WBDG High Performance HVAC

High-Performance HVAC
by Carl Ian Graham, PE

Viridian Energy & Environmental, LLC
Last updated: 11-04-2014
INTRODUCTION
Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC systems) account for 39% of the energy used in commercial buildings in
the United States. Consequently, almost any business or government agency has the potential to realize significant
savings by improving its control of HVAC operations and improving the efficiency of the system it uses.
The use of high performance HVAC equipment can result in considerable energy, emissions, and cost savings (10%40%). Whole building design coupled with an "extended comfort zone" can produce much greater savings (40%-70%).
Extended comfort includes employing concepts such as providing warmer, but drier air using desiccant dehumidification
in summer, or cooler air with warmer windows and warmer walls in winter. In addition, high-performance HVAC can
provide increased userthermal comfort, and contribute to improved indoor environmental quality (IEQ).
Given the range and complexity of the subject, this information should be viewed as only a starting point to access
information from the many trade associations, agencies, and manufacturers linked throughout the text.
DESCRIPTION
Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC)
The term HVAC refers to the three disciplines of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning. A fourth
discipline, Controls, pervades the entire HVAC field. Controls determine how HVAC systems operate to meet the design
goals of comfort, safety, and cost-effective operation.
Heating can be accomplished by heating the air within a space (e.g. supply air systems, perimeter fintube "radiators"), or by heating the occupants directly by radiation (e.g. floor/ceiling/wall radiation or
radiant panels).
Ventilating maintains an adequate mixture of gases in the air we breath (e.g. not too much CO 2), controls
odors, and removes contaminants from occupied spaces. "Clean" air helps keep
occupants healthy and productive. Ventilation can be accomplished passively through natural ventilation,
or actively through mechanical distribution systems powered by fans.
Air-conditioning refers to the sensible and latent cooling of air. Sensible cooling involves the control of air
temperature while latent cooling involves the control of air humidity. Room air is cooled by transferring
heat between spaces, such as with a water loop heat pump system, or by rejecting it to the outside air via
air-cooled or water-cooled equipment. Heat can also be rejected to the ground using geothermal
exchange. Cool air is not comfortable if it is too humid. Air is dehumidified by condensing its moisture on
a cold surface, such as part of mechanical cooling), or by removing the moisture through absorption
(desiccant dehumidification). In dry climates, humidification may be required for comfort instead of
dehumidification. Evaporative humidification also cools the air. Further, in such climates it is possible to
use radiant cooling systems, similar to the radiant heating systems mentioned above.
Controls ensure occupant comfort, provide safe operation of the equipment, and in a modern HVAC
control system enable judicious use of energy resources. HVAC systems are sized to meet heating and
cooling loads that historically occur only 1% to 2.5% of the time. It is the function of the controls to ensure
that the HVAC systems perform properly, reliably, and efficiently during those conditions that occur 97.5%
to 99% of the time.
Each HVAC discipline has specific design requirements and each has opportunities for energy savings. It must be
understood, however, that energy savings in one area may augment or diminish savings in another. This applies to
interactions between components of an HVAC system, as well as between the HVAC system and the lighting and
envelope systems. See WBDGEnsure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration. Therefore, understanding how
one system or subsystem affects another is essential to making the most of the available opportunities for energy
savings. This design approach is known as whole building design.
Impact on Building Energy Performance Goals
Employing high-performance HVAC equipment in conjunction with whole building design can result in significant energy
savings. Typically, a 30% reduction in annual energy costs can be achieved with a simple payback period of about three
to five years. And, if the payback threshold is extended to seven years, the savings can be about 40%. These figures
apply to buildings that offer conventional comfort (e.g., 70F in winter, 76F in summer). (For more information on costeffectiveness, see WBDG Cost-Effective Branch).
If the comfort zone is extended through natural ventilation and air movement in summer, and through lower air
temperatures in winter (made possible by highly-insulated and, therefore, warmer wall and window surfaces), even higher
savings can be achieved. For example, a typical office building minimally complying with the ASHRAE Standard 90.11989 might use 75,000 Btu/sq.ft./yr. The goal for many federal buildings is 50,000 Btu/sq.ft./yr. A highly energy-efficient
building using conventional comfort could have an energy use of 40,000 Btu/sq.ft./yr. or even less. A building designed
and operated with extended comfort strategies might only use 20,000 to 30,000 Btu/sq.ft./yr.
However, note that highly energy-efficient design utilizing high-performance HVAC equipment often requires more
effort and more collaboration from the design team than a conventional, sequential approach.
Fundamentals of Energy- and Resource-Efficient HVAC Design

Consider all
aspects of the
building
simultaneously
Energy-efficient, climate responsive construction requires a whole building perspective that

integrates architectural and engineering concerns early in the design process. For example, the
evaluation of a building envelope design must consider its effect on cooling loads
and daylighting. An energy-efficient building envelope, coupled with a state-of-the-art lighting
system and efficient, properly-sized HVAC equipment will cost less to purchase and operate than
a building whose systems are selected in isolation from each other.
Decide on
A building that only meets energy code requirements will often have a different HVAC system
design goals as than one that uses 40% less energy than the code. And the difference is likely to be not only
early as
component size, but also basic system type. See WBDGFunctionalMeet Performance
possible
Objectives.
"Right Size"
HVAC systems
to ensure
efficient
operation
Safety factors for HVAC systems allow for uncertainties in the final design, construction and use
of the building, but should be used reasonably. Greatly oversized equipment operates less
efficiently and costs more than properly sized equipment. For example, oversized cooling
systems may not dehumidify the air properly, resulting in cool but "clammy" spaces. It is
unreasonable and expensive to assume a simultaneous worst-case scenario for all load
components (occupancy, lighting, shading devices, weather) and then to apply the highest safety
factors for sizing.
Consider partload
performance
when selecting
equipment
Part-load performance of equipment is a critical consideration for HVAC sizing. Most heating and
cooling equipment only operate at their rated, peak efficiency when fully loaded (that is, working
near their maximum output). However, HVAC systems are sized to meet design heating and
cooling conditions that historically occur only 1% to 2.5% of the time. Thus, HVAC systems are
intentionally oversized at least 97.5% to 99% of the time. In addition, most equipment is further
oversized to handle pick-up loads and to provide a factor of safety. Therefore, systems almost
never operate at full load. In fact, most systems operate at 50% or less of their capacity.
Shift or shave
electric loads
during peak
demand
periods
Many electric utilities offer lower rates during off-peak periods that typically occur at night.
Whenever possible, design systems to take advantage of this situation. For example, energy
management systems can shed non-critical loads at peak periods to prevent short duration
electrical demands from affecting energy bills for the entire year. Or, off-peak thermal ice storage
systems can be designed to run chillers at night to make ice that can be used for cooling the
building during the next afternoon when rates are higher.
Plan for
expansion, but
don't size for it
A change in building use or the incorporation of new technologies can lead to an increased
demand for cooling. But, it is wasteful to provide excess capacity nowthe capacity may never
be used or the equipment could be obsolete by the time it is needed. It is better to plan
equipment and space so that future expansion is possible. For example, adequately size
mechanical rooms and consider the use of modular equipment.
Commission the Commercial HVAC systems do not always work as expected. Problems can be caused by the
HVAC systems
design of the HVAC system or because equipment and controls are improperly connected or
installed. A part of commissioning involves testing the HVAC systems under all aspects of
operation, revealing and correcting problems, and ensuring that everything works as intended.
A comprehensive commissioning program will also ensure that O&M personnel are properly
trained in the functioning of all systems.
Establish an
Operations and
Maintenance
(O&M) Program
Proper performance and energy-efficient operation of HVAC systems can only be ensured through
a successful O&Mprogram. The building design team should provide systems that will perform
effectively at the level of maintenance that the owner is able to provide. In turn, the owner must
understand that different components of the HVAC system will require different degrees of
maintenance to perform properly.
Design Recommendations
Consider all aspects of the building simultaneously. The building should incorporate as many features as
possible that reduce heating and cooling loads, for example:
1.In skin-load dominated structures, employ passive heating or cooling strategies (e.g., sun control and
shading devices,thermal mass).
2.In internal-load dominated structures, include glazing that has a high cooling index.
3.Specify exterior wall constructions that avoid thermal bridging.
4.Detail the exterior wall constructions with air retarder systems.
5.Incorporate the highest R-value wall and roof construction that is cost-effective.
6.Design efficient lighting systems.
7.Use daylight dimming controls whenever possible.

8.Specify efficient office equipment (e.g., EPA Energy Star Office Equipment).
9.Accept life-cycle horizons of 20 to 25 years for equipment and 50 to 75 years for walls and glazings.
Decide on design goals as early as possible. It is important that the design team knows where it is headed
long before the construction documents phase.
a.Emphasize communication between all members of the design team throughout the design process (see
WBDG Project Management).
b.Develop a written "Basis of Design" that conveys to all members of the project goals for energy
efficiency. For example, such a BOD might highlight the intent to incorporate daylighting and the
attendant use of high-performance glazing, suitable lighting controls and interior layout.
c.Establish a quantitative goal for annual energy consumption and annual energy costs.
d.Clarify goals to meet or exceed the minimum requirements of codes or regulations during schematic
design.
"Right Size" HVAC systems to ensure efficient operation.
a.Accept the HVAC safety factors and pick-up load allowance stated in ASHRAE/IES 90.1 as an upper limit.
b.Apply safety factors to a reasonable baseline. It is unreasonable to assume that on the hottest clear day
if no shades are drawn and all lights are on that each room is occupied by the maximum number of
people allowed by fire codes (thus, far in excess of the maximum number of people that can be expected
in the building), and then apply safety factors. Safety factors should be applied to a baseline that was
created using reasonable assumptions.
c.Take advantage of the new generation of dependable computerized analysis tools, such as DOE 2.1E, to
reduce uncertainty and eliminate excess oversizing. Hour-by-hour computer simulations can anticipate
how building design and operation affect peak loads. Issues such as diversity, pick-up requirements, and
self-shading due to building geometry can be quantified. As uncertainties are reduced, oversizing factors
can also be reduced or at least can be applied to a more realistic baseline.
Consider part-load performance when selecting equipment.
a.Select systems that can operate efficiently at part-load. For example:
Variable volume fan systems and variable speed drive controls for fan motors;
Variable capacity boiler plants (e.g., step-fired (hi/lo) boilers, modular boiler plants, modulating flame
boilers);
Condensing boilers operate more efficiently (95%-96%) as the part-load decreases to the minimum turndown ratio;
Variable capacity cooling plants (e.g., modular chiller plants, multiple compressor equipment, and
variable speed chillers);
Variable capacity cooling towers (e.g., multiple cell towers with variable speed or two speed fans, reset
controls);
Variable capacity pump systems (e.g., primary/secondary pump loops, variable speed pump motors);
and,
Temperature reset controls for hot water, chilled water, and supply air.
Shift or shave the load.
a.Investigate the utility company's rate structure; negotiate for a favorable rate structure.
b.Take advantage of the on-peak and off-peak rate differences.
c.Use energy management controls systems to avoid unnecessary peak demand charges (peak shaving
and demand limiting).
d.Explore thermal storage systems (e.g., thermal ice storage).
e.Examine alternate fuel sources for heating and cooling systems (e.g., district steam vs. natural gas vs.
fuel oil; steam or natural gas chillers; dual fuel boilers).
Plan for future expansion instead of greatly oversizing the equipment. "Right sizing" the systems
means avoiding systems that have more capacity than currently required. This concept extends to accommodating for
planned expansion. Don't provide excess capacity today for a future load that may never exist, instead:
a.Provide the physical space required for additional equipment: boilers, chillers, pumps, cooling towers.
b.Design distribution systems that can easily accept additional equipment, and can be expanded to
provide for the requirements of the future expansion.
The result is savings in first cost and operating cost, and savings in construction cost and down time when making
expansion alterations. See WBDG ProductiveDesign for the Changing Workplace.
Commission the HVAC systems. ASHRAE Guideline 1 presently recommends a comprehensive commissioning
protocol for HVAC equipment. Many advocates of high-performance buildings are urging that more general, Total Building
Commissioning (TBC) be implemented. More information on commissioning can be found at:
Building Commissioning Association

National Institute of Building Sciences' Total Building Commissioning Program
Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.
WBDG Building Commissioning
Establish an Operations and Maintenance Program.
a.Specify systems that can be properly maintained by the owner, based on the owner's stated resources.
See WBDGFunctional/Operational.
b.Provide as part of construction, contract system interfaces to allow personnel to easily monitor and
adjust system parameters.
c.Make systems control, operation, and maintenance training part of the construction contract.
d.Include complete documentation regarding operation and maintenance of all equipment and controls
systems as part of the construction contract.
e.Establish a written, comprehensive operation and maintenance program, based on the requirements of
the facility, equipment, and systems installed. See WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
Types of HVAC Systems
Heating Systems
1.Boilers are used to generate steam or hot water and can be fired by natural gas, fuel oil, or coal.
a.The following boilers have combustion efficiencies between 78% and 86%.
Firetube steel boilers are constructed so that hot gases from the combustion chamber pass through
tubes that are surrounded by water. Typically, firetube boilers do not exceed 25 million Btu/hr (MMBtu/hr),
but capacities up to 70 MMBtu/hr are available.
Watertube steel boilers pass hot combustion gases over water-filled tubes. Sizes for packaged watertube
boilers range from small, low pressure units (e.g., around 10 MMBtu/hr) to very large, high-pressure units
with steam outputs of about 300 MMBtu/hr.
Cast iron boilers are used in small installations (0.35 to 10 MMBtu/hr) where long service life is important.
Since these boilers are composed of precast sections, they can be more readily field-assembled than
watertube or firetube boilers. At similar capacities, cast-iron boilers are more expensive than firetube or
watertube boilers.
b.Condensing boilers achieve higher system efficiencies by extracting so much heat from the flue gases
that the moisture in the gas condenses. The gases that remain can often be vented directly to the
outside, simplifying and reducing the cost of breeching. They are typically fired with natural gas and
operate between 95% and 96% combustion efficiencies. They also operate more efficiently than noncondensing boilers at part-load. Condensing boilers are available in capacities between 0.3 and 2
MMBtu/hr, and can be connected in modular installations.
2.Furnaces can be used for residential and small commercial heating systems. Furnaces use natural gas,
fuel oil, and electricity for the heat source. Natural gas furnaces are available in condensing and noncondensing models. The cooling can be packaged within the system, or a cooling coil can be added. When
direct expansion systems with coils are used, the condenser can be part of the package or remote.
3.Heat pumps are devices that add heat to or extract heat from a conditioned space. Both refrigerators
and air conditioners are types of heat pumps that extract heat from a cooler, conditioned space and reject
it to a warmer space (i.e., the outdoors). Heating can be obtained if this cycle is reversed: heat is moved
from the outdoors to the conditioned space indoors. Heat pumps are available in two major types:
conventional packaged (air-source) and water-source (conventional or geothermal).
Geothermal heat pump system on the Georgia Institute of Technology Campus

