Three-in-One
by priests
Sanyijiao
Religion),
religious
that combines
elements
of Confucianism,
and Buddhism.
Taoism,
Elaborate
roomsful of palanquins,
servants, and
offerings
(including
were
to appease
modern
all
made
of
burned
houses,
fancy
paper)
ancestors.
the
Extensive
rituals atoned for the ancestors'
sins, helping
them to attain salvation and, consequently,
to find themselves
in a bet
ter
to assist their
surviving descendants.
rituals performed
priests alternated with
by the Sanyijiao
a
troupe that served equally ritualis
performances
by
string puppet
tic functions. Unlike most operatic performances
(all traditional dra
are
in
mas, including the puppet
theatres,
nature), which are
operatic
to entertain the deities, the puppets
secular in content but performed
position
The
com
represented
specific deities and told their stories. The
of
Chen
the
first
pany
Deyao,
seventh-generation
performer, spent
day
the filial, pious monk who travels into
the story of Mulian,
performing
themselves
the underworld
in order
to save his sinful mother
from the fires of hell
when Mulian
reaches hell
(Plate 6). At the point of the performance
to save his mother, members
of the sponsoring
knelt
before the
family
atonement
for the sins of their own ancestors as
stage and beseeched
well. The popular
tale with associated
ritual serves as an inspirational
tale of filial loyalty.
Chen
motorcycle,
Deyao's
returned
small group of string puppeteers,

the next day to perform an episode
traveling by
from the god
dess Chen Jinggu cycle,Beidouxi, inwhich thisdeity helps an empress
ensures
the health of the imperial heir. This play pro
give birth and
a ritual that
vided the context for performing
helps children "pass the
or
of
life. This ritual is typi
difficult
junctures
guan"
through
proceed
of the marionette
after the conclusion
play and provides
cally presented
of the troupe,
extra income for the puppeteers.
To the disappointment
350
Chen and Clark
however, only one rather weak-looking

child, alternately carried by his
cer
in this post-performance
mother
and grandmother,
participated
name
one
recited the
of the child, and
emony. The puppet-goddess
of his T-shirts was
over the
Flower
ritually paraded
stage's Hundred
a
of
with
Chinese
paper
by
bridge-shaped
piece
Bridge
(represented
the ceremony on stage, carried by
The child then joined
characters).
on stage as part of the
A live rooster also appeared
his grandmother.
proceedings.
We
observed
two days of this three-day event, during which

the daylight hours. Other
than a
the troupe performed
throughout
the mari
few curious children, we were the only ones who watched
onette plays, as most of the family members
focused
their attention
as the
the priests. This was understandable,
highly theatrical (and
not
chanted
but also
and danced,
only
frequently humorous)
priests
At times the
directed
the family through their roles in the ceremonies.
upon
in a figure-eight pattern, with some carrying

on their steeds
large paper sculptures of warriors
(Figure 9). Represent
to
these
would
later
be
burned
and dispatched
ing messengers,
figures
the spirit world.
priests
ran and
leaped
between puppetry
Indeed, the close association
(the marionette
in
of
is
remark
rural
and
ritual
troupes
Fujian
particular)
particularly
Figure
9. Messengers
to the spiritworld.
(Photo: Bradford Clark)
of Puppetry
A Survey
in China
351
in southern
China. Because
of local religious needs, Chen Deyao's
more
than
five
hundred
shows a year. He, his wife, and
troupes present
other members
of his troupes often perform at different venues dur
same
are
for the usual
ing the
day. Not only
performances
sponsored
more
remote
in
of
the
deities,
but,
purpose
regions, we also
delighting
able
found
"ritual specialist" puppeteers,

who wielded
powers
supernatural
enactments
of
the
tales
of
through
specific deities. Some puppeteers,
to help the deceased
like Chen Deyao, use puppet performances
gain
and weak children

thrive; others have been known to bring
some
are
even
while
ordained
shamanistic
rain,
priests who combine
rituals with puppet performances.
In the village of Xiahouyang,
in Taishun
County of southern
we watched Xu Maobao
Province,
perform Subduing theSouth
Zhejiang
salvation
(Shou nanshe), another episode from the life cycle of the goddess
Chen Jinggu. The shaman-puppet
performer had originally planned
to present a play about Li Bo, the Tang poet, for us. But when Profes
sor Ye instead
an
from the mythical
tales of Chen
requested
episode
Snake
this play, the pup

