Project: Ceramic Tiles and Mosaic

Submitted To:

Dr. Muhammad Afzal Javaid

Submitted By:

Khalid Yousaf
Inayat
Faramarz Rahimi
Sayed Ahmed

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INTRODUCTION
What is Ceramics?
The word "ceramic" is derived from the Greek word (keramikos) meaning pottery. It is
related to the older Indo-European language root "to burn.
Ceramics:

Any of various hard, brittle, heat and corrosion

resistant materials made typically of

metallic elements

combined with oxygen or with carbon, nitrogen, or

sulfur. Most ceramics are crystalline and are poor
conductors of electricity, though some recently

discovered copper

oxide ceramics are superconductors at low temperatures.

The American Heritage Science Dictionary
Copyright 2002. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.
Ceramic engineering: Ceramic Engineering is the science and technology of creating objects
from inorganic, non-metallic materials. This is done either by the action of heat, or at lower
temperatures using precipitation reactions from high-purity chemical solutions. The term
includes the purification of raw materials, the study and production of the chemical
compounds concerned, their formation into components and the study of their structure,
composition and properties.

Ceramics Tiles
What are Ceramics Tiles?
A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, or even
glass, generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, showers, or other objects such as
tabletops. Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to similar units made from lightweight
materials such as perlite, wood, and mineral wool, typically used for wall and ceiling
applications. The word is derived from the French word tuile, which is, in turn, from the
Latin word tegula, meaning a roof tile composed of fired clay.
Tiles are often used to form wall and floor coverings, and can range from simple square tiles
to complex mosaics. Tiles are most often made of ceramic, typically glazed for internal uses
and unglazed for roofing, but other materials are also commonly used, such as glass, cork,
concrete and other composite materials, and stone. Tiling stone is typically marble, onyx,

granite or slate. Thinner tiles can be used on walls than on floors, which require more durable
surfaces that will resist impacts.
A tile is a piece of baked clay used in covering roofs, walls or floors. It is also a similar piece
of plastic material used for covering floors. On the other hand, Mosaic tiles is one type of tile.
It is used for the interior decoration or decorative art. Dictionary.com defines tiles as, a thin
slab or bent piece of baked clay, sometimes painted or gazed, used for various purposes, as to
form one of the units of a roof covering, floor, or revetment. Tile The word Tile is derived
from the French word tuile, which is, in turn, from the Latin word tegula, meaning a roof
tile composed of fired clay. Tiles are generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls or other
subjects such as the top of a table. Tiles are more suitable for harsher applications, such as
flooring. They are less likely to absorb moisture and stains which afterwards may become
difficult or impossible to remove. Tiles always play an important role when it comes to
interior dcor. Nowadays, ceramic tiles are more preferable for households dcor, as it is the
most effective and gives a beautiful effect to the room.
There are varieties of tiles and all vary in type and cost. It becomes a little tricky to choose a
right tile for a right place, from thousands of designs and colors. It becomes a difficult task
when you have to choose a tile for home, office, mall or airport.
Kingery, W.D., Bowen, H.K., and Uhlmann, D.R., Introduction to Ceramics, p. 690 (WileyInterscience, 2nd Edition, 2006)

TYPES OF TILES
The varieties of tiles are as follows:
1. Ceramic tiles
2. Metal tiles
3. Mosaic tiles
4. Vitrified tiles
5. Digital tiles
6. Stone tiles
7. Glazed Porcelain Tiles
8. Quarry Tile
We are concerned with Ceramics Tiles and Mosaic only.

What is Mosaic?
A mosaic is a style of art where a larger image is created by arranging bits of clay, glass, or
other materials in a pattern. More broadly, you can use this word to describe anything that is

made up of many different elements, such as the diverse group represented a mosaic of
different viewpoints.
Basically, Mosaic tiles are small tiles. The term mosaic was arrived in 1500 BC, when
ancients were used to design pictures using these tiles. In the earlier days, for about 2000
years ago, it was used for designing the walls with some pictures of humans or animals.
Greek and Roman mosaic and Christians mosaic are two types of Mosaic tiles. Mosaic tiles
are small tiles, generally 2" x 2" or smaller, and always less than six square inches in area.
They may be made from either a porcelain body or a clay body. Mosaic tiles may also be
made with other materials, including glass, metal and natural stone. In the older times, mosaic
tiles were used for the purpose of art. Small pieces, mostly a rough square, of stone or glass
of different colors, known as tesserae, are used to create a pattern or picture. Mosaic tiles are
usually used in the malls where they want to show someones picture. Its best quality is that it
does not overlap the image. There are numerous ranges of colors and patterns that if one goes
out to know more about this tile, he will definitely get confuse!
For home dcor, most of the people are afraid of using mosaic tiles. They feel its a bit tricky
and difficult to maintain, but that's not correct. It depends on the person and on how hes
going to take care of it because the possibilities which mosaic tiles can give are endless. It
gives a classy look and it is mostly used in the bathrooms or kitchens. It adds such a texture
to the room that its overwhelming.
Mosaic tiles, though more generally used for floors, are applied also on the walls. It gives
very rich designs to walls as well as to floors. On the other hand, tiles are very popular and
are more preferred than mosaic tiles. They are cheaper than mosaic tiles and seem to be more
user friendly because they need little maintenance.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOSAIC TILES:

GENERAL PURPOSE TILES:
These tiles are recommended for flooring in places where light loads are encountered such as
residential buildings, offices, schools, colleges, hospitals etc. Based on designs these tiles are
further classified as under:
DESIGNER TILES:
These tiles are mainly used in residential buildings and are very popular due to their designs
and colourful appearance. These tiles are locally named as Galicha tiles, Crazy tiles, Veins
tiles, Marble and Granite print tiles etc.
CHEQUERED TILES:

These tiles are used where non-skidding function is required such as foot paths, ramps,
passages, swimming pools, stair cases and entrances of the building etc. These tiles may be
with or without stone chips and pigments.
HEAVY DUTY TILES:
These tiles are recommended for heavy traffic conditions such as foot-paths, storage
godowns, car parkings, cinema halls, auditoriums and industrial floors etc.
These tiles are made with the use of quartz powder, quartz chips and ironite (Ferrous
substance) in place of marble powder and marble chips respectively. These tiles are
hydraulically pressed at higher pressure of more than 140 kg/cm2 (2000 PSI).

MANUFACTURING OF MOSAIC TILES

RAW MATERIALS:

J.K. White Cement

Ordinary Portland cement: Preferably 43 grade.
Marble Powder: 100 - 150 mesh, superior whiteness, free from dust and other foreign
impurities.
Aggregate:
(a) Facing Layer: The aggregate shall consist of good quality marble or other natural stone of
similar
Characteristics of adequate hardness, angular in shape as distinct from elongated and flaky. It
should be graded. It is important to keep fines or dust as low as possible.
(b) Backing Layer: Graded Natural stone or crushed gravel should be used as aggregate.
Sand: Natural coarse sand clean or duly cleaned.

Colouring Pigments: Synthetic inorganic pigments or cement colours/oxide colours, should

be used. Use of lead pigment is not recommended due to health reason. Pigment shall not
contain zinc compounds or organic dyes.
Water: Should be of potable quality, clean, free from salt, foreign impurities, dust, dirt, grease
etc.
PREPARATION OF MORTAR MIX:
The process for the manufacture of Mosaic tiles consists of three layers, the facing, the
intermediate and backing layers. The raw materials (cement, marble chips, marble powder,
colouring oxides, sand stone chips) are mixed according to the pre-determined proportions
thoroughly and mixture is kept separately on the platform of hydraulic/mechanical press for
ready use. The mixture for three layers is prepared in the following proportions:
1. Facing mixture Proportion
Grey cement

1.5

Marble chips

White cement

Marble powder

Colouring oxide

0.1 to 0.5%

2. Intermediate Mixture
Grey cement

Sand

3. Backing Mixture
Grey cement

Sand

Stone chips

Suitable iron moulds are fitted with the bottom plate of the press. The facing mixture is first
fed into the mould to a thickness of about 6.5mm and then intermediate and backing mixture
is spread over to the thickness of about 9mm each. The mixture is pressed under the pressure
of around 150kg/cm2. which varies according to the size of the tile. The tiles are taken out
from the moulds and kept for 24 hours for air setting and then immersed in water for curing
for a period of about 15days. The cured tiles, are then taken from the curing tank and kept in
shed for a period of about 4-5 days for drying. The tiles are then polished and ground on
super levelling machine.
After polishing, the tiles are given final touch of finish by hand and then sent to store for
dispatch.