Courtesy of U.S. DOE, Craig Miller Productions
More information on heat pumps can be found at:
Energy StarAir-Source Heat Pumps

Energy StarGeothermal Heat Pumps
Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium, Inc.
International Energy Agency (IEA) Heat Pump Centre
International Ground Source Heat Pump Association (IGSHPA)
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)Geothermal Energy Program
Heating Controls
The first three controls increase energy efficiency by reducing on/off cycling of boilers. The fourth improves the efficiency
during operation.
1.Modulating flameThe heat input to the boiler can be adjusted continually (modulated) up or down to
match the heating load required. Modulating flame boilers have a minimum turn-down ratio, below which
the boiler cycles off. This ratio is 25% for most boilers, but some can be turned down to as low as 10%.
2.Step-firedThe heat input to the boiler changes in steps, usually high/low/off. Compared to steadystate units, the capacity of the boiler can come closer to the required heating load.
3.Modular boilersAnother energy-efficient measure is to assemble groups of smaller boilers into
modular plants. As the heating load increases, a new boiler enters on-line, augmenting the capacity of the
heating system in a gradual manner. As the heating load decreases, the boilers are taken off-line one by
one.
4.Oxygen trim systems continuously adjust the amount of combustion air to achieve high combustion
efficiency. They are usually cost-effective for large boilers that have modulating flame controls.
Ventilation Systems
Ventilation systems deliver conditioned air to occupied spaces. Depending on the building type, ventilation air may be
comprised of 100% outside air, such as in a laboratory building, or some mixture of re-circulated interior air and outside
air. In commercial and institutional buildings, there are a number of different types of systems for delivering this air:
1.Constant air volume (CAV) systems deliver a constant rate of air while varying the temperature of
the supply air. If more than one zone is served by a CAV system, the supply air is cooled at a central
location to meet the need of the zone with highest demand. The other zones get overcooled or, if comfort
is to be maintained, the air is reheated at the terminal units. CAV systems with reheat are inefficient
because they expend energy to cool air that will be heated again. CAV systems with reheat, however,
provide superior comfort in any zone. Constant airflow reduces pockets of "dead" air, and reheat provides
close control of the space temperature.
2.Variable air volume (VAV) systems vary the amount of air supplied to a zone while holding the supply
air temperature constant. This strategy saves fan energy and uses less reheat than in a CAV system. VAV
systems, however, can have problems assuring uniform space temperature at low airflow rates. At times,
the minimum airflow required for ventilation or for proper temperature control may be higher than is
required to meet the space load. When this occurs reheat may be required.
3.Low-flow air diffusers in VAV systems help maintain uniform air distribution in a space at low airflows.
These devices can be passive or active. Passive low flow diffusers are designed to mix the supply air with
the room air efficiently at low flow. Active diffusers actually move the outlet vanes of the diffuser to
maintain good mixing at low flow. Active diffusers can also be used as VAV terminal units.
4.Fan-powered VAV terminal units provide another method to improve air distribution at low load
conditions. These units combine the benefits of a VAV system, by reducing central fan energy and reheat
energy, with the benefits of a CAV system, by maintaining good airflow. There are two major types, series
and parallel: Series fan-powered units maintain constant airflow to the zone at all times; parallel fanpowered units allow the airflow to the zone to vary somewhat, but do not allow the airflow in the zone to
drop below a desired level. Both, however, allow the central fan to throttle down to the minimum airflow
required for ventilation.
5.Raised floor air distribution delivers air low in the space, at low velocity and relatively high
temperature compared to traditional plenum mounted distribution systems. Delivering air through a
series of adjustable floor-mounted registers permits room air to be stratified with lower temperatures in
the bottom portion of the room where people are located and high temperatures towards the ceiling. This
system type is attracting increasing interest because it has the potential to save energy and to provide a
high degree of individual comfort control. These systems have historically used constant-volume air
delivery. Manufacturers are now beginning to offer VAV systems that are more easily designed, installed,
and operated with raised floor plenum systems.
APPLICATION
The benefits of high performance, energy-efficient HVAC systems are universal. Therefore, high performance HVAC
systems can be installed in all different types of buildings, including office buildings, schools, hospitals,
and courthouses.
Representative Example
Sam Nunn Atlanta Federal Center, Atlanta, GA

Commercial Buildings, Saving Energy with Energy-Efficient HVAC Systems in Commercial Buildings (PDF 1.0 MB)
BACK TO TOP
RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS
Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PDF 1.9 MB)The enactment of the Energy Policy Act in 1992 has eased many
restrictions of the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 (PUHCA). Forty-six states in the United
States have some form of deregulation plan for electric utilities. Under the new framework, facility owners
can solicit proposals from utilities, including independent power producers, for their energy services.
Thus, contract negotiations at the pre-design phase could result in significantly lower energy cost for the
same energy use. While this is good news for consumers, it does suggest that investments in energy
efficiency and renewable energy equipment may be harder to justify in the short-term.
For more information on regulations:
ASHRAE Standards and Guidelines
Standard 62-2001 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality

Standard 90.1-1989 Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
Guideline 1 The HVAC Commissioning Process
Energy Information AdministrationElectricity
GSA Facilities Standard for the Public Buildings Service, P100
BACK TO TOP
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
WBDG
Products and Systems

Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:
01 57 19.11 (01352) Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Management
01 78 23 (01830) Operation and Maintenance Data

01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning
23 30 00 (15800) HVAC Air Distribution
23 70 00 (15700) Central HVAC Equipment
Design and Analysis Tools
Building energy simulations allow the system designer to compare different HVAC systems and control strategies. These
tools vary in their scope and level of complexity. Some tools analyze individual components of HVAC systems (e.g.,
motors) under simplified assumptions regarding the component use (e.g., annual hours of operation). Other tools
simulate entire buildings, including energy gains/losses through the building envelope, energy gains from internal loads,
and energy used by the HVAC systems to maintain user-prescribed space conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity,
ventilation rates). The latter tools require expertise and experience to obtain accurate results due to the detailed input
required. Some building simulation packages have reduced input requirements. The trade-off is that these tools are
typically not as accurate, since the programs use defaults or assumptions to replace the user inputs. However, simplified
tools can be used early in the design process to investigate the influence of HVAC system selection on energy efficiency
strategies such as daylighting.
More information on a variety of tools, including those listed below, can be found at:
DOE Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT)Best Practices Program

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Building Energy Tools Directory
WBDG Energy Analysis Tools

Whole Building Annual Energy Simulation Software
Detailed Input
BLAST
DOE2
Energy Plus
Individual Component Energy Analysis
MotorMaster
Pump System Assessment Tool
Government Agencies and Initiatives
Department of Energy (DOE)

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE)
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Energy Star Program
Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)Information on Energy Technologies
FirstGov
National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
National Energy Information Center, Energy Information Administration (EIA), Forrestal Building, Room
1F-048, Washington, DC 20585, Phone: (202) 586-8800
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD 0899-0001, Phone: (301) 9753058
Office of Scientific and Technical Information, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, Phone: (615)
576-8401
U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. NOTE: This is a repository
for all publications by the federal labs and contractors.
U.S. EPA Atmospheric Pollution, Prevention Division, 401 M Street SW, (6202J) Washington, DC 20460,
Phone: (202) 564-9190, Toll Free: (888) STAR-YES, TDD: (888) 588-9920, Fax: (202) 264-9569
National Laboratories and Research Centers
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories (LBNL) Building 90, Room 4000, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA
94720
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 1617 Cole Boulevard, Building 15, Phone: (303) 275-4363
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, Phone: (423) 5762900, Fax: (423) 574-4444
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) P.O. Box 999, Richland, Washington 99352, Phone: (509)
375-2121, Fax: (509) 372-4791
Professional and Trade Associations, and Interest Groups
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI), 4100 North Fairfax, Arlington, VA, Phone: (703) 5248800, Fax: (703) 528-3816
American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA), 4001 North 9th Street, Suite 226, Arlington, VA
22203-1900, Phone: (703) 522-7350, Fax: (703) 522-2665
ASHRAE, 1791 Tullie Circle, N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329-2305, Phone: (404) 636-8400, Fax: (404) 321-5478
Association of Energy Engineers (AEE), Dept. 192, P.O. Box 1026, Lilburn, GA 30226, Phone: (404) 9259558, Fax: (404) 381-9865
Cooling Technology Institute, 2611 FM 1960 West, Suite H-200, Houston, TX 77068-3730, Phone: (281)
583-4087, Fax: (281) 537-1721
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304
Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium, Inc., 6700 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 120, Columbia, MD 21046,
Phone: (410) 953-7150, Fax: (410) 953-7151
Geothermal Resources Council (GRC), P.O. Box 1350 - 2001 Second Street, Suite 5, Davis, CA 956171350, Phone: (530) 758-2360, Fax: (530) 758-2839
International Energy Agency (IEA) Heat Pump Centre, SP Energy Technology, Industrigatan 4, Box 857 SE501 15 Bors, Sweden, Phone: +46 33 16 5519 (contact: Monica Axell), Fax: +46 33 13 1979
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association (SMACNA), P.O. Box 221230, Chantilly,
VA 20153-1230, Phone: (703) 803-2980, Fax: (703) 803-3732
Trade Publications
Air-Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration News, P.O. Box 3210, Northbrook, IL 60065-3210, Phone:
(800) 837-8337, Fax: (248) 362-0317
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Journal
Consulting-Specifying Engineer, 1350 E. Touhy Ave, Des Plaines IL 60018
Energy User News, 1 Chilton Way, Radnor, PA 19089, Phone: (610) 964-4161, Fax: (610) 964-4647
Engineered Systems Magazine, P.O. Box 4270, Troy, MI 48099-4270, Phone: (248) 362-3700, Fax: (248)
362-0317
HPAC Interactive (Heating/Piping/Air-Conditioning Magazine), 1100 Superior Ave., Cleveland, OH 44114,
Phone: (216) 696-7000, Fax: (216) 696-3432
Books
Building Technology: Mechanical and Electrical Systems, 2nd Edition
by Stein, Benjamin. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.

Energy-Efficient Design and Construction for Commercial Buildings by Steven Winter Associates, Inc. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-071159-3.
Energy-Efficient Operation of Commercial Buildings: Redefining the Energy Manager's Job by Herzog,
Peter. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-028468-7.
Simplified Design of HVAC Systems , by Bobenhausen, William. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
Articles
HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB, 4 pgs) by W.K. Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T. Stayner,
R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford, T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal,
September 2002.
Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 115 KB, 5 pgs) by Olli Seppnen, Fellow ASHRAE, William J. Fisk, P.E.,
Member ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D. ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.
Other
GSA Sustainable Facilities Tool (SFTool)SFTool's immersive virtual environment addresses all your
sustainability planning, designing and procurement needs.
Underfloor air distribution
Ventilation System Controls

In recent years, ventilation control systems have become more complex and, if installed and maintained properly, more
dependable. Among the advancements are:
1.Direct digital control (DDC) systems using digital-logic controllers and electrically-operated actuators
are replacing traditional pneumatic controls. Pneumatic systems use analog-logic controllers and airpressure actuators. DDC systems are repeatable and reliable, provide accurate system responses, and
can be monitored from a central computer station. DDC systems also require less maintenance than
pneumatic systems. However, pneumatic controllers can be less expensive than electric actuators. Hybrid
systems use a combination of digital logic controllers and pneumatic actuators.

2.CAV systems should have controls to reset the supply air temperature at the cooling coil to provide the
warmest air possible to the space with the highest cooling load. This reduces reheat throughout the
system. However, the temperature should be no higher than is necessary to properly dehumidify the air.
Another option to reduce reheat is to use a bypass system. Bypass systems work like variable volume
systems at the zones, but have constant airflow across the central fan.
3.VAV systems can now be designed to serve areas with as little as six tons of cooling load. Inlet vanes
or, better yet, variable speed fans should be used to control air volume. In systems that have supply and
return fans, airflow monitoring stations should be used to maintain the balance between supply and
return airflow.
4.CO2-based control systems control the amount of outside air required for ventilation. These systems
monitor the CO2 in the return air and modulate the outside air damper to provide only the amount of
outside air required to maintain desired levels. Since CO 2 does not account for contaminants released by
the building materials (e.g., carpets, furniture), there must be a minimum amount of outside air even
when the spaces are unoccupied. Alternately, detectors of volatile organic compounds (VOC) can
supplement the CO2 monitoring system.
Air-Conditioning Equipment
1.Chillers. In large commercial and institutional buildings, devices used to produce cool water are called
chillers. The water is pumped to air handling units to cool the air. They use either mechanical refrigeration
processes or absorption processes.
a.Mechanical refrigeration chillers may have one or more compressors. These compressors can be
powered by electric motors, fossil fuel engines, or turbines. Refrigeration systems achieve variable
capacity by bringing compressors on or off line, by unloading stages within the compressors, or by
varying the speed of the compressor. The major types of compressors are described below:
1.Reciprocating compressors are usually found in air-cooled direct expansion (DX) systems for residential
and small commercial systems. They can also be found in chillers with capacities of 10 through 200 tons.
To better match part-load conditions and achieve higher operating efficiencies, multiple compressors can
be employed in a single system.
2.Scroll compressors are manufactured in the 1 to 15 ton range. Multiple compressors can be found in
water chillers with capacities of 20 to 500 tons. Scroll compressors require less maintenance than
reciprocating compressors.
3.Rotary screw compressors are found in chillers with capacities of 70 to 500 tons.
4.Centrifugal compressors are used in chillers with typical capacities of 100 to 7,000 tons. Centrifugal
chillers are the most efficient of the large-capacity chillers.
b.Absorption chillers are heat-operated devices that produce chilled water via an absorption cycle.
Absorption chillers can be direct-fired, using natural gas or fuel oil, or indirect-fired. Indirect-fired units
may use different sources for heat: hot water or steam from a boiler, steam from district heating, or waste
heat in the form of water, air, or other gas. Absorption chillers can be single-effect or double-effect, where
one or two vapor generators are used. Double-effect chillers use two generators sequentially to increase
efficiency. Several manufacturers offer absorption chiller/heater units, which use the heat produced by
firing to provide space heating and service hot water.
c.Evaporative coolers, also called swamp coolers, are packaged units that cool the air by humidifying it
and then evaporating the moisture. The equipment is most effective in dry climates. It can significantly
reduce the peak electric demand when compared to electric chillers.
d.Typical full-load operating efficiencies for chillers are noted below:
1.Small air-cooled electric chillers have 1.6-1.1 kW/ton (Coefficient of Performance (COP) of 2.2 to 3.2).
2.Large and medium-sized air-cooled electric chillers have 0.95-0.85 kW/ton (COP of 3.7 to 4.1).
3.Similar water-cooled electric chillers have 0.8-0.7 kW/ton (COP of 4.4 to 5.0). Lower values such as 0.60.5 kW/ton chillers (COP of 5.9 to 7.0) may indicate energy efficient equipment, but part-load performance
should also be examined.
4.The COP of absorption units is in the range of 0.4-0.6 for single-effect chillers, and 0.8-1.05 for doubleeffect chillers.
5.Engine-driven chillers attain COPs of 1.2 to 2.0.
Cooling tower
2.Condensers are heat exchangers that are required for chillers to reject heat that has been removed
from the conditioned spaces. Condensers can be either air-cooled or water-cooled. Water-cooled
condensers often rely on rooftop cooling towers for rejecting heat into the environment; however, it is
possible to reject the heat to the ground or river water.
a.Air-cooled condensers are offered on smaller, packaged systems (typically from less than one ton to 120
tons). They are initially less costly than water-cooled condensers, but do not allow the chiller to operate as
efficiently.
b.Water-cooled condensers use water that is cooled directly from the evaporative condenser or indirectly
via a cooling tower. The lower temperature achieved by evaporating water allows chillers served by watercooled condensers to operate more efficiently.
c.A waterside economizer consists of controls and a heat exchanger installed between the cooling tower
water loop and the chilled water loop. When the outdoor air temperature is low and/or the air is very dry
(i.e., when the wet-bulb temperature is low), the temperature of the cooling tower water may be low
enough to directly cool the chilled water loop without use of the chiller, resulting in significant energy
savings.
Air-Conditioning Equipment Controls