Before performing
acquiesced.
peteer ritually cleansed himself by washing his face and hands. A table
an altar was set in front of the stage. As soon as the god
representing
on the
dess Chen Jinggu entered
(Figure 10), the candles and incense
altar were lit and wine poured. This play is so traditional and religious
Jinggu,
the shaman
are now allowed

to perform marionette
that although women
shows,
are
in
of
Chen
the
from
performance
they
participating
prohibited
was known
that
her
father
also
told
Chen
Xu's
tales.
Jinggu
daughter
to request for
particularly efficacious when using this play
in
the episode
he performed
often ended whenever
rain?droughts
which Chen Jinggu requests rain.
The Chen Jinggu cycle is one of six religious plays known as the
Six Caves
traditionally by shaman priests in north
(liudong) performed
ern Fujian and southern Zhejiang. We watched
another play?about
to have been
a snake?from
this series of mythical
tales in
god transformed from
in
of
the mountain
District,
Fujian.
Qingshui
Huangjingshan
village
the home of fourth
Creation of theImmortals (Duxianji) was performed
Hua. His second
string puppet performer and priest Wang
generation
a
a
owns
town nearby that sells religious
store in
son, Wang Maoyuan,
services as a shamanic
accoutrements
and, like his father, also provides
a
priest
and
served as the main pup

string puppeteer. Wang Maoyuan
rituals that (according
the associated
not only conducted
peteer. He
to an almanac)
at 5:00 am for that particular day, but also

of the household,
the women
feeding us,
of
and
the
of
the
his family, the official sponsor
six, most
show,
troupe
and relatives.
of whom were musicians
cooked
elaborate
had
to begin
meals
with
Figure
10. The goddess Chen Jinggu.
A Survey
of Puppetry
353
in China
as repay
The official sponsor commissioned
the performance
to the
for a vow that he had made
the 1980s (we
gods during
financial support). The sponsor's village home
additional
in
provided
ment
the mountains
had been
Although
different
the entire
sor. But,
in this case,
in danger of being
village has since been
destroyed
relocated
a
by mudslide.
to a town in a
to repay his vow, which had

felt obligated
county, this man
saved his home more
than twenty years before. Traditionally,
the rituals
and the performance
should have been done at the home of the spon
the priest-puppeteer
Wang
at his own home without
Hua
agreed
to have
the participation
and
were
who
daughters-in-law,
busy
and lived at theWangs',
along with
everything performed
assistance
of the sponsor's
sons and
working. The sponsor came alone

some of the performers.
one stone by
Wang Hua killed two birds with
Tian,
selecting to perform for two days around the birthday of Marshall
the patron god who iswidely worshiped

of theatres in
by practitioners
as
a
and
and
who
has
Taiwan,
Fujian
protector for
special significance
in
and
the
many villages
Quanzhou
city quarters
region. Wang Hua
for this patron god of string puppetry
would have performed
regard
for the rituals began
the night before. Robin
less, and preparations
Ruizendaal,
of Marshal
inMarionette
Tian
Theatre in Quanzhou, discusses

the importance
in
that
his puppet manifestation,
Tian's
and observes
of wishes to the gods, requests for

