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PCB4323 - Well Stimulation Techniques

2016 INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PETRONAS SDN BHD


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PCB4323 - Well Stimulation Techniques

By

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon


(aliyu.adebayor@petronas.com)
(Mobile: 0143485422; Office Ext.: 7051)
(Room No.: 14.02.30)

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

Define hydraulic fracturing, describe its stages and identify


requisite equipment

Apply in-situ stress analysis to determine formation breakdown


pressure

Identify different models for predicting the fracture geometry

Determine the productivity of fractured wells

Describe the procedure for a hydraulic fracturing design

Recommend post-frac evaluation tools


Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Hydraulic Fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is an appropriate well-stimulation
technique for wells in low- and moderate- permeability
formations that do not provide commercial production
rates even when there is no damage or the damaged has
been removed by acidizing treatments.

Typical equipment required for hydraulic fracturing are:

Truck-mounted pumps
Blenders
Fluid tanks
Proppant tanks
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

SURFACE SYMPHONY

Figure 1: Typical hydraulic Fracturing Site. Source: Kansas Geological Survey

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Equipment Layout
Fracturing
fluid

Proppant

Blender

Pumper

Inject to create pad/fracture

Pad/Fracture
Figure 2: Equipment layout in hydraulic fracturing treatments

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracturing Stages
There are two stages:
Pad Stage
Only fracturing fluid is injected to fracture and
create a pad
Slurry Stage
Mixture of fracturing fluid/proppant is injected to
fill the fracture

Note:
The proppant should have enough compressive
strength to resist formation stress.
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracturing Stages

Figure 3: Fracturing stages

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracturing Stages

Figure 4: Fracturing pressure profiles

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracturing Stages

Instantaneous shut-in Pressure, or ISIP, is defined as:


ISIP = Final injection pressure - Pressure drop due to friction in
the wellbore and perforations or slotted liner

Figure 5: Typical data from an in-situ stress test.

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Fluid Selection Process


The selection of the fracture fluid for the treatment
is a critical decision. Economides and Nolte (2000)
developed a flow chart (Figs 6) that can be used to
select the category of fracture fluid on the basis of
factors (Table 1) such as:

Reservoir temperature
Reservoir pressure
The expected value of fracture half-length
Water sensitivity
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracturing Fluids
Table 1

Source:
Economides, M.J.
and Nolte, K.G. 2000.
Reservoir
Stimulation, third
edition. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Fluid Selection Process

Figure 6: Fracture fluid selection process


Source: Economides, M.J. and Nolte, K.G. 2000. Reservoir Stimulation, third edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Cross-linkers

Cross-linkers = used to super-

thicken fracturing fluids (100s 1000s of centipoise.


Guar Gum = Gelling agents or
viscosifiers used to thicken fracturing
fluid (1s-10s of cp)

Figure 7: Crosslinked polymers

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Propping Agent Selection


Figure 8 presents a flow chart created by Economides and Nolte (2000)
for selecting propping agents.
To use the chart, the maximum effective stress on the propping agent
must be determined.

The effective stress is defined in Fig. 9. The maximum effective stress


depends on the minimum value of flowing bottom-hole pressure
expected during the life of the well.
If the maximum effective stress is less than 6,000 psi, then Fig. 8
recommends that sand be used as the propping agent.
If the maximum effective stress is between 6,000 and 12,000 psi, then
either Resin-Coated-Sand (RCS) or Intermediate-Strength-Proppant
(ISP) should be used, depending on the temperature.
If the maximum effective stress is greater than 12,000 psi, HighStrength-Bauxite (HSB) should be used as the propping agent.
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Guide to Proppant Selection

Figure 8: Proppant selection based on closure pressure (Source: Economides.& Nolte, 2000)

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Effective Stress on Proppants

Figure 9: Effective stress on the propping agent. (Source: Economides.& Nolte, 2000)

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Tip Screen out


A fracture treatment, common where high
fracture flow conductivity is needed.