1.Controls that significantly affect the energy efficiency of chillers include:
a.Variable speed drives achieve good part-load performance by matching the motor output to the chiller
load, and by cycling off at a lower fraction of capacity than constant-speed chillers.
b.Multiple compressor achieves a closer match of the load than single-compressor chillers by sequencing
the compressors as needed.
c.Water temperature reset controls raise the water temperature as the demand decreases, allowing for
more efficient chiller operation.
2.Strategies that significantly affect the energy efficiency of cooling towers include the use of:
a.Variable-speed or multiple-speed fans
b.Wet-bulb reset strategies, where the temperature of the cooling water is adjusted according to the
temperature and humidity of outside air (instead of maintaining it constant)
c.Fans and pumps that use variable frequency drive (VFD) controls to reduce energy use at part-load
3.Integrated chiller plant controls use monitoring and computational strategies to yield the minimum
combined energy cost for the chillers, cooling towers, fans, and pumps. This approach can be significantly
more effective (though more difficult to implement) than optimizing the operation of each piece of
equipment independently.
Heat Recovery
Air is blown across copper coils to reject heat from this residential air-cooled condenser. Heat Recovery is an important
component of many energy efficient HVAC systems.
Enthalpy recovery wheel
Types of heat recovery include:

a.Air-to-air heat exchangers transfer heat or "coolth" from one air stream to another. They are usually
classified as one of the following:
Plate heat exchangers, with 60%-75% efficiencies

Glycol loop heat exchangers, with 50%-70% efficiencies (including pump energy use)
Heat pipe heat exchangers, with efficiencies as high as 80%
b.Desiccant wheels retrieve both sensible and latent heat, with efficiencies as high as 85%. Desiccant
dehumidification of the air is achieved by inserting a rotating wheel in the air stream that needs to be
dried. The desiccant extracts moisture from the air stream. The wheel then rotates, exposing the moist
part to another air stream that dries (or regenerates) the desiccant material. Two methods of regeneration
are typical:
Energy (Enthalpy) recovery wheels are located in the outside intake and the exhaust air streams. The
exhaust air regenerates the desiccant.
Gas-fired desiccant dehumidification packages are located in the outside intake air stream or in the entire
supply air stream. Outside air is heated by the gas furnace and is blown over the wheel to regenerate the
desiccant.
c.Other forms of heat exchange include:
Indirect evaporative cooling (IDEC) uses water-to-air heat exchange to precool air.
Electric heat recovery chillers receive up to 50% of rejected heat, usually though split or multiple
condensers.
Absorption chiller/heaters can use a fraction (typically 50%) of the heat input for cooling and the rest for
heating.
Gas-fired, engine driven chillers retrieve much of the heat rejected (usually 20% - 50%).
Cogeneration
Cogeneration is a process in which electric power is generated at the facility where the waste heat is recovered to
produce service hot water, process heat, or absorption cooling. Currently, packaged cogeneration systems between
about 60-600 kW are widely available. Extensive research and marketing efforts are underway for smaller systems (as
low as 4 kW).
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells use chemical processes to generate electricity. The heat generated by fuel cells can also be recovered, as in
cogeneration. Currently, the minimum size for a fuel cell in building applications is 200 kW. Note that fuel cells need
continuous, full-load operation.
APPLICATION
systems can be installed in all different types of buildings, including office buildings, schools, hospitals,
and courthouses.
Representative Example
Sam Nunn Atlanta Federal Center, Atlanta, GA

Commercial Buildings, Saving Energy with Energy-Efficient HVAC Systems in Commercial Buildings (PDF 1.0 MB)
BACK TO TOP
Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PDF 1.9 MB)The enactment of the Energy Policy Act in 1992 has eased many
restrictions of the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 (PUHCA). Forty-six states in the United
States have some form of deregulation plan for electric utilities. Under the new framework, facility owners
can solicit proposals from utilities, including independent power producers, for their energy services.
Thus, contract negotiations at the pre-design phase could result in significantly lower energy cost for the
same energy use. While this is good news for consumers, it does suggest that investments in energy
efficiency and renewable energy equipment may be harder to justify in the short-term.
For more information on regulations:
ASHRAE Standards and Guidelines
Standard 62-2001 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality

Guideline 1 The HVAC Commissioning Process
Energy Information AdministrationElectricity

GSA Facilities Standard for the Public Buildings Service, P100
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WBDG

01 78 23 (01830) Operation and Maintenance Data

Building energy simulations allow the system designer to compare different HVAC systems and control strategies. These
tools vary in their scope and level of complexity. Some tools analyze individual components of HVAC systems (e.g.,
motors) under simplified assumptions regarding the component use (e.g., annual hours of operation). Other tools
simulate entire buildings, including energy gains/losses through the building envelope, energy gains from internal loads,
and energy used by the HVAC systems to maintain user-prescribed space conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity,
ventilation rates). The latter tools require expertise and experience to obtain accurate results due to the detailed input
required. Some building simulation packages have reduced input requirements. The trade-off is that these tools are
typically not as accurate, since the programs use defaults or assumptions to replace the user inputs. However, simplified
tools can be used early in the design process to investigate the influence of HVAC system selection on energy efficiency
strategies such as daylighting.
More information on a variety of tools, including those listed below, can be found at:
DOE Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT)Best Practices Program

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Building Energy Tools Directory
WBDG Energy Analysis Tools
Whole Building Annual Energy Simulation Software
Detailed Input
BLAST
DOE2
Energy Plus
Individual Component Energy Analysis
MotorMaster
Pump System Assessment Tool
Government Agencies and Initiatives
Department of Energy (DOE)

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE)
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Energy Star Program
Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)Information on Energy Technologies
FirstGov
National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
National Energy Information Center, Energy Information Administration (EIA), Forrestal Building, Room
1F-048, Washington, DC 20585, Phone: (202) 586-8800
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD 0899-0001, Phone: (301) 9753058
Office of Scientific and Technical Information, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, Phone: (615)
576-8401
U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. NOTE: This is a repository
for all publications by the federal labs and contractors.
U.S. EPA Atmospheric Pollution, Prevention Division, 401 M Street SW, (6202J) Washington, DC 20460,
Phone: (202) 564-9190, Toll Free: (888) STAR-YES, TDD: (888) 588-9920, Fax: (202) 264-9569
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories (LBNL) Building 90, Room 4000, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA
94720
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 1617 Cole Boulevard, Building 15, Phone: (303) 275-4363
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, Phone: (423) 5762900, Fax: (423) 574-4444
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) P.O. Box 999, Richland, Washington 99352, Phone: (509)
375-2121, Fax: (509) 372-4791
Professional and Trade Associations, and Interest Groups
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI), 4100 North Fairfax, Arlington, VA, Phone: (703) 5248800, Fax: (703) 528-3816
American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA), 4001 North 9th Street, Suite 226, Arlington, VA
22203-1900, Phone: (703) 522-7350, Fax: (703) 522-2665
ASHRAE, 1791 Tullie Circle, N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329-2305, Phone: (404) 636-8400, Fax: (404) 321-5478
Association of Energy Engineers (AEE), Dept. 192, P.O. Box 1026, Lilburn, GA 30226, Phone: (404) 9259558, Fax: (404) 381-9865
Cooling Technology Institute, 2611 FM 1960 West, Suite H-200, Houston, TX 77068-3730, Phone: (281)
583-4087, Fax: (281) 537-1721
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304
Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium, Inc., 6700 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 120, Columbia, MD 21046,
Phone: (410) 953-7150, Fax: (410) 953-7151
Geothermal Resources Council (GRC), P.O. Box 1350 - 2001 Second Street, Suite 5, Davis, CA 956171350, Phone: (530) 758-2360, Fax: (530) 758-2839
International Energy Agency (IEA) Heat Pump Centre, SP Energy Technology, Industrigatan 4, Box 857 SE501 15 Bors, Sweden, Phone: +46 33 16 5519 (contact: Monica Axell), Fax: +46 33 13 1979
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association (SMACNA), P.O. Box 221230, Chantilly,
VA 20153-1230, Phone: (703) 803-2980, Fax: (703) 803-3732
Trade Publications
(800) 837-8337, Fax: (248) 362-0317
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Journal
Consulting-Specifying Engineer, 1350 E. Touhy Ave, Des Plaines IL 60018
Energy User News, 1 Chilton Way, Radnor, PA 19089, Phone: (610) 964-4161, Fax: (610) 964-4647
362-0317
HPAC Interactive (Heating/Piping/Air-Conditioning Magazine), 1100 Superior Ave., Cleveland, OH 44114,
Phone: (216) 696-7000, Fax: (216) 696-3432
Books
by Stein, Benjamin. New York: John

Energy-Efficient Design and Construction for Commercial Buildings by Steven Winter Associates, Inc. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-071159-3.
Energy-Efficient Operation of Commercial Buildings: Redefining the Energy Manager's Job by Herzog,
Peter. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-028468-7.
Simplified Design of HVAC Systems , by Bobenhausen, William. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
Articles
R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford, T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal,
September 2002.
Other
HVAC Integration of the Building Envelope

by Rob Bolin, PE
Syska Hennessy Group
INTRODUCTION
Within This Page
Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems account for nearly 40% of the Introduction
Description
energy used in commercial buildings in the United States. Consequently, almost any
business or government agency has the potential to realize significant savings by improving
Fundamentals
its control of HVAC operations and improving the efficiency of the system it uses. There are
Applications
also considerable opportunities for significant energy savings through efficient, integrated Related Issues
design, especially at the building envelope.
Emerging Issues
An integrated and efficient building envelope with appropriate window and glazing design can
Relevant Codes and
not only reduce the energy and operating costs of a facility, but can also reduce the size and
cost of the HVAC system needed to maintain adequate building pressurization, good indoor Standards
Additional Resources
air quality and a comfortable thermal environment for building occupants.
An often overlooked component of the building envelope is the relationship of the roofing system with the large HVAC
equipment that is often mounted on the roof. The integrated design processcan provide the means to facilitate early
consideration of wind loading, vibration, blast and seismic considerations pertaining to rooftop HVAC equipment.
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DESCRIPTION
The term HVAC refers to the three disciplines of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning. A fourth
discipline, Controls, pervades the entire HVAC field. Controls determine how HVAC systems operate to meet the design
goals of comfort, safety, and cost-effective operation.
Heating can be accomplished by heating the air within a space (e.g. supply air systems, perimeter fintube "radiators"), or by heating the occupants directly by radiation (e.g. floor/ceiling/wall radiation or
radiant panels).
Ventilating maintains an adequate mixture of gases in the air we breath (e.g. not too much CO 2), controls
odors, and removes contaminants from occupied spaces. "Clean" air helps keep occupants healthy
and productive. Ventilation can be accomplished passively through natural ventilation, or actively through
mechanical distribution systems powered by fans.
Air-conditioning refers to the sensible and latent cooling of air. Sensible cooling involves the control of air
temperature while latent cooling involves the control of air humidity. Room air is cooled by transferring
heat between spaces, such as with a water loop heat pump system, or by rejecting it to the outside air via
air-cooled or water-cooled equipment. Heat can also be rejected to the ground using geothermal
exchange. Cool air is not comfortable if it is too humid. Air is dehumidified by condensing its moisture on
a cold surface (such as a cooling coil), or by removing the moisture through absorption (desiccant
dehumidification). In dry climates, humidification may be required for comfort instead of dehumidification.
Evaporative humidification also cools the air. Radiant cooling systems and mixed mode cooling
applications are being used where appropriate.
Controls ensure occupant comfort, provide safe operation of the equipment, and in a modern HVAC
control system enable judicious use of energy resources. HVAC systems are sized to meet heating and
cooling loads that historically occur only 0.4% to 2.5% of the time. It is the function of the controls to
ensure that the HVAC systems perform properly, reliably, and efficiently during all of the conditions that
occur 97.5% to 99.6% of the time.
There is a critical interface at the perimeter of all buildings between the building envelope and the building's HVAC and
control systems. Following are several significant issues that should be addressed when optimizing this interface:
Integrated, Whole Building Design

Minimize Energy Consumption at the Building Envelope
Providing Comfortable Environments in Perimeter Areas
Achieve Appropriate Indoor Air Quality and Building Pressurization
Employ Measures for Safety and Security
Consider Rooftop Equipment
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FUNDAMENTALS
Following are HVAC system recommendations pertaining to the design and construction of the building envelope.
Integrated, Whole Building Design
Use an Integrated, Whole Building Design approach for the building envelope with appropriate
consideration given to optimized levels of thermal insulation; the size, location and performance
of windows and glazing systems; appropriate external shading and solar control;thermal
comfort; moisture control; acoustic privacy; daylighting and control; and security/safetyconsiderations.
Each of these individual parameters can impact the effectiveness of the building's HVAC system.
Minimize Energy Consumption at the Building Envelope
Consider Climate Conditionsbuilding envelope components should be responsive and appropriate for
the climate of the building. This can result in a smaller and more efficient HVAC system.
Optimize Thermal Insulationoptimize the insulation performance of the envelope opaque elements for
both heating and cooling seasons. This can result in a smaller and more efficient HVAC system.
Incorporate High Performance, Spectrally Selective Glazingthe orientation, amount and performance of
vertical and horizontal glazing should be appropriate for the climate of the building. Carefully analyze the
thermal (U-factor), solar (solar heat gain factor SHGF) and daylighting (visible transmittance VT)
performance of glazing on each elevation of the building. The performance criteria will vary depending
upon orientation and dominant strategy (e.g. solar performance or daylighting performance). This can
result in a smaller and more efficient HVAC system.
Figure 1. Factors Affecting Window Performance