ritualistic roles (the communication
to those of a
boons, and protective exorcistic functions) are equivalent
are dedicated
to him, and his ritual effectiveness
Daoist priest. Temples
a
is such that his presence
is often invoked before beginning
religious
event (Ruizendaal
2006: 182-183).
was
for the occasion
The choice of the play to be performed
on
the
himself.
Two
flat
decided
tallies,
horn-shaped
by
god
ultimately
one side and known as gaobei, were tossed upon the floor whenever
the
of one tally with
The combination
wishes of deities were consulted.
the flat side up and one with the flat side down indicated agreement
so
by the deity. Creation of the Immortals, the Snake King tale, involved
to
reluctant
Hua
been
had
rituals
that
many
perform
Wang
previously
the associated
difficulties. Pro
Tian apparently understood
it.Marshall
twice during Marshall
Tian's birthday
visited Wang Hua
Tian opted for the per
in the past, and both years Marshall
of Beidouxi, the previously mentioned
episode from the Chen
fessor Ye had
celebration
formance
on the part
after much
prompting
Jinggu cycle. This year, however,
the
with
consulted
of Professor Ye, Wang Hua
god concerning
again
Tian finally
of Creation of the Immortals, and Marshall
the performance
consented.
When
performance,
he
we arrived
told us
at Wang Hua's
the day before the
home
the play's per
that he had almost canceled
354
Chen and Clark
was unable
Fortunately, he
to
out
his
carry
promise.
responsibility
Creation of theImmortals (Figure
formance.
to reach
Professor
Ye and
felt a
11) is the story of the Jiaomang,

means
the Snake King or Snake God
(shewang, which
king and deity;
as a demon).
to
he
is
also
referred
one's
upon
perspective,
depending
a
Unlike other snakes, however, Jiaomang
vegetarian diet, eating
keeps
leaves rather than the flesh of animals and humans. As a
dead banana
transforms him into a handsome
result, the Goddess
young
Guanyin
man. He marries a human girl, and members
of his family all eventually
this tale to be a mythification
of the
immortals. Chen considers
become
Snake People
of Fujian
of the indigenous
(the Yue People,
to
to
them
be their ancestors)
snakes and considered
who worshipped
conversion
the mainstream
civilization and their intermarriage with the Han Chi
nese. After his transformation,
that Guanyin
the Snake King discovers
has forgotten to give him the ability to hear. This may be a reference
to
to both the earless nature of snakes and the Snake King's
inability
understand
the
mance's
language
of
The perfor
civilization.
the
gunpowder
day poured
throughout
the extraordinarily
loud vertical cannon.
the dominant
sponsor periodically
into a steel pipe, then fired
blasts were presumably
These deafening
the only sounds audible
to him the celebration
of his story.
Snake God, announcing
Starting
nearby hillside
to the
dawn, the priest and performers went out to a

tree. Using a portable
to seek out a wild banana
altar
before
Figure 11. The Snake King

Bradford Clark)
(on throne) in The Creation of theImmortals. (Photo:
A Survey
of Puppetry
355
in China
to inhabit
nearby, the priest ritually invited the Snake God
the tree through a ceremony that lasted more
than half an hour. As the
sun rose, the Snake God,
tree, was taken
represented
by the banana
a wall in full view of
back toWang Huang's
home and placed
against
established
the stage. He/it was to stay there until the end of the show, a day later,
and be sent back with due ceremony. Offerings of food, wine, candles
to Marshall
on a
incense
Tian and the Snake God were placed
table in front the stage. Aside from setting off the cannon,
the sponsor
was
a brazier with cakes made of tea seeds from
for
responsible
stoking
and
which
oil had been
performance
and incense,
ebrate events
and
the smoke alive throughout

the
extracted, keeping
of Creation of the Immortals. The sponsor also lit candles
burned mock money, and set off firecrackers to help cel
taking place
the birth of his sons.
on stage, such as the Snake King's marriage
which was attended

day of the two-day performance,
only by the sponsor, Wang Hua's
family, and ourselves. The day's per
at around 9 pm?precisely
formance concluded
where the story ended
We
saw one
as all knew that the

to be of no great concern,
for the day appeared
in
the
would
performance
morning.
pick up again
a break, we heard the sounds of a local opera
perform
During
a
path, discov
ing farther up the mountain. We followed the sound up
some of the
ered a small stage facing a temple, and stayed to observe
as part of a
celebration.
Local
took
which
temple
performance,
place
are better
opera companies
paid than puppet
their size and the expense of their costumes and
a source of income
can
provide
performances
season. We were also fortunate to attend several
of
because
companies
accoutrements.
Their
for farmers
other
in the off
local opera
per
in various locations, including one by a professional
formances
troupe
that took
to pass by in Putian, and another
at a village we happened
two
one end of a wooden
at
covered
bridge
(Figure 12). The
place
were
western
we
remote
in
in
that
the
observed
Fujian
troupes
region
of the
for two or three days in celebration
troupes performing
to the
performers,
birthdays of deities. The sponsors provided meals
and at one of the locations we were invited to join them.
the previously men
and scenic elements
Costumes
(including
as
could be quite
tioned inkjet printouts used
full-stage backdrops)
amateur
one end of the covered bridge