Very high pressures and very high proppant


loadings are applied near the end of a fracture

treatment where the tip of the fracture has


stopped growing due to bridging of proppant at
the fracture dip because of dehydration (frac
fluid leak-off).
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Tip Screen out

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Propagation Models


Modelling Procedures:
The model should be run to determine what needs to be mixed and pumped
into the well to achieve the optimum values of propped fracture length and
fracture conductivity.
The base data set should be used to make a base case run.
The engineer then determines which variables are the most uncertain (The
values of in-situ stress, Youngs modulus, permeability, and fluid-loss
coefficient often are not known with certainty and must be estimated).
Sensitivity runs are carried out with the fracture-propagation model to
determine the effect of these uncertainties on the design process (i.e. the
design engineer should fracture treat the well many times on his or her
computer).
As databases are developed, the number and magnitude of the uncertainties
will diminish.
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Propagation Models (Contd)


Two Dimensional (2D) Fracture Propagation Models:
With a 2D model, the engineer fixes one of the dimensions, normally the
fracture height, then calculates the width and length of the fracture.

By calibrating the 2D model with field results, the 2D models can be used
to make design changes and improve the success of stimulation treatments.
If the correct fracture height value is used in a 2D model, the model will give
reasonable estimates of created fracture length and width if other
parameters, such as in-situ stress, Youngs modulus, formation permeability,
and total leak-off coefficient, are also reasonably known and used.

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Propagation Models (Contd)


Examples of (2D) Fracture Propagation Models:
Howard and Fast model (1957): assumed the fracture width was constant
everywhere, allowing the engineer to compute fracture area on the basis of
fracture fluid leak-off characteristics of the formation and the fracturing fluid.
The Perkins-Kern-Nordgren (PKN) geometry (Fig. 10): used when the fracture
length is much greater than the fracture height.
Kristonovich-Geertsma-de Klerk(KGD) geometry (Fig. 11): used if fracture
height is more than the fracture length.
References:
Howard, C.C. and Fast, C.R. 1957. Optimum fluid characteristics for fracture extension. In API Drilling and
Production Practice, 24, 261
Perkins, T.K. and Kern, L.R. 1961. Widths of Hydraulic Fractures. J Pet Technol 13 (9): 937949. SPE-89PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/89-PA.
Geertsma, J. and de Klerk, F. 1969. A Rapid Method of Predicting Width and Extent of Hydraulic Induced
Fractures. J Pet Technol 21 (12): 1571-1581. SPE-2458-PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/2458-PA.

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Geometry

Fig. 10: PKN geometry for a 2D fracture

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Geometry (Contd)

Fig. 11: KGD geometry for a 2D fracture

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Propagation Models (Contd)


Three Dimensional (3D) Fracture Propagation Models:
Today, with high-powered computers, Pseudo-Three-Dimensional (P3D)
models are used by most fracture design engineers.
P3D models are better than 2D models for most situations because the P3D
model computes the fracture height, width, and length distribution with the
data for the pay zone and all the rock layers above and below the perforated
interval.

Figures 12 and 13 illustrate typical results from a P3D model.


P3D models give more realistic estimates of fracture geometry and
dimensions, which can lead to better designs and better wells.
P3D models are used to compute the shape of the hydraulic fracture as well
as the dimensions.
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Propagation Models (Contd)

Fig. 12: Width and height from a P3D model

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Propagation Models (Contd)

Fig. 13: Length and height distribution from a P3D model

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Propagation Models (Contd)


Three Dimensional (3D) Fracture Propagation Models:
The key to any model, including 3D or P3D models, is to have a complete
and accurate data set that describes the layers of the formation to be
fracture treated, plus the layers of rock above and below the zone of interest.
In most cases, the data set should contain information on 5 to 25 layers of
rock that will or possibly could affect fracture growth.
It is best to enter data on as many layers as feasible and let the model
determine the fracture height growth as a function of where the fracture is
started in the model.
If the user only enters data on three to five layers, it is likely that the user is
deciding the fracture shape rather than the model.
Reference:
Gidley, J.L., Holditch, S.A., Nierode, D.E. et al. 1989. Three-Dimensional Fracture-Propagation Models. In
Recent Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing, 12. Chap. 5, 95. Richardson, Texas: Monograph Series, SPE.