(Courtesy of Energy User News)
Employ Effective Solar Shading Devicesuse exterior shading devices such as overhangs, vertical fins
and light shelves as energy efficiency measures (with consideration of maintenance and security/safety
issues). This can result in a smaller and more efficient HVAC system.
Figure 2. International Terminal Building in Istanbul's Ataturk Airport uses laminated glass for safety and security
(Courtesy of DuPont Laminated Technologies)
Analyze Envelope Performance with Energy Simulationuse energy simulation and life cycle analysis
tools to optimize the performance of all components of the building envelope. Make informed decisions
about the components of the building envelope based on life cycle performance.
Figure 3. Flow Chart to Determine Energy Costs
Figure 4. Air Leakage through a Building Enclosure
Commission Envelope Elementsthe building commissioning process should include commissioning of

the building envelope to insure that all performance requirements are being met. Commissioning of the
building envelope can identify areas of concern related to air infiltration and leakage, moisture diffusion,
surface condensation, and rain water entry all issues that can negatively impact the building's energy
performance and indoor environmental quality. Of particular importance is to begin commissioning of the
building envelope during design when design modifications can be easily incorporated, rather than
waiting until construction when remediation can cost significantly more.
While the LEED Green Building Rating System requires buildings to undergo Fundamental Building Commissioning of
systems to achieve certification, it merely recommends that some form of building envelope commissioning be
incorporated.Lemieux and Totten have proposed a Building Envelope Commissioning process that could supplement the
Fundamental Building Commissioning required for LEED certification.
Provide Comfortable Environments in Perimeter Areas
Physical Comfortthis is critical to workplace productivity and satisfaction. Uncomfortable conditions in

the workplacetoo hot, too cold, too noisy, too dark, too light, too much glarerestrict the ability of
workers to function to full capacity and can lead to lowered job satisfaction and increases in illness
symptoms. Window and glazing element location and performance should weigh the competing issues of
daylighting, excessive solar heat gain, and glare. The performance characteristics of the glazing material
can also impact the indoor Mean Radiant Temperature, which can directly impact occupant thermal
comfort and productivity.
Use Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)these modeling programs can assist in determining thermal
comfort characteristics of various envelope configurations. ASHRAE Standard 55 Thermal Environmental
Conditions for Human Occupancy should be used as the basis for thermal comfort.
Figure 5. Courtesy ASHRAE Standard 55-2004, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.
Figure 6. The Thoreau Institute of Sustainability at the Presidio, San Francisco, California
Consider Operable Windowsif operable windows are incorporated for natural ventilationand occupant
control, consider the effect on the building HVAC system (integrated controls) so as not to negatively
impact the building's overall energy performance.
Dedicated Outdoor Air Systemsthe use of dedicated/separate outside air and conditioned air
distribution systems for the building perimeter zones is now required for many federal buildings to
maintain occupant thermal comfort and positive building pressurization in perimeter zones.
Achieve Appropriate Indoor Air Quality and Building Pressurization
Figure 7. Convection of moist air in enclosure assemblies can cause problems.
Account for Moisture Dynamicsthe design and construction of the building envelope should give
appropriate consideration to the moisture dynamics so that water is not transmitted through the building
envelope in to the building construction. This can easily contributed to poor indoor air quality in any
building.
Dedicated Outdoor Air Systemsthe use of dedicated/separate outside air and conditioned air
distribution systems for the building perimeter zones is now required for many federal buildings to
maintain occupant thermal comfort and positive building pressurization in perimeter zones. This can and
should be supplemented through the use of pressure sensors inside and outside the building envelope as
a means of controlling the dedicated perimeter systems to maintain positive building pressurization.
Employ Measures for Safety and Security
Safety and Securitythe design and construction of safe and secure buildings continues to be the
primary goal for owners, architects, engineers, and project managers. However, security and
safety measures must be considered within a total project context, including the project's environmental
goals. Several indoor environmental quality strategies, such as dedicated ventilation systems and tight
building envelopes, can be employed to help designers achieve an integrated, high performance facility.
Figure 8. Example of Rooftop HVAC Equipment
Consider Rooftop Equipment
Rooftop Equipmentthe roof portion of the building envelope is often used as a location for the mounting
of large HVAC equipment. Design of support and anchorage systems should be coordinated with the
appropriate design professionals so that design requirements for wind loading, vibration, blast and
seismic considerations are addressed early. Consider designing the capacity to change or add to rooftop
building systems as technologies and functional needs might change.
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APPLICATIONS
systems can be installed in all different types of buildings, including office
buildings, schools, hospitals, libraries, courthouses, and research facilities. The interrelationship between the
building envelope and the HVAC system continues to be a significant factor in a building's energy performance, the
quality of the occupant's indoor environment, and the overall safety of the building and its occupants.
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RELATED ISSUES
Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability ObjectivesProviding for sustainable designs that meet all facility
requirements is often a challenge to the building design, construction and operation community. With limited resources it
is not always feasible to provide for the most secure facility, the most architecturally expressive design, or energy efficient
building envelope. From the concept stage through the development of construction documents, it is important that all
project or design stakeholders work cooperatively to ensure a balanced design. Successful designs must consider all
competing design objectives.
Integrated DesignDesigners are moving away from the conventional building design approach that has historically
resulted in little interaction between all parties involved in the project. There is a movement to embrace integrated
building design, fostering communication amongst all parties that could be involved in the project, and
facilitating working together from the start to coordinate and optimize the design of the site and the building.
Double Skin Facades with Ventilated CavitiesDouble skin facades have become a more common strategy in
many northern European locations for minimizing envelope heat gain and loss effects and improving a building's energy
performance. These integrated systems are now being considered for and implemented in many building projects in the
U.S.
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EMERGING ISSUES
Building Information Modeling (BIM)

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Federal Mandates
Executive Order 13693, "Planning for Federal Sustainability in the Next Decade"
Standards and Guidelines
ASHRAE Standard 62-2001 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality

ASHRAE Standard 90.1-1999 Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2001 Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
ASHRAE Guideline 1 The HVAC Commissioning Process
Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, PBS P100, General Services Administration
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WBDG
Design Objectives
Functional / OperationalEnsure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration, ProductivePromote Health
and Well-Being, Secure / SafeEnsure Occupant Safety and Health, SustainableEnhance Indoor
Environmental Quality (IEQ)

Section 23 31 00: HVAC Ducts and Casings, Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC
Federal Agencies
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network (EREN)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Energy Star Program
National Energy Information Center, Energy Information Administration (EIA)
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
U.S. DOE Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)Information on Energy Technologies
U.S. EPA Atmospheric Pollution, Prevention Division
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories (LBNL)

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL)
Publications
(800) 837-8337, Fax: (248) 362-0317.
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Journal.
by Benjamin Stein. New York: John

Consulting-Specifying Engineer, 1350 E. Touhy Ave, Des Plaines IL 60018.
Energy-Efficient Design and Construction for Commercial Buildings, by Steven Winter Associates, Inc.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Energy-Efficient Operation of Commercial Buildings: Redefining the Energy Manager's Job by Peter
Herzog. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Energy User News, 1 Chilton Way, Radnor, PA 19089, Phone: (610) 964-4161, Fax: (610) 964-4647.
362-0317.
HPAC Interactive (Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning Magazine), 1100 Superior Ave., Cleveland, OH 44114,
Phone: (216) 696-7000, Fax: (216) 696-3432.
Simplified Design of HVAC Systems , by William Bobenhausen. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
Organizations
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI)

American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA)
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
Association of Energy Engineers (AEE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
Cooling Technology Institute (CTI)
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
Geothermal Resources Council (GRC)
International Energy Agency (IEA) Heat Pump Centre
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association (SMACNA)
HVAC System Design for Humid Climates

by David MacPhaul, P.E. and Christy Etter, P.E.
CH2M Hill
This article is partially excerpted from Commissioning Building in Hot Humid Climates, CH2M HILL, 2003
INTRODUCTION
Within This Page
designed and constructed to maintain proper moisture conditions in the building, allowing
extensive mold growth on furnishings as well as inside wall cavities.
Standards
Even before guests began occupying the new guestroom tower of the hotel in Honolulu in Introduction
1996, pink spots of mold were visible behind vinyl wallcover and a strong mold odor was Description
present in rooms and corridors.
Application
Emerging Issues
After extensive investigation by architects, engineers and mycologists (fungal experts), it was
discovered that the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system had not been Relevant Codes and
Figure 1. Although brand new, the rooms in this hotel required extensive renovation to remediate mold problems. Moisture
intrusion through the HVAC system was the culprit, and in the end, the problem required more than $6 million to repair.
The building's HVAC system failed to fully dehumidify the outside air it provided to the building. In addition, the HVAC
systems continuously pulled moist outside air into the building through the building envelope, because of design and
construction defects.
So, only a few years after opening its doors, the hotel underwent a major overhaul. Over 40,000 square feet of gypsum
wallboard was removed and replaced in the newly constructed guestrooms. Three hundred HVAC systems were replaced
in the guestrooms. Ultimately, repairs and other associated costs exceeded $6 million. If the HVAC system had been
properly designed and constructed, these problems would have been avoided.
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DESCRIPTION
To avoid the types of problems seen at the Honolulu hotel, HVAC systems in buildings in humid climates must do several
things to maintain humidity control. The HVAC system must properly condition the building's interior, including the building
envelope, and pressurize the building with dehumidified air (called exfiltration). When negative building pressurization
occurs in humid climates, the result can be multimillion-dollar moisture and mold problems from intrusion and
condensation of moist outside air. The Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) has found that building pressures as low as
+1 pascal (Pa) relative to outside conditions are sufficient to prevent outside air infiltration problems. On the other hand,
even a slightly depressurized building (-1 Pa relative to normal outside conditions) in hot, humid climates can develop
devastating moisture and microbial growth problems when the building envelope traps this moisture.
HVAC systems that positively pressurize a building space by supplying unconditioned or only partially conditioned outside
air will avoid infiltration of outside air through the building envelope. However, this same situation can result in moisture
loads inside the building that exceed the dehumidification capabilities of the HVAC system. One of the most significant
causes of moisture accumulation in existing buildings in hot, humid climates is an overemphasis on ventilation at the
expense of proper dehumidification.
HVAC equipment is typically more efficient in cooling air than in dehumidifying it. As a result, outside air brought into a
building may be cooled to the desired temperature before it is properly dehumidified, creating elevated relative humidity
levels and microbial growth inside the building. Furthermore, because HVAC equipment is typically controlled by
temperature (thermostat) instead of humidity (humidistat), the equipment never senses the elevated moisture level within
the building space and, therefore, never fully removes it.
Definition of Hot, Humid Climate

Where are these HVAC related moisture problems likely to occur? Industry experience with building failures suggests the
need for a definition of humid climates that more clearly identifies the geography where problem buildings are more likely
to be found and better explains why these problems occur at all. The following the definition is based on observations
about latent and sensible load:
A humid climate is defined as one where the average monthly latent load of outside air meets or exceeds the
average monthly sensible load for any month during the cooling season.
Figure 2. Defining a humid climate in terms of latent and sensible loads more accurately identifies areas where moisturerelated problems are likely to occur.
The latent cooling load is the energy required to remove moisture from the air; the sensible cooling load is the energy
required to cool the air. Infiltration of air into a building with a high latent load (high moisture load) will cause moisture to
accumulate in building materials such as gypsum wallboard, with subsequent material degradation and mold growth. This
infiltration may also exceed the ability of the HVAC system to remove moisture from the supply air. On any given day in
many temperate areas, the latent load may be greater than the sensible load without causing problems; however, when
these conditions persist for a longer period (a month, for example), the resulting moisture accumulation is sufficient to
cause moisture-related building failure.
The occurrence of a high latent load during the cooling season is a critical factor in building failure. Thus, defining hot,
humid climates in terms of the relationship of sensible to latent load in ambient air includes most parts of the United
States that are highly susceptible to moisture-related building failures.
Comparing the latent and sensible loads for several major cities in different geographic regions (Peart and Cook, 1994)
helps illustrate the new definition. Figure 2 shows the monthly average latent and sensible loads from outside air for
Orlando, Florida; Atlanta, Georgia; and Columbus, Ohio. During the cooling season in Orlando (Figure 2A), the latent
load far exceeds the sensible load of outside air. The effect of these conditions, which occur for more than half a year, is
that any outside air drawn into the building envelope or occupied space will likely cause moisture accumulation and
microbial growth problems. Furthermore, since this outside air is used for ventilating the building's occupied spaces, it
presents a huge dehumidification challenge for the makeup air system. Clearly, under these conditions, Orlando is highly
susceptible to moisture intrusion problems.
As shown in Figure 2B, Atlanta is much less susceptible to moisture intrusion problems than Orlando because, on an
average monthly basis, the difference between sensible and latent load is small, particularly during the peak cooling
months. Standard HVAC systems have a better chance of accounting for the latent load in Atlanta than in Orlando.
Nevertheless, the latent load in Atlanta represents enough of a moisture accumulation risk that it belongs within the upper
boundary of the humid zone. However, according to ASHRAE's definition of a humid climate, Atlanta is outside the critical
zone for humid conditions.
In the graph for Columbus, Ohio (Figure 2C), the latent load from outside air is consistently less than the sensible load.
The reversal of the load relationship explains why buildings in Columbus are not likely to develop moisture-related
problems from outside air intrusion, because any outside air that infiltrates into buildings in Columbus will be adequately
dehumidified before it is cooled.
This definition also explains why in certain areas of the country, building commissioning procedures related to
humidity control are more critical than in others. For example, if the building exhaust systems are started before the
HVAC and makeup air systems, as is typical, huge amounts of moisture may infiltrate into the building, depending on the
outdoor conditions.
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APPLICATIONHVAC SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
If improperly designed, constructed, and operated, building mechanical systems are likely to create moisture and mold
problems. Therefore, particular attention must be paid to the design, equipment selection, installation, and startup of
these systems. The key factors that must be considered by the entire design team in the design of building mechanical
systems are as follows:
Maintaining building pressurization through proper control of exhaust, makeup air, and ventilation
Properly selecting HVAC and control systems for adequate dehumidification and filtration
Pressurization
In hot, humid climates, outside air can carry a large moisture load. If outside air is drawn into the building envelope by
negative pressure inside the building, it will travel through the wall system and into the interior space. Because air flow
will always follow the path of least resistance, air can be carried down interior walls of a space if the walls are connected
to the exterior envelope. As the air flows through the wall system and moves past the cool interior wallboard, the moisture
in the air condenses and is deposited in the wall cavity, thus damaging the wallboard. The potential for moisture
accumulation not only increases with decreasing interior temperatures but also increases with increased negative
pressures (Figure 3).
Figure 3. In hot, humid climates, the potential for moisture accumulation increases with decreasing interior temperatures.
The following considerations must be addressed to ensure proper building pressurization:

Control of mechanically induced depressurization
Proper distribution of makeup air within the building spaces
Achieving proper building pressurization is sometimes difficult. Building pressurization must overcome any
depressurization from stack effect, wind effect, and fan effect (Figure 4). The design team must consider how exhaust air
systems will affect space pressures.
Figure 4. Building pressurization must overcome all forms of possible building depressurization. In cold weather stack effect can
exert considerable pressure at the top and bottom of tall buildings-sometimes exerting over one hundred pascals (Pa) pressure
differentials across the envelope.
For example, a toilet exhaust system in a building should be viewed as a method of addressing toilet odor and localized
moisture only, not as a method of drawing outside air ventilation into a building or of meeting a building's ventilation code
requirements. Typically, exhaust systems are designed and installed with exhaust rates exceeding those required to
handle odor problems. Ventilation to control problems with air quality degradation should be achieved by designing and
installing a makeup air system. Any air that is exhausted from a space must be supplemented with conditioned air from a
makeup air supply system (Figure 5). Makeup air should never be supplied (intentionally or unintentionally) by infiltration
of outside air.
Figure 5. Achieving positive pressurization requires that interior building partitions do not adversely affect the distribution of air
by restricting the flow.
Dehumidification
To provide proper dehumidification, an HVAC system must accomplish the following:
Fully dehumidify the air that flows across the cooling coil
Provide sufficient run time to remove moisture from the interior air despite the satisfaction of interior
temperatures
Dehumidification of Air Flow
To fully dehumidify the air flow across the coil, the cooling coils must be sized properly to meet the both the sensible load
and latent load of both outside air and return air. This air must be cooled to a temperature that causes the moisture in the
air to condense; this is known as latent heat (or latent energy) removal. Simultaneously, the cooling coil is reducing the
sensible temperature of the air to offset the sensible energy generated in the space (lights, solar, people, equipment,
etc.). A common temperature for the cooling of this air is between 50F and 55F. At this temperature, most HVAC system
air flows will be at 100 percent RH (or complete saturation) and will effectively condense moisture from the air. Air
provided to a space under these conditions has the best chance of maintaining interior conditions of 75 degrees
Fahrenheit dry bulb ( Fdb) and below 60 percent RH.
Run Time Needed for Dehumidification

If the system cannot provide sufficient dehumidification while it reacts to temperature control alone, it must continue
moisture removal without affecting interior temperatures and occupant comfort. One manner of accomplishing this is by
reheating, a form of simultaneously cooling and then heating to continue dehumidification while not overcooling the
occupants.
Methods of reheating include direct or indirect gas-fired heating; hot water heating; hot gas reheating for refrigerationbased units; and for parts of the country that allow it, electric heating.
Energy recovery devices added to the equipment, such as wraparound coils, can also provide a means of reheating.
Wraparound coils simply transfer energy from the incoming cooling coil air stream to the exiting cooling coil air stream.
These coils are available in a passive refrigeration-based unit or as a water-based system that uses pumps to move the
water through the system.
In conventional HVAC systems, two different methods are typically used to dehumidify the air. The first is a cooling-based
system that cools the air below its dew point. The moisture condenses on the cooling surface and is removed from the
air. For example, a cooling-based system will cool an outside air stream from 95Fdb (55 percent RH) to 77Fdb. At
77Fdb the air is at 100 percent RH and is saturated. If it is cooled below 77Fdb to a temperature of 55Fdb, 68 grains of
moisture per pound of dry air are condensed out of the air and onto the cooling coil.
The second method of dehumidification is through the use of a desiccant that attracts the moisture in the air to its surface
by introducing a low vapor pressure at the desiccant surface. The vapor pressure of the moisture in the air is higher, so
moisture travels from the air to the desiccant. The desiccant then must be recharged through a heating process, which
allows the moisture to be driven from the desiccant and discharged to another location besides the cooling air stream.
One of the best dehumidification strategies is a combination of desiccant and cooling systems, particularly for 100
percent outside air streams such as makeup air systems. Since air exits a cooling-based system at saturation, it only
moves to a lower RH once it mixes with the room air and heat is added to it. The desiccant, on the other hand, enters the
space with very low RH, and its RH increases to the room's RH level once the two air streams reach equilibrium.
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EMERGING ISSUES
Current and Future Research and Development

The use of dedicated outdoor air systems to condition outside air is becoming industry standard practice. These units use
energy recovery features to condition the air in a cost effective manner. More information is available at Dedicated
Outside Air Systems.
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More detailed requirements for HVAC systems in Humid Climates are included in UFC 3-410 Heating,
Ventilating, and Air conditioning Systems
The International Mechanical Code
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Organizations
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

Publications
Preventing Moisture and Mold Problems: Design and Construction Guidelines, CH2M HILL, 2003
ASHRAE Guide for Buildings in Hot and Humid Climates, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, 2008
WBDG18 An Integrated Approach to HVAC Design and Performance

Answer the following questions to the best of your ability. ALL questions must have an answer selected before the test
can be graded. To save your test and come back at a later time, select the Save Test radio button at the bottom of the
page and click 'Submit'. Once saved, you may browse to another study page or you may close the window. To submit the
test for grading, select the Complete Test radio button at the bottom of the page and click 'Submit.'
1. This process maintains an adequate mixture of gases in the air we breath, controls odors, and removes
contaminants from occupied spaces:
a. Dehumidification
b. Ventilation
c. Geothermal exchange
d. Radiation
2. In internal-load dominated structures, this element should have a high cooling index:
a. Lamination layers
b. Glazing
c. O&M supplies
d. Dimming controls
3. To reduce heating and cooling loads in a building you should specify exterior wall constructions that:
a. Avoid thermal bridging
b. Incorporate low R-value wall and roof construction
c. Have life-cycle horizons of 10 to 15 years for walls and glazings
d. Provide a low cooling index
4. Refrigerators and air conditioners that extract heat from a cooler, conditioned space and reject it to a
warmer space, such as the outdoors, are types of:
a. Furnaces
b. Heat pumps
c. Step-fired boilers
d. Non-condensing boilers
5. The process in which electric power is generated at the facility where the waste heat is recovered to
produce service hot water, process heat, or absorption cooling:
a. Commissioning
b. Waterside economizer
c. Desiccant dehumidification
d. Cogeneration
6. This activity can identify areas of concern related to air infiltration and leakage, moisture diffusion,
surface condensation, and rain water entry all of which can negatively impact the building's energy
performance and indoor environmental quality:
a. External shading
b. Geothermal exchange
c. Building commissioning
d. Dominant solar strategies
7. This element should be coordinated with the appropriate design professionals so that design requirements
for wind loading, vibration, blast, and seismic considerations are addressed early and integrated with
support and anchorage systems:
a. Interior lighting
b. Rooftop equipment
c. Moisture barriers
d. Natural ventilation
8. This system, now required for many federal buildings, helps to maintain occupant thermal comfort and
positive building pressurization in perimeter zones:
a. Dedicated outdoor air systems

b. Shading device
c. Rooftop equipment
d. Double ventilated cavity systems
9. The following consideration must be addressed to ensure proper building pressurization:
a. Proper distribution of makeup air within the building spaces
b. Stack effect pressurization on the building exterior
c. Makeup air supplied by infiltration of outside air
d. None of the above
10.Makeup air should never be supplied (intentionally or unintentionally) by infiltration of outside air.
a. True
b. False
Provide Comfortable Environments

by the WBDG Productive Committee
OVERVIEW
Within This Page
Physical comfort is critical to work effectiveness, satisfaction, and physical

and psychological well-being. During the facility design and development process, to
ensure comfortable environments, building projects must have a comprehensive, integrated
perspective that seeks to:

Provide a superior acoustic environment
Maintain optimal thermal comfort
Overview
Recommendations
Relevant Codes and
Standards
Major Resources
Create a high quality visual environment

Provide furniture and equipment that will enhance worker comfort and performance
Provide user controls.

Implementing holistic design principles will also help achieve these objectives.
Uncomfortable conditions in buildings and spaces-too hot, too cold, too noisy, too dark, too light, too much glare-restrict
the ability of workers to function to full capacity and can lead to lowered job satisfaction and increases in illness
symptoms.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
Provide a Superior Acoustic Environment
Reduce sound reverberation time inside the workplace by specifying sound absorbing materials and by
configuring spaces to dampen rather than magnify sound reverberation.
Provide sound masking if necessary.
Limit transmission of noise from outside the workplace by designing high sound transmission class (STC)
walls between work areas and high noise areas inside and outside the building.
Minimize background noise from the building's HVAC system and other equipment.
Provide opportunities for privacy and concentration when needed in open plan offices.
Enclose or separate group activity spaces from work areas where concentration is important.
Provide Quality Thermal and Ventilation Comfort
At a minimum, comply with American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) Standard 55 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.
Incorporate natural ventilation, if appropriate to the location, and consider adjusting the requirements
of ASHRAE Standard 55 to account for the impact.
Analyze room configurations and HVAC distribution layouts to ensure all parts of a room are receiving
adequate ventilation, especially spaces where teams or groups meet. Consider providing individual
environmental controls in these rooms.
Analyze placement, configuration, and type of windows and skylights and provide adequate,controllable
shading to avoid "hot spots" caused by direct sunlight.
Consider providing a temperature and humidity monitoring system to ensure optimal thermal comfort
performance.
Evaluate the use of access floors with displacement ventilation for flexibility, personal comfort control,
and energy savings.
Provide individual air and temperature controls at each workstation.
Utilize CO2 sensors to assess the air quality of spaces to adjust ventilation.
One solution for providing quality thermal and ventilation comfort is enhanced ventilation terminal control system with multizone VAV box terminal controls and individual airflow controls (personal air-conditioning).
(Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions Directorate)
Create a High Quality Visual Environment (Including Lighting, Daylighting, and Visual Interest)
Low-glare retrofit lenses, C. D. Howe Building, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

(Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions Directorate)
Provide as much natural daylight as possible for occupants while avoiding excessive heat loss, heat gain,
and glare.
Provide views and access to the outdoor environment for all occupants.
Provide connections to indoor and outdoor nature where possible.
Integrate natural and electric lighting strategies, and provide controls that optimize daylighting/electric
lighting interaction. Light vertical surfaces/walls to increase the perceived brightness of the space.
Balance the quantity and quality of light in all work areas and design for "uniformity with flexibility."
Consider individually controlled task lighting for each workstation that properly illuminates the task.
Control or eliminate glare from ceiling lighting and windows.
Provide individual control of task lighting and, where possible, adjustment of ceiling light using advanced
lighting systems technologies.
Assure a visually appealing environment through the appropriate and well-balanced use of scale, colors,
textures, patterns, artwork, and plants.
Avoid both uniformity and visual chaos.
See also WBDG Psychosocial Value of Space.
Left: Workplace environments with well balanced color and patterns are pleasant and appealing. This photo shows an informal
work area at the Herman Miller Front Door in Holland, Michigan.
Right: The beige cubicle environment lacking color embellishment or pattern is, unfortunately, a common site in many work
environments and not an optimal one. The high partitions block daylight from enlivening the space.
Provide Furniture and Equipment that Will Enhance Worker Comfort and Performance
Adapt furnishings to the work to be done, not the other way around.
Specify furnishings that support good posture, body mechanics, and work techniques for the tasks to be
accomplished (e.g. ergonomically designed chairs and keyboards).
Provide workstations that allow users to adjust seating, computer equipment placement, light levels,
work surface heights, workspace layout, and ventilation.
Install glass panels in workstation walls to provide access to daylight and views.
Design furniture configurations that allow workers variable views for visual relief.
For telecommuting workers, the sponsoring organization should assure that the home office is
comfortable, ergonomic, and has the necessary technological tools.
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ASHRAE Standard 55 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy

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MAJOR RESOURCES
WBDG
Building / Space Types

Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or visited.
Design Objectives
Accessible, Aesthetics, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation, Secure / Safe,Secure /
SafeEnsure Occupant Safety and Health, Secure / SafeProvide Security for Occupants and
Assets, Sustainable, SustainableUse Environmental Preferable Products, SustainableEnhance Indoor
Environmental Quality, SustainableOptimize Operational and Maintenance Practices
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool
Provide a Superior Acoustic Environment
Acoustical Society of America

American Speech-Hearing-Language Association
Greening Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource Guide for Federal Facility
Managers (p. 123)
GSA Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 (Chapter 3.13)
Institute of Noise Control Engineering of the USA

National Council of Acoustical Consultants
National Research Council of Canada
NIH Design Policy and Guidelines
TM 5-803-2/NAVFAC P-970/AFM 19-10 Environmental Protection Planning in the Noise Environment (PDF
2.6 MB)
UFC 3-120-10 Interior Design

UFC 3-450-01 Noise and Vibration Control
Maintain Optimal Thermal Comfort
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics, Carnegie Mellon University
Center for the Built Environment, University of California-Berkeley
Create a High Quality Visual Environment
The DesignLights Consortium

ENERGY STAREPA
Managers (p.37, p.121)
Illuminating Engineering Society (IES)
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Light Right Consortium, Battelle/Pacific Northwest Laboratory
UFC 3-530-01 Design: Interior and Exterior Lighting and Controls

Provide Furniture and Equipment that Will Enhance Worker Comfort and Performance

EP 385-1-96 USACE Ergonomics Program Procedures (PDF 113 KB)
Occupational Health and Safety Administration
U.S. Access Board
Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)

by the WBDG Sustainable Committee
OVERVIEW
When constructing cost-effective buildings, it is easy to forget that the success or failure
of a project may rest on its indoor environmental quality

(IEQ). Healthy, comfortable employees are often more satisfied and productive.
Within This Page