(the other end of the
impressive. On
a shrine), vertical electronic displays flanked the stage,
housed
bridge
the lyrics sung by the opera singers. These
songs tended to
presenting
even for the locals.
than the dialogue,
be more difficult to understand
that we observed were young adults, audiences
While many performers
almost always consisted of either the very old or the very young?the
to be at work.
was
middle
presumed
generation
Figure
12. Opera
ford Clark)
company performing on a covered bridge.
(Photo- Brad
of Puppetry
A Survey
357
in China
the scope of our research,

puppetry was beyond
a
encounter
in
with
Province,
family
Nanyue, Hunan
serendipitous
a local shadow
a household
led to us commissioning
by
purification
While
shadow
for the perfor

troupe. The family invited us to dinner and arranged
mance
to take place within hours. Performed
at their home
by Wang
the event attracted many
and Wang Xinmin,
Donglin, Wang Yueqiu,
and
neighbors
allowed
intended
performance
Since antiquity,
us
a rare, authentic
of a
example
of evil influences
(Figure 13).
of
been known for their worship
to observe
for the exorcism
southerners
have
on
(both being spirits whose nomenclature
depends
ghosts
in this remote region of Hunan
like to have
one's point of view). People
con
so
had
who
often.
their homes
"cleansed"
Chen,
every
previously
ducted extensive field research on shadow theatre traditions, was aware
and deities
of its close
with religion. But

rituals (including
the numerous
connection
this was
the first time she had
the setting off of firecrackers

and the chanting
and incense)
and burning of candles, mock money
and exorcism of spirits before
of spells associated
with the welcoming
the main puppeteer
and after the performances.
Interestingly enough,
was very hesitant to discuss the clearly exorcistic aspects of the perfor
observed
a ritual
wooden
mance,
(a two-hundred-year-old
ling
object
although
in
chi [literally, "a ruler used for giving orders," a ritual object used
was
to
home.
in
from
the
order
struck
banish
exorcism]
ghosts
loudly
Figure
13. Shadow performance
including exorcist rituals. (Photo: Bradford
Clark)
358
Chen and Clark
At the end of our 2008 survey, we traveled to the small village

in Shanghang,
of Shuizhuyang,
within the township of Baisha
Fujian,
a
to attend
festival commemorating
the birthday of Marshall
Tian, the
theatre in Fujian. This village claims to

patron god of the marionette
in western Fujian and houses
be the originating
location for puppetry
Tian. The
the only shrine in the region dedicated
solely to Marshall
a
evening before the birthday, the event began with
string puppet per
the next day at daybreak with
14) and continued
(Figure
to be consumed
ritual chicken and duck sacrifices
(the meat
during
formance
lunch and dinner
that day), bowing, chanting, candle lighting, incense

the day and
offering, and the burning of mock money. Throughout
into the night, four string puppet companies
from neighboring
villages
plays sequentially.
presented
Unlike many of the performances
that we had previously wit
were
audiences.
these
well attended
Students
nessed,
by enthusiastic
were bused
in during the day, and local
string puppetry
one of the master puppeteers.
students performed,
trained
with
having
In two days of remarkable
and skill
events, we found the enthusiasm
of traditional
exhibited
Figure
by the students
14. Performance
to be
especially
in honor of Marshall
moving.
Tian.
of Puppetry
A Survey
The
festival concluded
This
puppetry
(960-1280)
359
in China
with
a remarkable
display of fireworks
in Song dynasty
extinct until recent years. The
form was mentioned
(yaofa muou).
sources, but itwas presumed
erected a tower, and as fireworks
their way
villagers
ignited and worked
its
from
differ
and
up
spun. Sparks spewed
length, puppets
dropped
ent parts of the figures, including a fish's mouth
and the body of a
see this event. Such