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Data Sources
Table 2

Source: http://petrowiki.org/File%3AVol4prt_Page_327_Image_0001.png

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Mechanics
In petroleum engineering, fracture mechanics theories have been
used for more than 50 years.
Rock fracture mechanics is about understanding what will happen to
the rocks in the subsurface when subjected to fracture stress.
Poro-elastic theory is often used to estimate the minimum horizontal
stress.
The important parameters to consider in hydraulic fracturing are:

Youngs modulus.
Poissons ratio, and
Fracture toughness
In situ stress,
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Basic rock mechanics


Poissons ratio:

Defined as the ratio of lateral expansion to longitudinal contraction for a


rock under a uniaxial stress condition.

It is used to convert the effective vertical stress component into an effective


horizontal stress component.

Young s modulus:

Defined as the ratio of stress to strain for uniaxial stress.

The theory used to compute fracture dimensions is based on linear


elasticity.

The modulus (measure of the stiffness) of a rock / formation is a function of


the lithology, porosity, fluid type, and other variables.

If the modulus is large, the material is stiff; a stiff rock results in more
narrow fractures.

If the modulus is low, the fractures are wider.


Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Mechanics (Contd)


TABLE 1:

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Mechanics

Figure 1: Optimizing the fracture design considering risks.

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Mechanics
Effective stress concept suggests that pore pressure (Pp) helps
counteract the mechanical stress carried through grain-to-grain
contact.
Effective stress: is defined as the total stress minus the pore pressure.
The efficiency of the Pp effect is measured by poro-elastic factor (Biots
constant), .

()

where

effective stress

total (absolute) stress

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Mechanics
where

rock matrix compressibility

Bulk compressibility

Poissons ratio

Youngs modulus

()

where

For non-porous rock, = , then =


With high porosity, , then
NOTE: " may be evaluated in the laboratory or from a given failure
envelope obtained from dry sample.

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Mechanics
Fracture Toughness, KIC:
It is a property that reflects the rocks resistance for an existing
fracture to propagate for a given fracture mode.
The following are correlations between fracture toughness and
tensile strength, T, fracture radius and net pressure (R & P ),
Youngs modulus, E, and compressive strength, Co :

Economides & Nolte, 1987:

where

half-length of an existing crack


Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Mechanics
Shlyapobersky et al, 1988:

()

where
= ,

ISIP

, =

(5)

Instantaneous Shut In Pressure


Minimum horizontal stress

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Fracture Mechanics
Whittaker et al, 1992:
= . + . ;

()

= . + . ;

()

= . + . ;

()

(MPain); T (Mpa); P (Psi); R (in); E (Gpa); Co (Mpa)


Fracture toughness is a function of confining pressure, Pconf.
. = + . . . = ; ()
where Pconf. (Mpa)
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Example 1
Sand and shale samples were laboratory-tested for tensile strength and
fracture toughness with the following results:
Formation

Tensile strength (psi)

Fracture toughness (psi in)

Sand

845

553

Shale

1155

784

Determine the size of the largest crack in the samples.


Solution:
For Sand:

For Shale:

Using eq. (3),

= . .

= . .
Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Assignment
Question 1:

Use the data provided in Table 1 to estimate the fracture toughness for each
of the lithologies shown. Calculate the Youngs modulus that would give the
same fracture toughness as calculated in the example problem.
Question 2:
Table A shows selected values of fracture toughness that were determined
experimentally for chalk, limestone and sandstone samples. Analyze in
detail, the difficulty of matching fracturing pressure on the basis of fracture
toughness measured under unconfined conditions.

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Assignment
TABLE A: Selected values of fracture toughness
Rock Type

Confining Pressure
(MPa)

Experimental
(MPa in)

Chalk

0.00

0.73

Chalk

24.13

2.22

Chalk

48.26

2.33

Limestone

0.00

1.44

Limestone

24.13

2.12

Limestone

48.26

4.92

Sandstone

0.00

1.36

Sandstone

24.13

2.62

Sandstone

48.26

4.96

Dr Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon

Questions?

Till Next Week

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