Overview
Recommendations
Relevant Codes and
Unfortunately, this simple truth is often lost, for it is easier to focus on the first-cost of a
Standards
project than it is to determine the value of increased user productivity and health. Facilities Major Resources
should be constructed with an appreciation of the importance of providing high-quality,
interior environments for all users.
As a species, we have progressed from an outdoor hunter-gatherer existence to one where 90% of the typical American's
life is spent indoors. For many of us, we have evolved where the indoor realm is our natural environment.
IEQ encompasses indoor air quality (IAQ), which focuses on airborne contaminants, as well as other health, safety, and
comfort issues such as aesthetics, potable water surveillance, ergonomics, acoustics, lighting, and electromagnetic
frequency levels. IEQ improvements to an existing building can occur at any point during the use of a building.
During the facility/renovation design and development process, federal projects must have a comprehensive, integrated
The Thoreau Institute of Sustainability at the PresidioSan Francisco, California
Facilitate quality IEQ through good design, construction, commissioning, and operating and maintenance
practices;
Value aesthetic decisions, such as the importance of views and the integration of natural and man-made
elements;
Provide thermal comfort with a maximum degree of personal control over temperature and airflow;
Supply adequate levels and quality of ventilation and outside air for acceptable indoor air quality;
Prevent airborne bacteria, mold, and other fungi, as well as radon, through building envelope design that
properly manages moisture sources from outside and inside the building, and with heating, ventilating,
air-conditioning (HVAC) system designs that are effective at controlling indoor humidity;
Use materials that do not emit pollutants or are low-emitting;
Assure acoustic privacy and comfort through the use of sound absorbing material and equipment
isolation;
Control disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and removal, and by careful selection of cleaning
products. Pursue energy efficient strategies to remove harmful odors while recovering the energy used in
conditioning the interior environment;
Create a high-performance luminous environment through the careful integration of natural and artificial
light sources; and
Provide quality water.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
Facilitate Quality IEQ through Good Design, Construction, Renovation and O&M Practices
Acceptable IEQ is often easiest to achieve if "source control" is practiced, not only during building
construction, but also over the life of the building. For example, the designer may select building products
that do not produce noxious or irritating odors, do not contain volatile organic compounds (VOC), and
design exterior entrances with permanent entryway systems to catch and hold dirt particles.
Refer to the ASHRAE Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Guide: Best Practices for Design, Construction, and
Commissioning for guidance on addressing IAQ during building design and construction. The ASHRAE IAQ
Guide was developed by an ASHRAE appointed team of building professionals and world class IAQ experts
with funding support from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Refer to the Indoor Air Quality Scientific Findings Resource Bank (IAQ-SFRB) for scientific information
about the effects of IAQ on people's health or work performance. The IAQ-SFRB is being developed by the
Indoor Environment Department of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory with funding support from
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
The Operations & Maintenance (O&M) and cleaning staff can also avoid creating IEQ problems by
choosing less noxious materials during repair and cleaning activities. While HVAC systems may be
designed to isolate operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from other occupancies, the O&M staff
ensures that pressure differentials are maintained to avoid the undesirable flow of contaminants from one
space to another. See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
Value Aesthetic Decisions
Appreciate the importance of providing windows in all occupied spaces for view and natural ventilation.
See also WBDG Aesthetics and ProductivePromote Health and Well-Being. Ensure that these windows
have proper solar glare control, and encourage occupants to not close the blinds for the worst condition
and leave them closed because of apathy.
Design spaces around basic human needs, ancient preferences, and connections to the patterns of
nature and the mind. See also WBDG Psychosocial Value of Space.
Demand that individual buildings or facilities are consciously integrated into their natural and man-made
context. See also WBDG SustainableOptimize Site Potential.
Provide Thermal Comfort
Use ASHRAE Standard 55Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy as the basis for
thermal comfort. See also WBDG ProductiveProvide Comfortable Environments.
Evaluate the use of access floors with displacement ventilation for flexibility, personal comfort control,
and energy savings.
Understand moisture dynamics as a key criteria in the selection of wall and roof assemblies. See also
WBDG Air Barrier Systems in Buildings.
Evaluate the benefit of specifying high-performance windows to increase mean radiant temperature
(MRT).
Consider external conditions impacting thermal comfort.
Easily maintained window treatments also provide occupants individual control to both thermal and light
exposures from the sun.
Provide Ventilation and Maintain Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
Design the ventilation system to meet or exceed ASHRAE Standard 62.1: Ventilation for Acceptable
Indoor Air Quality. Work closely with the Mechanical Engineering team to strike a balance between
optimal fresh air and energy efficiency using either the ventilation rate procedure (VRP) or the indoor air
quality procedure (IAQP). Also, consider the USGBC LEED pilot credit #68.
Implement a construction management program that ensures key ventilation components are protected
from contamination during construction. Ensure that construction filters placed in ductwork and
mechanical equipment are routinely inspected and replaced as needed. Do not install carbon filters until
all construction work, including dry wall and painting, has ceased.
Commission HVAC systems to validate and document design performance intent. Review commissioning
report to ensure that adequate ventilation rates have been achieved prior to initial occupancy. One
Commissioning technique that can be employed over the life of the building is the use of a well
maintained carbon dioxide monitoring system that will continually provide diagnostic feedback on the
actual amount ventilation provided in the most densely occupied spaces. HVAC system should be installed
with filters with a Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) of 11 for residential, commercial,
telecommunications and industrial facilities. MERV 13-16 is preferred for smoke removal, general surgery,
hospitals, and other healthcare facilities.
Consider a building design with a natural ventilation or hybrid component to both reduce energy
consumption and to make some provisions for ventilation even if external power were not available (a
measure of resiliency). Use of natural ventilation component is dependent on relative humidity being
within an acceptable range.
Investigate the use of separate outside air and conditioned air distribution systems. A good description of
various types of heating and ventilation systems can be found at: WBDG High-Performance
HVAC and Natural Ventilation.
Ensure fresh air intakes are located away from loading areas, exhaust fans, and other contamination
points, preferably on roofs.
If building is close to a large roadway source, consider the location of the fresh air intakes orpossible
breaks that may help reduce impact of the outdoor air on the indoor environment.
Ensure parking lot/garage usage cannot generate pollutants that affect fresh air intake or pedestrian
traffic. Prevent vehicles idling near the facility during normal operations. If there is a below grade parking
garage, consider using monitored values of both carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide to control the fans
to reduce exposures to not only the carbon monoxide but also the respiratory irritants of oxides of
nitrogen and unburned hydrocarbons.
Investigate the use of a permanent air quality monitoring system. ASHRAE acceptable level of carbon
dioxide (CO2) for an indoor office environment at 20 cfm per person equates to no greater than 530 ppm
greater than outdoors. While outdoors used to about 300 to 400 ppm many years ago, increasing
atmospheric CO2 levels are now at least 400 ppm, even on a mountain top in Hawaii. If Demand
Controlled Ventilation is employed, either rely on sophisticated algorithms to automatically review and
interpret the monitoring data and/or have it periodically reviewed by an IAQ expert. Carbon monoxide
(CO) levels in office environments should be below 9 ppm. OSHA regulates levels of CO for industrial
locations.
Coordinate ventilation and air filtration with chemical, biological, and radiological concerns and locate
outside air intakes so they do not conflict with physical security requirements. See also WBDG Air
Decontamination.
During operation, either develop a plan for identifying needed filter media replacement or replace filter
media on a regular schedule.
Provide Energy Recovery Ventilation systems as a standard feature in new construction which is highly
insulated and extremely airtight to provide needed ventilation air.
Prevent Radon Entry, Airborne Bacteria, Mold, and Other Fungi
Prevention of mold and fungi is dependent upon effective HVAC and building envelope design and construction. The
HVAC system must be able to control interior humidity conditions over a wide range of outdoor conditions. The system
must be designed to have the capacity to dehumidify at the 1% Humidity Ratio and mean coincident dry bulb
temperature, and control interior humidity at both extreme and low load conditions. The building envelope must be
carefully designed to prevent intrusion of water and to dry if intrusion should occur. It must also incorporate barriers that
control vapor and air infiltration.
Carefully consider the envelope of the building to prevent moisture infiltration. See ASHRAE IAQ Guide.
Investigate and remediate immediately when there is a mold or moisture problem, either from high
humidity, a leak, or flood. See EPA Guidance.
Ensure the number of spores in the indoor air is less than the outdoor air. It is recommended that there
should be less than 700 spores in a cubic meter of air.
In areas where it is prevalent, include measures to test for radon and control and mitigate radonbuildup.
Limit Spread of Pathogens
For health care facilities:

Implement proper maintenance procedures to prevent nosocomial infections.
Consider removing restroom doors to reduce the chance of acquiring infections.
Use Materials that do not Emit Pollutants or are Low-emitting
Limit the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in such products as cleaners, paints, sealants,
coatings, and adhesives. See also WBDG Evaluating and Selecting Green Products.
Avoid products containing formaldehyde, i.e., carpet, wall panels, cabinetry.
Remove asbestos-containing material or contain it in a manner that precludes the possibility of future
exposure.
Follow careful lead-safe work practices during renovations with thorough clean-up. Follow
EPA's Renvoation, Repair, and Painting Program.
Create safe, convenient, and secure storage spaces for housekeeping chemicals. See also
WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
If an area in an occupied building is being renovated, consider isolating and negatively pressurizing the
construction area if work is being performed that would result in dust, fumes, or odors. If conditioned air is
required due to high end finishing work, the air should be directly exhausted to the exterior environment
and not returned to the fan.
Ensure office equipment installed emit minimal odors or pollutants.
Assure Acoustic Privacy and Comfort
Minimize noise through the use of sound-absorbing materials, high sound transmission loss walls, floors,
and ceilings, and equipment sound isolation. See Architectural Graphic Standards, 11th Edition, section on
Acoustical Design for more information. See also WBDGProductiveProvide Comfortable
Environments and Acoustic Comfort.
Consider sound masking systems. These systems introduce an unobtrusive background sound that
reduces interference from distracting office noise. Note that some level of HVAC "noise" can serve as a
background white noise source, eliminating the need for sound masking systems.
Avoid the use of small diameter ducts with high velocity airflow.
Control Disturbing Odors through Contaminant Isolation and Product Selection

Directly exhaust copying and housekeeping areas, and provide added return air grills in these areas. This
will help limit lower atmosphere ozone generation, commonly associated with duplicating and printing
processes. Ozone acts as a power oxidant. It can attack surfaces of certain elastomers, plastics, paints,
and pigments; and aid in sulfide and chloride corrosion of metals. Possible health hazards caused by
ozone include eye and mucous membrane irritation as well as chronic respiratory disease.
Minimize disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and careful selection of cleaning products.
Ensure maintenance procedures are in place to remove all trash and recyclables from the building on a
regular basis rather than storing them within the building for prolonged periods of time.
Prohibit smoking in all areas of the building. Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) is a known carcinogen.
In special cases where smoking is permitted, e.g., federal judge's private chambers, ensure that the
spaces:
Have lower pressure than adjacent areas;
Comply with ASHRAE Standard 62.1 for proper ventilation;

Are isolated from the return air system of surrounding areas to prevent pollutants from spreading to other
areas.
Use/Effectiveness of Air Cleaners.
Create a HighPerformance Luminous Environment
Use daylighting for ambient lighting wherever feasible.

Supplement natural light with integrated, high-performance ballasts, lamps, fixtures, andcontrols.
Substitute magnetic fluorescent lamps with high-frequency electronic ballasts to reduce flickering.
Reduce direct glare from both natural and man-made sources in the field of viewparticularly in spaces
with highly reflective surfaces, such as visual display terminals (VDTs).
Use task/ambient systems that provide reduced levels of diffuse, general illumination, and supplement
with task lighting. Most people do not need lighting in excess of 300 lux (a unit of illumination).
Use light color on walls and locate windows properly.
Provide dimming fixtures where possible combined with appropriate task lighting so that occupants can
reduce lighting levels to their preferred lumens. Dimming the lights will both save electricity and the
heating load that lighting demands of the building's HVAC system. Often the lighting levels are designed
to the most demanding user; all other occupants are forced to adapt to levels that are higher that desired.
Provide Quality Water
Comply with EPA Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) for the levels of various metals and bacteria in potable
water systems.
For newly installed or temporarily suspended domestic water systems, follow "start-up" procedures by
flushing all downstream outlets.
Conduct periodic 'maintenance flushing' to proactively control drinking water issues.
Control domestic water temperature to avoid temperature ranges where legionellae grow: keep domestic
water temperatures above 140F (60C) in tanks and 122F (50C) at all taps (faucets and showers).
Design cooling tower and building air intake placement so air discharged from the cooling tower or
evaporative condenser is not directly brought into the facility's air intake.
Consider a closed loop system instead of an open system to reduce the potential of exposure at the
cooling tower.
Be Aware of Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields (EMF)
Electromagnetic fields (EMF) are generated by forces associated with electric charges in motion, and by microwaves,
radio waves, electrical currents, and transformers. EMF are thought to cause cancer, however there is insufficient
evidence to prove this. There are no federal standards limiting occupational or residential exposure to EMF at this time,
only various U.S. and International voluntary occupational exposure guidelines. Nevertheless, facility designers and
managers should consult the following resources to find out the latest scientific research and recommendations on
dealing with EMF exposure:
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Electric and Magnetic Fields

World Health Organization (WHO), Electromagnetic fields (EMF)
Balance IEQ Strategies with Security Requirements
Since the terrorist attacks of 9/11, building owners and occupants have placed greater emphasis on
facility security and safety. However, security and safety measures must be considered within a total project context,
including the project's environmental goals. Several indoor environmental quality strategies, such as dedicated ventilation
systems and tight building envelopes, can be employed to help designers achieve an integrated, high-performance
facility. See also WBDG Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives.
BACK TO TOP
ASHRAE Guideline 1.1 HVAC&R Technical Requirements for The Commissioning Process
ASHRAE Standard 52.2 Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency
by Particle Size
ASHRAE Standard 55 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air QualitySets the minimum acceptable
ventilation requirements.
ASHRAE Standard 90.1 Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
ASHRAE 189.1-2011 Standard for the Design of Green Buildings, except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
Department of Defense
Air Force Engineering Technical Letter ETL 04-3 Design Criteria for Prevention of Mold in Air Force
Facilities, by U.S. Air Force, 2004
UFC 1-200-02, High Performance and Sustainable Building Requirements
U.S. General Services Administration
P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service by the General Services Administration (GSA)
BACK TO TOP
MAJOR RESOURCES
WBDG

Applicable to most building types and space types, especially for Child Development Centers,Training
Facility, Federal Courthouse, Health Care Facilities, Libraries, Office Building, Auditorium,Conference /
Classroom, Courthouse: Courtroom, Library (Space Type), Office
Design Objectives
Aesthetics, Historic PreservationUpdate Building Systems Appropriately, Productive, Secure /
Safe, SustainableOptimize Site Potential, SustainableOptimize Energy Use, SustainableProtect and
Conserve Water, SustainableOptimize Building Space and Material Use, SustainableOptimize
Operational and Maintenance Practices
Section 23 28 13: CommercialKitchen Hoods, Section 23 31 00: HVAC Ducts and Casings,Section 23 05
93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building Envelope Design GuideSustainability of the
Building Envelope

01 67 00 (01611) Environmental Product Requirements
01 74 13 (01740) Progress Cleaning
05 05 00 (05500) Common Work Results for Metals
06 05 73 (06070) Wood Treatment
06 10 00 (06100) Rough Carpentry
06 16 00 (06160) Sheathing
06 20 00 (06200) Finish Carpentry
06 60 00 (06600) Plastic Fabrications
06 90 00 (06700) Alternative Agricultural Products

07 10 00 (07100) Dampproofing & Waterproofing
07 20 00 (07200) Thermal Protection
07 30 00 (07300) Steep Slope Roofing
07 50 00 (07500) Membrane Roofing
07 55 63 (07530) Vegetated Protected Membrane Roofing
07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants
08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors
08 50 00 (08500) Windows
09 29 00 (09250) Gypsum Board
09 30 00 (09300) Tile
09 51 00 (09510) Acoustical Ceilings
09 65 00 (09650) Resilient Flooring
09 65 16.13 (09654) Linoleum
09 68 00 (09680) Carpeting
09 72 00 (09720) Wall Covering
09 90 00 (09900) Painting and Coating
12 10 00 (12100) Artwork
12 59 00 (12700) Systems Furniture
22 40 00 (15400) Plumbing Fixtures
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Facilitate Quality IEQ through Good Design and O&M Practices

Federal Agencies and Laboratories
Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Indoor Air Quality
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBL), Indoor Environment Group
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
OSHA, Indoor Air Quality
Organizations and Associations
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