were
monkey. We
especially fortunate to
rare even in this
spectacles have become
extremely
region, where they
have survived; this performance
almost did not happen
due to a coun
of
the
sale
trywide prohibition
against
gunpowder
during the time of
urinating
soon after our first summer's field

the 2008 Olympics
(which began
remote region who
A specialist from an even more
work concluded).
had access to the materials
needed
for making
the fireworks was hired
in the staging of this grand finale. While

the mar
were
the
the
troupes gratuitously,
performances
provided
by
on
local government
this particular
fire
spent 10,000 yuan ($1,450)
works show. More
than a thousand
from
vil
spectators
neighboring
to direct
ionette
the villagers
for this once-in-a-lifetime

lages gathered
spectacle.
to build a cultural center in
is planning
The
local government
the village, with hopes
that young performers will train there, as they
some of the schools. The

do during extracurricular
day after
activity in
in a conference,
the conclusion
of the festival, we participated
with
related to traditional
scholars and local officials giving presentations
and place in the contemporary
world.
and its preservation
performance
the end of our trip in 2009, Professor Ye returned home
Toward
Figure
15. Young
ford Clark)
puppet
performers
in Shuizhuyang Village.
(Photo: Brad
360
Chen and Clark
to Fuzhou,
Province
in the south. We
and we went on to Guangdong
a retired member
were
of
the
Ma
Pup
Guangdong
Xingzhi,
guided by
petry Troupe. A renowned
figure in the puppetry world of Guangdong
Ma Xingzhi and his daughter Ma Junru graciously planned

and drove us from Guangzhou
the arrangements,
itinerary, made
on the island
to
western
down
County
Lin'gao
Guangdong,
through
a county museum
featured
of
that
the history
Hainan.
When
province
and Hainan,
our
was closed the

theatres inwestern Guangdong
and forms of rod puppet
we visited, Mr. Ma made a
day
phone call and the deputy director of the
the gate for us and gave us a private tour.

museum, Ye Caiping,
opened
The puppetry
traditions of Zhanjiang
City in western Guang
County may be much more closely
dong Province and those of Lin'gao
than hitherto
related
the latter distinguishes

recognized,
although
both the rod puppets
and puppeteers
appear
use of a curtain to conceal
the
the
without
tongtai)
itself as a form in which

on
(ren'ou
In fact, many rod puppet
traditions such as the Large
manipulators.
of
Sichuan
and
those we saw in Shaanxi
(mentioned
above)
Puppets
and Gansu
feature both the puppets
and the puppeteers
fully visible
stage
to
asked about the use of a curtain in what appeared
stage. When
be a conventional
the director of
booth, Li Huazhong,
rod-puppet
the troupe that performed
for us at Longtang
in Zhanjiang,
Village
on
our benefit
to use the curtain
that he decided
(as
explained
only for
was
a
more
manner
to
this
be
of presentation)
and
thought
elegant
that usually the audience
that they perform without
it.
preferred
Both
the Zhanjiang
and
the
traditions
City
Lin'gao
worship
as their patron deity, as does the Cantonese
the god Huaguang
opera.
reason, in both locations only an

significantly, and for whatever
or
are used for any
odd number of performances
days (from 3 to 11)
event.
single
More
A brief visit with Chen
village of Yunxia,
for local troupes,
Kangqing,
who both
a rod puppet
carver in the
and carves puppets
restores
Guandong,
us
the artistry and craftsmanship
helped
appreciate
behind the figures. Torsos were either carved from wood or woven from
cane, like a basket, which results in a much
lighter figure (Figure 16).
We were especially
impressed by the simple, elegant head mechanisms
that could move
the eyes in the directions
required.
we chanced
in Guangzhou,
While
restaurant,
upon a Hainan
where we had lunch and chatted with the
about rod
cook-proprietor
theatres in Lin'gao, whence
he came. The art form was so pop
puppet
was
ular in Lin'gao
that
he
convinced
that a troupe would be
County
no matter when we went.
contact
the cultural bureau,"
performing
"Just
he said; "All the troupes have to be
registered, and they have to report
all their performances
to the local
government."
Surely
enough,
the
Figure
16. Puppet
ford Clark)
from the workshop
of Chen Kangqing.
(Photo: Brad
362
Chen and Clark
day we arrived at Lin'gao, Minister Lin of Public Relations