Quality Control and Standards:

For maintaining uniformity in quality the following Indian standards specification may be
considered: IS 1237:1980 Cement concrete flooring tiles.
As per IS 1237:1980 the use of raw materials is divided into three forms viz. topping mixture,
intermediate mixture and backing mixture.
Production Capacity (per annum)
It is envisaged that unit will produce about 8 lakhs pieces of assorted sizes valued at Rs. 65,
00,000

Commercial Point of View:

Assorted metallic glass tiles sold in loose bags of approximately 150 tiles. Each mosaic tile is
3/4" x 3/4" and over 1/8" thick. The dimensions are the industry standard for vitreous glass
mosaic tiles. The backs of these mosaic tiles are embossed with ridges to help the glue bond
more securely. Our Mosaic Glass Cutter is the preferred tool for working with glass tile.
Supplies are limited and colors vary. These bags are special lots and do not necessarily
contain our standard metallic colors:
Dimensions: 3/4" x 3/4"
Thickness: 1/8" nominal
Coverage: 218 loose tiles cover 1 sq ft. with grout spacing of 1/16".
Frost-proof, impervious to liquid
Suitable for indoor/outdoor use

Mosaic Tiles Images

Price: Rs.1450/m2

Price: Rs.1370/m2

Price: Rs.1500/m2

Price: Rs.1670/m2

Companies dealing in Mosaic Tiles:

1. http://www.iglobal.co/pakistan/search/lahore-marble-mosaic-tiles

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

http://www.tradekey.com.pk/mosaic-tiles.htm
http://www.tradekey.com.pk/mosaic-tiles.htm
http://punjabtiles.com/
http://punjabtiles.com/
http://millatmarble.com/
http://millatmarble.com/
http://www.nationaltiles.com/

CERAMIC TILE
Background:
Wall and floor tile used for interior and exterior decoration belongs to a class of ceramics
known as white wares. The production of tile dates back to ancient times and peoples,
including the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians. For instance, the Step Pyramid
for the Pharaoh Djoser, built in ancient Egypt around 2600 B.C., contained colorful glazed
tile. Later, ceramic tile was manufactured in virtually every major European country and in
the United States. By the beginning of the twentieth century, tile was manufactured on an
industrial scale. The invention of the tunnel kiln around 1910 increased the automation of tile
manufacture. At present, tile manufacturing is highly automated.
The American National Standards Institute separates tiles into several classifications.
Ceramic tile may be either porcelain or of natural clay composition of size less than 39 cm2
(6 in.2). Decorative wall tile is glazed tile with a thin body used for interior decoration of
residential walls. Paver tile is glazed or unglazed porcelain or natural clay tile of size 39 cm2
(6 in.2) or more. Porcelain tile is ceramic mosaic tile or paver tile that is made by a certain
method called dry pressing. Quarry tile is glazed or unglazed tile of the same size as paver
tile,

but

made

by

different

forming

method.

Europe, Latin America, and the Far East are the largest producers of tile, with Italy the leader
at 16.6 million ft.2/day as of 1989. Following Italy (at 24.6 percent of the world market) are
Spain (12.6 percent), Brazil and Germany (both at 11.2 percent), and the United States (4.5
percent). The total market for floor and wall tile in 1990 according to one estimate was $2.4
billion.
The United States has approximately 100 plants that manufacture ceramic tile, which shipped
about 507 million ft.2 in 1990 according to the U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. imports,
by volume, accounted for approximately 60 percent of consumption in 1990, valued at
around $500 million. Italy accounts for almost half of all imports, with Mexico and Spain

following. U.S. exports have seen some growth, from $12 million in 1988 to about $20
million in 1990.
Because the tile industry is a relatively mature market and dependent on the building
industry, growth will be slow. The United States Department of Commerce estimates a three
to four percent increase in tile consumption over the next five years. Another economic
analysis predicts that 494 million ft.2 will be shipped in 1992, a growth of about 4 percent
from the previous year. Some tile manufacturers are a bit more optimistic; an American
Ceramic Society survey showed an average growth of around 36 percent per manufacturer
over the next five years.