ASTM International
International Union of Operating Engineers (IUOE); Indoor Air Quality Solutions for Stationary Engineers
The Green Building Initiative
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA)
Living Building Challenge by the International Living Future Institute
U.S. Green Building Council
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System
IAQ Building Education and Assessment Model (I-BEAM) Computer SoftwareI-BEAM is computer
software for use by building professionals and others interested in indoor air quality in commercial
buildings. I-BEAM updates and expands EPA's existing Building Air Quality guidance and is designed to be
comprehensive state-of-the-art guidance for managing IAQ in commercial buildings. I-BEAM contains text,
animation/visual, and interactive/calculation components that can be used to perform a number of
diverse tasks.
Multizone Modeling website, NISTContains software tools for performing multi-zone analysis
(e.g. CONTAMW), information on the applications of multi-zone modeling, multi-zone modeling case
studies, and references to multi-zone modeling publications.
Others
ASHRAE Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Guide: Best Practices for Design, Construction, and Commissioning, for
guidance on addressing IAQ during building design and construction, 2009.
"Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers" by U.S. EPA and National
Institute for Safety and Health, 1991.
California Integrated Waste Management Board (CIWMB) Section 01350 Special Environmental
Requirements for testing emissions of products
EPA Indoor Air Quality Customer Service
Ask a Question
FedCenter.govFedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship and Compliance Assistance
Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal
Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of
environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal
government facilities.
Value Aesthetic Decisions
WBDG: Aesthetics, Productive

Provide Thermal Comfort
WBDG: ProductiveProvide Comfortable Environments

MOIST 4.03 softwareComputer software that predicts the one-dimensional transfer of heat and
moisture, allowing users to investigate the effects of various parameters on the moisture accumulation
within layers of the construction. MOIST can also be used to generate guidelines and practices for
controlling moisture.
Supply Adequate Levels and Quality of Ventilation and Outside Air
WBDG: ProductivePromote Health and Well-Being

EPA Indoor Air Quality
EPA National Center for Environmental Research
Guidance for Filtration and Air-Cleaning Systems to Protect Building Environments from Airborne
Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks by National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, April
2003.
Guidance for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological
Attacks by Department of Health and Human Services, May 2002.
The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality by EPA Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (6604J) and
United States Consumer Product Safety Commission.
NAVFAC White Paper on Carbon Monoxide (PDF 252 KB)
Prevent Radon Entry, Airborne Bacteria, Mold, and Fungi
Air Force Engineering Technical Letter ETL 04-3 Design Criteria for Prevention of Mold in Air Force
Facilities, by U.S. Air Force, 2004.
Indoor Environmental Standards Organization (IESO)IESO is a non-profit organization that provides a
national forum for the development and publication of voluntary consensus standards for the assessment
of indoor environments. IESO also offers certification programs to promote awareness and compliance to
the established standards. The IESO Standards of Practice, Volume 1 for the assessment of indoor air
quality includes seven standards on two topics: Mold Sampling and Assessment of Mold Contamination.
OSHA, Molds & Fungi website
Radon Prevention in the Design and Construction of Schools and Other Large Buildings: Third Printing
with Addendum, June 1994. (Note-EPA is working to update this document).
Standard Practice for Installing Radon Mitigation Systems in Existing Low-rise Residential Buildings; ASTM
International; ASTM E-2121-09, November 2009. [EPA has reprinted this document with permission from
ASTM as EPA 402/K/10/007 (NSCEP)].
Appendix B, Radon Control, of the 2012 ICC International Green Construction Code (IgCC).
Standard Practice for Radon Control Options for the Design and Construction of New Low-Rise Residential
Buildings; ASTM E1465-07a. [EPA has reprinted this document with permission from ASTM as 402-
K/10/006 (NSCEP)].
Limit Spread of Pathogens
WBDG: Health Care Facilities

Avoid the Use of Materials High in Pollutants
EPA Environmentally Preferable Purchasing

Greenguard Environmental Institute Certified Products
GreenSeal Product Recommendations
Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) Green Products Certification
Assure Acoustic Privacy and Comfort
WBDG: ProductiveProvide Comfortable Environments, Acoustic Comfort

Architectural Graphic Standards, 11th Edition
Create a HighPerformance Luminous Environment
WBDG: ProductivePromote Health and Well-Being, ProductiveProvide Comfortable Environments

IES Lighting Handbook, 10th Edition
Windows and Daylighting Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Provide Quality Water
EPA Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 1974, 1986, 1996

EPA Drinking Water Strategy, 2009
NAVFAC Information on Legionella or Legionnaire's Disease (PDF 19 KB)
Balance IEQ Strategies with Security Requirements
WBDG: Secure / SafeProvide Security for Building Occupants and Assets

Guidance for Filtration and Air-Cleaning Systems to Protect Building Environments from Airborne
Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks, by National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
2003.
Guidance for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological
Attacks by Department of Health and Human Services, May 2002.
Publications
How IEQ Affects Health, Productivity (PDF 220 KB) by William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE.ASHRAE Journal,
May 2002.
IEQ and the Impact on Building Occupants (PDF 105 KB) by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and
William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, April 2002.
IEQ and the Impact on Employee Sick Leave (PDF 83 KB) by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and
William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, July 2002.
IEQ Indoor Environmental Quality, 2006. A project of the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS)
with funding support from The Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board (Access Board).
Indoor Environmental Quality by Thad Godish, CRC Press, 2001.
Indoor Air Quality Guide: Best Practices for Design, Construction, and Commissioning, ASHRAE, 2009.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Scientific Findings Research Bank (SRFB); information on
relationship between health, performance, productivity, and benefits
Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 115 KB) by Olli Seppnen, Fellow ASHRAE, William J. Fisk, P.E., Member
ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D. ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.
Training Courses
WBDG07 Defining, Evaluating, and Selecting Green Products

Case Study
Bertschi School Living Science Building

Indoor Air Quality Research
Promote Health and Well-Being

OVERVIEW
Within This Page
Overview
Indoor environments have strong positive effects on occupant well-being and functioning,
Recommendations
especially attributes such as the amount and quality of light and color, the sense of
enclosure, the sense of privacy, access to window views, connection to nature, sensory
Major Resources
variety, and personal control over environmental conditions.Designing to enhance

psychological well-being will therefore have positive impacts on work effectiveness and other high value outcomes,
such as stress reduction, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
Left: The office of the World Resources Institute utilizes a mixture of elements to provide a healthy work environment. (Photo
by Alan Karchmer Courtesy of HOK)
Right: Central commons bathed in natural daylight flanked by open-plan workstations located along the perimeter of
the Federal Center South Building 1202.
(Photo Credit: Benjamin Benschneider)
To reap the fiscal, physical, and psychological benefits of healthy buildings, projects must have a
comprehensive, integrated design and development process that seeks to:
Provide maximum access to natural daylight and views to the outdoors
Provide superior ventilation

Control sources of indoor air contamination
Prevent unwanted moisture accumulation, and
Enhance the psychological and social aspects of space.
Indoor environments also strongly affect human health. For example, the EPA estimates that the concentration of
pollutants (like volatile organic compounds) inside a building may be two to five times higher than outside levels. A 1997
study by W.J. Fisk and A.H. Rosenfeld (Estimates of Improved Productivity and Health from Better Indoor
Environments. Indoor Air Vol. 7, pp. 158172) reports that the cost to the nation's workforce of upper respiratory
diseases in 1995 was $35 billion in lost work plus an additional $29 billion in health care costs. The study estimates that
more healthful indoor environments could reduce these costs by 10%-30%.
Implementing sustainable design principles will also help achieve these objectives.
BACK TO TOP
RECOMMENDATIONS
Daylight enhances the psychological value of space at Owens Corning World HeadquartersToledo, OH
(Courtesy of Owens Corning)
Provide Maximum Access to Natural Daylight and Views to the Outdoors
Use a daylighting analysis tool to help guide the design process. See also WBDG Daylighting.
Design windows to allow daylight to penetrate as far as possible into a room. Consider using light shelves
(solid horizontal elements placed above eye level, but below the top of the window) to reflect daylight
deep into a room. Design windows to provide views out from most spaces.
Design for diffuse, uniform daylight throughout the room. Avoid glare. Avoid direct beam sunlight in
continuously occupied spaces; however sun "spots" in other, shared or public spaces, are desirable and
psychologically beneficial.
Consider interior (shades, louvers, or blinds) and exterior (overhangs, trees) strategies to control glare
and filter daylight.
Consider shared daylight through glazed interior walls.
Integrate daylighting with the electric lighting system. Provide controls that turn off lights when sufficient
daylight exists. Consider dimming controls that continuously adjust lighting levels to respond to daylight
conditions.
Design floor plate depth to allow access to windows and views.
Consider the security implications of window, glazing, and door locations. See also WBDGDesigning
Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats and Retrofitting Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats.
Provide Superior Ventilation
Design the ventilation system to exceed ASHRAE Standard 62: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality.
Minimize recirculation while assuring energy efficiency through energy recovery. See also WBDG HighPerformance HVAC.
Ensure that ventilation air is effectively delivered to and distributed throughout the 'breathing zone.'
Consider individual controls.
Provide local exhaust for restrooms, kitchens, janitor's closets, copy rooms, etc.
Consider installing CO2 sensors to provide real time monitoring of air quality.
Consider separating thermal conditioning from ventilation in order to vary delivery of air volume separate
from temperature for better comfort.
See also WBDG Natural Ventilation.
Control Sources of Indoor Air Contamination
Test the site for sources of contamination: radon, hazardous waste, fumes from nearby industrial or
agricultural uses. See also WBDG Air Decontamination.
Locate air intakes away from sources of exhaust fumes (e.g. from buses, cars, or trucks).
Consider security implications of the location of building air intakes.

Consider recessed grates, "walk off" mats, and other techniques to reduce the amount of dirt entering
the building.
Specify green products and materials and furnishings that are low emitters of indoor air contaminants
such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Allow adequate time for installed materials and furnishings to "outgas" before a new workplace is
occupied. Assist the process by running the HVAC system continuously at the highest possible outdoor air
supply setting after materials and furnishings have been installed to adequately "flush out" the facility.
(The exact timing may vary for different materials and different environmental conditions.)
Consider "modular zoning" for air distribution in order to avoid cross contamination, including
providing mail handling center with a separate ventilation system.
Install proper barriers between occupied and construction zones in renovation projects in order to protect
worker health.
Prevent Unwanted Moisture Accumulation

Design the ventilation system to maintain the indoor relative humidity between 30% and 50%.
Design to avoid water vapor condensation, especially on walls and the underside of roof decks, and
around pipes or ducts or windows.
Design buildings with proper drainage and ventilation.
See also WBDG Mold and Moisture Dynamics and Air Barrier Systems in Buildings.
Enhance the Psychological Effects of Space
Design to allow workers to move freely from solitary work to group action as work requires.
Provide mobile technologies (phones, computers, wireless connectivity) that support new work styles and
work practices.
Design to reduce stress and facilitate mental rest breaks.
Provide workers the means to make meaningful changes in their immediate environments (e.g. through
personalization and control over the immediate environment to the extent possible).
Provide spatial features that support visual and acoustical privacy but allow opportunities for informal
encounters.
Provide an interesting visual environment and, at the same time, design for a balance between visual
access and visual enclosure. Provide views of natural vegetation, indoors or outdoors, when possible.
Strive to create a 'sense of place' such that the workplace has a unique character that engenders a
sense of pride, purpose, and dedication for individual workers and the workplace community.
BACK TO TOP
MAJOR RESOURCES
WBDG

Design Objectives
Accessible, Aesthetics, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation, Secure / Safe,Secure /
SafeEnsure Occupant Safety and Health, Secure / SafeProvide Security for Occupants and
Assets, Sustainable, SustainableUse Environmental Preferable Products, SustainableEnhance Indoor
Environmental Quality, SustainableOptimize Operational and Maintenance Practices
Project Management
Project Planning, Management and Delivery, Building Commissioning
Tools
Provide Maximum Access to Natural Daylight
Daylighting Performance and Design, 2nd Edition by Gregg D. Ander. Wiley, 2003.
DOE/EE-0025 Windows & Daylighting
Illuminating Engineering Society
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Provide Superior Ventilation
ASHRAE 129 Measuring Air Change Effectiveness

ASHRAE Standard 62 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
UFC 3-440-06N Cooling Buildings by Natural Ventilation
NISTIR 5329 Manual for Ventilation Assessment in Mechanically Ventilated Commercial Buildings
Control Sources of Indoor Air Contamination
ASTM D 6245 Standard Guide for Using Indoor Carbon Dioxide Concentrations to Evaluate Indoor Air
Quality and Ventilation
Carpet and Rug Institute
BuildingGreen.comEnvironmental Building News

EPA Indoor Air Division
Managers (p.119)
Green Seal
USAF Environmentally Responsible Facilities Guide (PDF 1.1 MB) (p. 44)
Prevent Unwanted Moisture Accumulation

Desiccant Cooling Technology Resource Guide
NISTIR 4821 Envelope Design Guidelines for Federal Office Buildings: Thermal Integrity and Airtightness
Enhance the Psychological Effects of Space

Architecture as Space, How to Look at Architecture by Bruno Zevi. Edited by Joseph Barry. New York:
Horizon Press, 1974.
The Changing Concept of Proportion by Rudolph Wittkower. Daedalus (Journal of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences). Vol. 89, pp. 199-215. 1960.
Color Theory For Classrooms and Schools, National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities
"Design, Productivity and Well-Being: What are the Links?" by Judith H. Heerwagen. Battelle/Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory, Seattle, WApaper presented at The American Institute of Architects
Conference on Highly Effective Facilities, Cincinnati, Ohio, March 1998.
DG 1110-3-122 Design Guide for Interiors (p.2.1)
Environmental Design Research Association

Impact of School Facilities on Learning, National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities
Geometry of Design: Studies in Proportion and Composition by Kimberly Elam.
A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction by Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray
Silverstein. Oxford University Press: 1977.
The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces by William Whyte, 1980. Washington, DC: Conservation
Foundation.
Space Requirements for School Facilities, National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities
Space, Time, and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition (3rd edition) by Sigfried Giedion.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954.
Space Versus Place: The Loss and Recovery of Proportionality in Architecture by Terrance Galvin.
VA Interior Design Manual (PDF 6.6 MB)

Organizations

American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
ASTM International
Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA)
Green Globes
International Interior Design Association (IIDA)
Living Building Challenge
National Research Council Canada, Indoor Environment Program
U.S. Green Building Council LEED
Publications
May 2002.
HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB) by W.K. Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T. Stayner, R.
Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford, T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed.ASHRAE Journal, September
2002.
IEQ and the Impact on Employee Sick Leave by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk,
P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, July 2002.
Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 415 KB) by Olli Seppnen, Fellow ASHRAE, William J. Fisk, P.E., Member
ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D. ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.
Productive
OVERVIEW
Within This Page
Effective and efficient use of space means creating the right environment for concentration,
learning, communication, and collaborationthe building blocks of productivity for building
Overview
occupants.
Standards
Relevant Codes and