personally
drove us to a nearby village where a troupe was to perform for the
In this case, the first
celebration.
fourth night of a five-performance
Lin opera, performed
three nights had presented
by actors, and the
last two nights were to be celebrated with the less expensive
rod puppet
theatre.
to cancel the per

director of the troupe, however, decided
that day, due to the forecasted arrival of a typhoon. Since the
we went in any case,
typhoon ended up not arriving after all,
hoping
still
that the performance
take
The
might
place.
villagers apparently
had the same idea. The open
space in front of the permanent
stage
The
formance
was almost
filled with villagers who brought their own fold

completely
and
stools.
Behind
the audience,
under a canopy and facing
chairs
ing
the stage, sat statues of the village clan ancestors and their attendants.
The village shrine in which
the ancestor-deities
resided was
normally
to one side of the open space. All the puppets

in
(seventeen
our
were
within the dark shrine. To
the
all)
surprise, Wang
Leiguo,
director of the troupe, was a woman,
and she and four other female
of the troupe slept in the shrine, as was traditional
members
(Chen had
situated
this custom, but did not expect to see it).Wang

our request to
a
Leiguo
graciously obliged
perform
couple of excerpts,
to put on an entire
but was unable
since
(aside from two
performance
read about
previously
the male
performers, having previously been notified of the

of the performance,
stayed home for the day (Figure 17).
wore beautiful
The female puppeteers
red traditional perfor
mance
costumes. What
us the most, however, was the
surprised
impro
nature
of the tradition. According
to the director,
visational
she
musicians)
cancelation
the tunes from her master

learned
and then made
up new lyrics for
her plays; most were likely based on familiar formulaic patterns. She
could conceivably weave our visit into a new play. Although
all her plays
were based on traditional tales she had heard, her audiences
required
that she create new (albeit traditional-style)
plays each year. She would
create them and teach them to the members
of her troupe, who are
all masters
presumably
dramatic
troupes once
and stylized.
Situated
dialect
other
of improvisation
and coordination
were before the various traditions
as Chinese
became
set
across
a
from Vietnam,
the residents of Lin'gao
speak
different
from
the
Minnan
dialect
the
very
spoken throughout
This major
in their dialect, which
difference
parts of Hainan.
renders
the older
of comprehending
entertain
generation
incapable
for the immense popularity
of
television, may account
the local Lin opera and rod puppetry among
the residents of Lin'gao.
from the government
Aside
that now performs mostly Lin
troupe
ment
on
local
Figure
17. Improvised rod puppet performance
in Lin'gao.
(Photo: Bradford
Clark)
364
Chen and Clark
opera, Lin'gao
teen members
is served by six puppetry

County
each and four Lin opera troupes.
troupes
of at least six
Conclusion
Professor Ye, who spent years gaining
the respect and trust of
a very
his contacts, has developed
and
methodical
respectful
protocol
when carrying out his research, and the rest of us were careful to follow
his
It should
lead.
be noted
to these performances
their honor
in having
being
some
that we were
always welcomed
graciously
our hosts often
and
ceremonies,
expressed
visitors from far away attend, with Clark often
and
the first (non-ethnically