The Manufacturing Process

Batching:
For many ceramic products, including tile, the body composition is determined by the amount
and type of raw materials. The raw materials also determine the color of the tile body, which
can be red or white in color, depending on the amount of iron-containing raw materials used.
Therefore, it is important to mix the right amounts together to achieve the desired properties.
Batch calculations are thus required, which must take into consideration both physical
properties and chemical compositions of the raw materials. Once the appropriate weight of
each raw material is determined, the raw materials must be mixed together.
Mixing and Grinding:
Once the ingredients are weighed, they are added together into a shell mixer, ribbon mixer, or
intensive mixer. A shell mixer consists of two cylinders joined into a V, which rotates to
tumble and mix the material. A ribbon mixer uses helical vanes, and an intensive mixer uses
rapidly revolving plows. This step further grinds the ingredients, resulting in a finer particle
size that improves the subsequent forming process (see step #4 below).
Sometimes it is necessary to add water to improve the mixing of a multiple-ingredient batch
as well as to achieve fine grinding. This process is called wet milling and is often performed
using a ball mill. The resulting water-filled mixture is called a slurry or slip. The water is then
removed from the slurry by filter pressing (which removes 40-50 percent of the moisture),
followed by dry milling.
Spray Drying:
If wet milling is first used, the excess water is usually removed via spray drying. This
involves pumping the slurry to an atomizer consisting of a rapidly rotating disk or nozzle.
Droplets of the slip are dried as they are heated by a rising hot air column, forming small, free
flowing granules that result in a powder suitable for forming.
Tile bodies can also be prepared by dry grinding followed by granulation. Granulation uses a
machine in which the mixture of previously dry-ground material is mixed with water in order
to form the particles into granules, which again form a powder ready for forming.
Forming:

Most tile is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powdercontaining
organic binder or a low percentage of moistureflows from a hopper into the forming die.
The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by the
bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with operating pressures as high as 2,500 tons.
Several other methods are also used where the tile body is in a wetter, more moldable
form. Extrusion plus punching is used to produce irregularly shaped tile and thinner tile faster
and more economically. This involves compacting a plastic mass in a high-pressure cylinder
and forcing the material to flow out of the cylinder into short slugs. These slugs are then
punched into one or more tiles using hydraulic or pneumatic punching presses.
Ram pressing is often used for heavily profiled tiles. With this method, extruded slugs of the
tile body are pressed between two halves of a hard or porous mold mounted in a hydraulic
press. The formed part is removed by first applying vacuum to the top half of the mold to free
the part from the bottom half, followed by forcing air through the top half to free the top part.
Excess material must be removed from the part and additional finishing may be needed.
Another process, called pressure glazing, has recently been developed. This process combines
glazing and shaping simultaneously by pressing the glaze (in spray-dried powder form)
directly in the die filled with the tile body powder. Advantages include the elimination of
glazing lines, as well as the glazing waste material (called sludge) that is produced with the
conventional method.
Drying:
Ceramic tile usually must be dried (at high relative humidity) after forming, especially if a
wet method is used. Drying, which can take several days, removes the water at a slow enough
rate to prevent shrinkage cracks. Continuous or tunnel driers are used that are heated using
gas or oil, infrared lamps, or microwave energy. Infrared drying is better suited for thin tile,
whereas microwave drying works better for thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying,
uses pulses of hot air flowing in the transverse direction instead of continuously in the
material

flow

direction.

Glazing:
To prepare the glaze, similar methods are used as for the tile body. After a batch formulation
is calculated, the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry or wet milled. The milled glazes
are then applied using one of the many methods available. In centrifugal glazing or discing,
the glaze is fed through a rotating disc that flings or throws the glaze onto the tile. In the
bell/waterfall method, a stream of glaze falls onto the tile as it passes on a conveyor

underneath. Sometimes, the glaze is simply sprayed on. For multiple glaze applications,
screen printing on, under, or between tiles that have been wet glazed is used. In this process,
glaze is forced through a screen by a rubber squeegee or other device.
Dry glazing is also being used. This involves the application of powders, crushed frits (glass
materials), and granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed tile surface. After firing, the glaze
particles melt into each other to produce a surface like granite.
Firing:
After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to strengthen it and give it the desired
porosity. Two types of ovens, are

After forming, the file is dried slowly (for several days) and at high humidity, to prevent
cracking and shrinkage. Next, the glaze is applied, and then the tile is fired in a furnace or
kiln. Although some types of tile require a two-step firing process, wet-milled tile is fired
only once, at temperatures of 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit or more. After firing, the tile is
packaged and shipped.
Kilns, are used for firing tile. Wall tile, or tile that is prepared by dry grinding instead of wet
milling (see #2 and #3 above), usually requires a two-step process. In this process, the tile
goes through a low-temperature firing called bisque firing before glazing. This step removes
the volatiles from the material and most or all of the shrinkage. The body and glaze are then
fired together in a process called glost firing. Both firing processes take place in a tunnel or
continuous kiln, which consists of a chamber through which the ware is slowly moved on a
conveyor on refractory battsshelves built of materials that are resistant to high temperatures
or in containers called saggers. Firing in a tunnel kiln can take two to three days, with
firing temperatures around 2,372 degrees Fahrenheit (1,300 degrees Celsius).