Chinese)
a remote
places,
including
village
to ever set foot in

foreigner
the
of
among
deep mountains
from the recent opening
of many
central Fujian. We greatly benefited

cities and villages that had been previously closed to
as well
foreigners,
as
in China's
that greatly
infrastructure
developments
transportation
increased
the efficiency of our travel schedule.
We
western
shadow
had
Hunan
to miss
only two performances?a

the life of Guanyin
depicting
rod puppet
show in
and a rod puppet
and
theatre performance
in Xiaoyi City, Shanxi Province. The for
mer was
a
a
in
performed
village in militarily sensitive zone that barred
the entry of foreigners. Professor Ye and his
student meticu
graduate
us.
documented
the
for
The
latter
lously
performance
performance
was canceled
because
members
of a local cultural bureau,
alarmed
flu epidemic
as
of 2009, feared
by the growing H1N1
foreigners such
ourselves might be dangers
to public health. However,
such incidences
were very rare.
Many of those we met had not had previous contact with
were
Local
scholars
foreigners, yet
extremely open and welcoming.
their
shared
and
other
research
materials
time, books,
generously
(as
much
is locally published
and distributed,
this was invalu
scholarship
almost always gave full permission
to film,
able), and performers
pho
and
Our
hosts often
tograph,
peek backstage
during performances.
invited us to meals.
Such personal
were the most memo
kindnesses
rable aspects of the entire

experience.
It is our
that this was the first time such a compre
understanding
hensive
three-dimensional
survey of Chinese
puppetry has ever been
undertaken. While we were able to document
a wide
variety of forms
of
more
which
deserve
much
extensive documentation,
(all
especially
in English),
to be examined.
others remain
These
include
the wire
rod puppet
theatres of Fujian and
and
the
very rare rod
Guangdong,
of
the
ethnic
in the mountain
minorities
puppet performances
Qiang
Shaanxi
and Sichuan,
we found in
of
which
range bordering
figures
an
market
in
the
of
Xi'an.
In
we
the
that a
future,
open-air
city
hope
researcher
in Lanzhou,
us
on
an
lead
into
the
Gansu, may
expedition
A Survey
of Puppetry
365
in China
of some Qiang
tribes. The ethnic minorities
of China pos
sess their own rich
most
for
the
traditions,
part distinct
performance
from those we were able to document;
deserve
their own
they certainly
mountains
surveys. In the end, we felt utterly overwhelmed

by the richness of the
as well as the kindness of their
traditions we experienced,
practitioners;
we remain very excited
for
the
further
fieldwork.
by
potential
REFERENCE
Ruizendaal, Robin. 2006.
Marionette Theatre in Quanzhou. Leiden:
Brill. 182-183.

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A Survey of Puppetry in China (Summers 2008 and 2009)

Author(s): Fan Pen Li Chen and Bradford Clark

A Survey of Puppetry inChina

total of thirteen weeks, the authors

of 2008 and 2009, we accompanied

for the Arts (Fujian Yishu Yanjiuyuan),

hai, Jiangsu, Hunan,

Chen and Clark

(and often commissioned)

formers, puppet makers, and scholars; collected books

and other mate

stages, in open-air village venues, in ancestral clan halls, in family court

took place in a storage room. We expected

for small private

different degrees of success when

for many years. The

Chen and Clark

from the local cultural

territories. For example,

guaranteed living stipend. Ranging from 400 to 800 yuan ($59-118)

sum to peasant per

Chen and Clark

for state rec

Figure 2. Rod puppets perform domestic

scenes inTanshang, Hebei.

For many, their value lies in their ceremonial

are famous for

are trained. However,

Puppetry Troupe (Figure 3). Although puppetrywas often used in the

rendition of Thrice Beating theWhite

Folk Art Theatre's

Chen and Clark

of the official troupes. Before

that with modern

Figure 3. Members of theQuanzhou

rehearse The Red Lan

4. Qiao Guli demonstrates

rod puppetry manipulation.

Chen and Clark

The aggressive Monkey

of the puppets. One

and singing seemed

the difficulty of learning the

cadres destroyed half of the figures (different characters)

trips to the remote

who was work

two only surviving "sets" in the

for a Siping marionette

stage. (Photo: Bradford Clark)

on the bench within the

end of the shoulder

as those of animals, birds, wind, rain, and battles.

stage ready for travel. (Photo: Bradford Clark)

Chen and Clark

received us and dispatched

very kindly provided

for religious purposes.

liturgical chanting, rituals that both

a nwo ritual performance.

Chen and Clark

over a bed of burning coals, and glided the bottoms of

from starting until the puppet

those inQingyang performed puppet plays during the daytime and

plays at night. The government-sponsored