For tile that only requires a single firingusually tile that is prepared by wet millingroller
kilns are generally used. These kilns move the wares on a roller conveyor and do not require
kiln furnitures such as batts or saggers. Firing times in roller kilns can be as low as 60
minutes, with firing temperatures around 2,102 degrees Fahrenheit (1,150 degrees Celsius) or
more.
After firing and testing, the tile is ready to be packaged and shipped.
Byproducts:
A variety of pollutants are generated during the various manufacturing steps; these emissions
must be controlled to meet air control standards. Among the pollutants produced in tile
manufacture are fluorine and lead compounds, which are produced during firing and glazing.
Lead compounds have been significantly reduced with the recent development of no-lead or
low-lead glazes. Fluorine emissions can be controlled with scrubbers, devices that basically
spray the gases with water to remove harmful pollutants. They can also be controlled with dry
processes, such as fabric filters coated with lime. This lime can then be recycled as a raw
material for future tile.
The tile industry is also developing processes to recycle wastewater and sludge produced
during milling, glazing, and spray-drying. Already some plants recycle the excess powder
generated during dry-pressing as well as the overspray produced during glazing. Waste glaze
and rejected tile are also returned to the body preparation process for reuse.
References:

Bender, W. and F. Handle, eds. Brick and Tile Making: Procedures and Operating Practices in
the Heavy Clay Industries. Bauverlag GmbH, 1982.
Jones, J. T. and M. F. Berard. Ceramics: Industrial Processing and Testing. Iowa State
University Press, 1972.
Pellacani, G. and T. Manfredini. Engineered Materials Handbook. ASM International, 1991,
pp. 925-929.

SELECTION OF THE CERAMIC TILES DEPENDING ON

THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE TILES:

1. RESISTANCE TO ABRASION:
This is the basic parameter which should determine the choice of a floor tile for the given
premise. It specifies the resistance of the tile to mechanical damage resulting from the impact
of the abrasive factor. The greater the hardness of the tile is, the lower its susceptibility to
scratching, wear and tear during walking and abrasions etc. The resistance to abrasion is
specified according to PN-EN ISO 10545-7. It consists in the specification of the number of
rotations of the device that rubs the surface of the glazed tile after which the permanent traces
of abrasion become visible. According to this method, the tiles are divided into abrasion
resistance grades (PEI) with a specified number of rotations. Within the framework of each
grade, however, there is a great range of rotations; therefore, the following descriptions are
often used: weak three, strong three, weak four, strong four, etc.
2. FREEZE-RESISTANCE:
The ceramic tiles, which are to be laid out at places exposed to the impact of negative
temperatures, should have the declared freeze-resistance confirmed by the test according to
PN-EN ISO 10545-12.

3. THERMAL SHOCK RESISTANCE:

The ceramic tiles which can be subjected to the local sudden temperature change should have
the declared thermal shock resistance confirmed by the test according to PN-EN ISO 105459.
4. BENDING STRENGTH AND BREAKING FORCE:
To put it simply, these parameters specify at which stress, the tile is subject to breaking. It is a
particularly important parameter in case of the floor tiles, which are subjected to significant
mechanical loads, and abrasive tiles laid out in places, where stresses caused by the
movements of building walls can occur. The tests determining the bending strength and the
breaking force are performed according the test method specified in PN-EN ISO 10545-9.
5. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE:
Specifies the resistance of the tile to the impact of testing solutions: daily use agents, salts for
swimming pools as well as acids and alkalis. The tiles resistant to the chemical factors cannot
be subject to changes under the influence of these substances, e.g. a change in gloss or colour.

The chemical resistance test is performed in accordance with the test method specified in PNEN ISO 10545-13. Grade GA (for daily use agents and salts for swimming pools) means the
lack of visible changes after the test; grade GLA (for weak acids and alkalis, i.e. with a
concentration up to 3%) signifies the lack of visible changes after the test.

6. STAIN RESISTANCE:
Specified according the test method described in PN-EN ISO 10545-14 by grades from 1 to
5, determines the easiness of removal of the visible colours from the tile surface. The tiles
from the surface of which, the colours can be removed in the easiest way (with the use of hot
water and a fabric) correspond to grade 5.
7. PROPERTIES RELATED TO SAFETY:
Mainly resistance to slipping, particularly important in the case of tiles intended for floors
having contact with water, where there is hazard of slipping, both in residential and public
utility premises. In accordance with the German classification according to DIN 51130, the
ceramic tiles are divided into 4 groups, from R9 to R12, where the anti-slip properties
increase from group R9 to R12.

Factory Visit
Sonex Sanitary Fittings and Ceramic Tiles Industries (Pvt) Ltd Gujranwala