Major Resources
Organizations, business practices, educational settings and learning methodologies, and the
workforce have changed dramatically in the past two decades. Technological advances, demographic shifts, and
continual demands for innovation have created pressures for environments to catch up with the changing nature of
organizations, work and workplace.
Organizational effectiveness today means using space more wisely. This does not just mean cutting costs. It means
designing for flexibility to enable space to change as work groups, activities, and projects evolve. Information in these
Productive pages must be considered together with otherdesign objectives and within a total project context in order to
achieve quality, high-performance buildings. Also, workplace productivity strategies support sustainable design
principles, functional programming and functionality, and should be taken on balance for the longevity of all the issues
considered.
The Office of Government-wide Policy at the GSA headquarters building in Washington, DC was designed to maximize
flexibility, allowing new occupants to change the space to fit their group and individual needs.
It is often hard to quantify the impacts of specific components of the indoor environment on productivity, because
individual and group effectiveness is tied to many different factors-including compensation levels, management practices,
and environmental comfort. It is difficult, if not impossible, to isolate individual physical factors, such as the presence or
absence of team rooms, daylighting, natural meeting places, or control over the environment. This problem is
exacerbated in the case of employees whose "output" is knowledge or insight that cannot be easily quantified.
Nonetheless, an increasing number of studies are beginning to suggest that support for communication and collaboration
as well as for individual cognitive activity are fundamental aspects of organizational productivity. The GSA agrees and
concludes in The Integrated Workplace that "since people are the most important resource and greatest expense of
any organization, the long-term cost benefits of a properly designed, user-friendly work environment should be factored
into any initial cost considerations."
One way to do such "factoring" is to consider the total life-cycle costs of the building or property each year. In private
sector offices, such costs are typically, in order of magnitude:
$200 per square foot per year for salaries
$20 per square foot per year for amortized bricks and mortar costs, and
$2.00 per square foot per year for energy.
In this situation, an additional $2 per square foot per year for bricks and mortar costs (e.g. for providing greater flexibility)
would pay for itself if it generated a modest 1% increase in salary "productivity." Note: Design strategies that increase
user satisfaction and that improve individual and group effectiveness should therefore be considered not as cost 'extras,'
but as productivity investments that enhance an organization's overall success.
Buildings can be more effective, exciting places to work, learn, and live by encouraging adaptability, improving comfort,
supporting sense of community, and by providing connections to the natural environment, natural light, and view.
There are five fundamental principles of productive building designs:
Promote Health and Well-Being

Indoor environments strongly affect human health. An effective environment should be designed to
support and enhance the health and well-being of its occupants. Sustainable design principles also help
achieve this objective.
Provide Comfortable Environments
An environment designed and operated to provide the highest achievable levels of visual,acoustic,
ergonomic, and thermal comforts for its occupants is the underpinning of worker effectiveness.
Design for the Changing Workplace
Providing spaces with flexibility, social support, and technology to promote new ways of working, learning
and engaging in a number of activities is a cornerstone of change and innovation.
Integrate Technological Tools
Effectively integrating technological tools and distribution networks required in today's environments to
enable occupants to perform activities or their duties starts first and foremost with properly designed
pathways and spaces.
Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces
Reliability is one of the greatest concerns for building occupantsit directly affects their safety, health,
and comfort. Occupants must be able to rely on sufficient functional space, building systems, equipment,
and tools that function consistently and are properly maintained.
BACK TO TOP
Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA 2007)

Federal Acquisition Regulations, Parts 48, Value Engineering
Federal Acquisition Regulations, Parts 52, Solicitation Provisions and Contract Clauses
OMB Circular A-131
Public Law 104-106, Section 4306, Value Engineering for Federal Agencies
BACK TO TOP
MAJOR RESOURCES
WBDG

Project Management
Project Planning, Management and Delivery, Building Commissioning
Tools
Federal Agencies

U.S. General Services Administration, Public Buildings Service, Office of Real Property Asset Management
The New Federal WorkplaceA Report on the Performance of Six Workplace 2020 Projects(PDF 4.0 MB),
U.S. General Services Administration, Public Buildings Service
Organizations
Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture

The American Institute of Architects
American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
American Society for Healthcare Engineering (ASHE)
CoreNet Global
International Facility Management Association (IFMA)
National Research Council of CanadaInstitute for Research in ConstructionA leading international
organization studying the effects of environmental comfort on occupant productivity
Publications
The Agile Workplace: Supporting People and Their Work by Gartner, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology and 22 Industry Sponsors, 2001.
Assessing Green Building Performance: A Post Occupancy Evaluation of 12 GSA Buildings (PDF 11.2 MB),
Kim M. Fowler, Emily M. Rauch, July 2008.
Collaborative Knowledge Work Environments (PDF 186 KB) by Judith Heerwagen, Kevin Kampschroer, Kevin
Powell, and Vivian Loftness. Building Research & Information, 32(6):510-528, 2004.
Daylighting and Human Performance by Lisa Heschong. ASHRAE Journal, June 2002.
Disproving Widespread Myths about Workplace Design by Michael Brill.

DOE Building Studies by the Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie
Mellon University, 1994.
"Environmental Satisfaction, Personal Control and the Positive Correlation to Increased Productivity" (PDF
222 KB)
White paper prepared by Carol Lomonaco and Dennis Miller, Johnson Controls, Inc.
Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General Service Administration (GSA).
Further Findings from the Office of Environment Survey: Productivity. Proceedings of Indoor Air '90: Fifth
International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate by Gary Raw and Michael Roys. Toronto,
Ontario: 1:231-36, 1990.
Global Sustainability PerspectiveJuly 2011, Green Buildings and Office Worker Productivity (PDF 364
KB)
by Jones Lang Lasalle.
Green Building Performance: A Post Occupancy Evaluation of 22 GSA Buildings (PDF 6.95 MB), GSA Public
Buildings Service, August 2011.
Green Buildings, Organizational Success and Occupant Productivity (PDF 184 KB) by Judith Heerwagen,
Building Research & Information, 28 (5/6): 353-367, 2000.
"Greening the Building and the Bottom Line: Increasing Productivity Through Energy-Efficient Design",
White paper by Rocky Mountain Institute.
Healthy Buildings and their Impact on Productivity. Proceedings of Indoor Air '93: Sixth International
International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate by David Wyon. Helsinki, Finland: 6:3-13, 1993.
May 2002.
IEQ and the Impact on Building Occupants (PDF 105 KB) by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and
William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, April 2002.
The Integrated Workplace: A Comprehensive Approach to Developing Workspace (PDF 3.7 MB)by Office of
Real Property in the Office of Government-wide Policy of the U.S. General Services Administration. May
1999.
Innovative Workplaces: Benefits and Best Practices (PDF 4.14 MB) developed as a joint project between the
General Services Administration (GSA) Office of Governmentwide Policy's Office of Real Property
Management and the GSA Public Buildings Service Office of Applied Science, January 2006.
The New Office: With 20 International Case Studies by Francis Duffy. Antique Collectors Club, 1997.
"Relationships Between the Indoor Environment and Productivity: A Literature Review,"ASHRAE
Transactions by N. Sensharma, et al. 1998.
Rensselaer's West Bend Mutual Study: Using Advanced Office Technologies to Increase Productivity by
Walter Kroner, et al. Troy, NY: Center for Architectural Research, 1992. One of the most carefully
documented studies on increases in productivity as a result of improved environmental quality.
Total Workplace Performance: Rethinking the Office Environment by Stanley Aronoff and Audrey Kaplan
(eds.). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: WDL Publications, 1995.
Using Office Design to Increase Productivity by Michael Brill, et al, and the Buffalo Organization for Social
and Technological Innovation (BOSTI). 1994. A major study of the relationship between productivity and
user satisfaction in 6,000 office buildings throughout the United States during a five-year period.
Workplace by Design: Mapping the High-Performance Workscape by Franklin Becker and Fritz Steele.
Jossey-Bass, 1995.
Others
BetterBricks.com
Building Research Information Knowledgebase (BRIK)an interactive portal offering online access to
peer-reviewed research projects and case studies in all facets of building, from predesign, design, and
construction through occupancy and reuse.
Center for Building Performance and DiagnosticsCarnegie Mellon University
Center for the Built EnvironmentThe Contribution of Building Design and Operation to Productivity,
University of California at Berkeley
Tools
Training
WBDG05 Daylighting Principles and Strategies for Sustainable Design
Natural Ventilation
by Andy Walker
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
INTRODUCTION
Almost all historic buildings were ventilated naturally, although many of these have been
compromised by the addition of partition walls and mechanical systems. With an increased
awareness of the cost and environmental impacts of energy use, natural ventilation has
Within This Page

Introduction
Description
Relevant Codes and
become an increasingly attractive method for reducing energy use and cost and for providing Standards
acceptable indoor environmental quality and maintaining a healthy, comfortable,
and productive indoor climate rather than the more prevailing approach of using
mechanical ventilation. In favorable climates and buildings types, natural ventilation can be used as an alternative to airconditioning plants, saving 10%-30% of total energy consumption.
Natural ventilation systems rely on pressure differences to move fresh air through buildings. Pressure differences can be
caused by wind or the buoyancy effect created by temperature differences or differences in humidity. In either case, the
amount of ventilation will depend critically on the size and placement of openings in the building. It is useful to think of a
natural ventilation system as a circuit, with equal consideration given to supply and exhaust. Openings between rooms
such as transom windows, louvers, grills, or open plans are techniques to complete the airflow circuit through a building.
Code requirements regarding smoke and fire transfer present challenges to the designer of a natural ventilation system.
For example, historic buildings used the stairway as the exhaust stack, a technique now prevented by code requirements
in many cases.
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DESCRIPTION
Natural ventilation, unlike fan-forced ventilation, uses the natural forces of wind and buoyancy to deliver fresh air into
buildings. Fresh air is required in buildings to alleviate odors, to provide oxygen for respiration, and to increase thermal
comfort. At interior air velocities of 160 feet per minute (fpm), the perceived interior temperature can be reduced by as
much as 5F. However, unlike true air-conditioning, natural ventilation is ineffective at reducing the humidity of incoming
air. This places a limit on the application of natural ventilation in humid climates.
A. Types of Natural Ventilation Effects
Wind can blow air through openings in the wall on the windward side of the building, and suck air out of openings on the
leeward side and the roof. Temperature differences between warm air inside and cool air outside can cause the air in the
room to rise and exit at the ceiling or ridge, and enter via lower openings in the wall. Similarly, buoyancy caused by
differences in humidity can allow a pressurized column of dense, evaporatively cooled air to supply a space, and lighter,
warmer, humid air to exhaust near the top. These three types of natural ventilation effects are further described below.
Wind
Wind causes a positive pressure on the windward side and a negative pressure on the leeward side of buildings. To
equalize pressure, fresh air will enter any windward opening and be exhausted from any leeward opening. In summer,
wind is used to supply as much fresh air as possible while in winter, ventilation is normally reduced to levels sufficient to
remove excess moisture and pollutants. An expression for the volume of airflow induced by wind is:
Qwind = K x A x V, where
Qwind = volume of airflow (m/h)
A = area of smaller opening (m)
V = outdoor wind speed (m/h)
K = coefficient of effectiveness
The coefficient of effectiveness depends on the angle of the wind and the relative size of entry and exit openings. It
ranges from about 0.4 for wind hitting an opening at a 45 angle of incidence to 0.8 for wind hitting directly at a 90 angle.
Sometimes wind flow prevails parallel to a building wall rather than perpendicular to it. In this case it is still possible to
induce wind ventilation by architectural features or by the way a casement window opens. For example, if the wind blows
from east to west along a north-facing wall, the first window (which opens out) would have hinges on the left-hand side to
act as a scoop and direct wind into the room. The second window would hinge on the right-hand side so the opening is
down-wind from the open glass pane and the negative pressure draws air out of the room.
It is important to avoid obstructions between the windward inlets and leeward exhaust openings. Avoid partitions in a
room oriented perpendicular to the airflow. On the other hand, accepted design avoids inlet and outlet windows directly
across from each other (you shouldn't be able to see through the building, in one window and out the other), in order to
promote more mixing and improve the effectiveness of the ventilation.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy ventilation may be temperature-induced (stack ventilation) or humidity induced (cool tower). The two can be
combined by having a cool tower deliver evaporatively cooled air low in a space, and then rely on the increased buoyancy
of the humid air as it warms to exhaust air from the space through a stack. The cool air supply to the space is pressurized
by weight of the column of cool air above it. Although both cool towers and stacks have been used separately, the author
feels that cool towers should only be used in conjunction with stack ventilation of the space in order to ensure stability of
the flow. Buoyancy results from the difference in air density. The density of air depends on temperature and humidity
(cool air is heavier than warm air at the same humidity and dry air is heavier than humid air at the same temperature).
Within the cool tower itself the effect of temperature and humidity are pulling in opposite directions (temperature down,
humidity up). Within the room, heat and humidity given off by occupants and other internal sources both tend to make air
rise. The stale, heated air escapes from openings in the ceiling or roof and permits fresh air to enter lower openings to
replace it. Stack effect ventilation is an especially effective strategy in winter, when indoor/outdoor temperature difference
is at a maximum. Stack effect ventilation will not work in summer (wind or humidity drivers would be preferred) because it
requires that the indoors be warmer than outdoors, an undesirable situation in summer. A chimney heated by solar
energy can be used to drive the stack effect without increasing room temperature, and solar chimneys are very widely
used to ventilate composting toilets in parks.
An expression for the airflow induced by the stack effect is:
Qstack = Cd*A*[2gh(Ti-To)/Ti]^1/2, where
Qstack = volume of ventilation rate (m/s)
Cd = 0.65, a discharge coefficient.
A = free area of inlet opening (m), which equals area of outlet opening.
g =9.8 (m/s). the acceleration due to gravity
h = vertical distance between inlet and outlet midpoints (m)
Ti = average temperature of indoor air (K), note that 27C = 300 K.
To = average temperature of outdoor air (K)
Cool tower ventilation is only effective where outdoor humidity is very low. The following expression for the airflow
induced by the column of cold air pressurizing an air supply is based on a form developed by Thompson (1995), with the
coefficient from data measured at Zion National Park Visitor Center (PDF 3.4 MB). This tower is 7.4 m tall, 2.4 m
square cross section, and has a 3.1 m opening.
Qcool tower =0.49 * A* [2gh (Tdb-Twb)/Tdb]1/2, where
Qcool tower = volume of ventilation rate (m/s)
0.49 is an empirical coefficient calculated with data from Zion Visitor Center, UT, which includes
humidity density correction, friction effects, and evaporative pad effectiveness.
A = free area of inlet opening (m), which equals area of outlet opening.
g =9.8 (m/s). the acceleration due to gravity
h = vertical distance between inlet and outlet midpoints (m)
Tdb = dry bulb temperature of outdoor air (K), note that 27C = 300 K.
Twb = wet bulb temperature of outdoor air (K)
The total airflow due to natural ventilation results from the combined pressure effects of wind, buoyancy caused by
temperature and humidity, plus any other effects from sources such as fans. The airflow from each source can be
combined in a root-square fashion as discussed in ASHRAE (2009). The presence of mechanical devices that use room
air for combustion, leaky duct systems, or other external influences can significantly affect the performance of natural
ventilation systems.
B. Design Recommendations
The specific approach and design of natural ventilation systems will vary based on building type and local climate.
However, the amount of ventilation depends critically on the careful design of internal spaces, and the size and
placement of openings in the building.
Maximize wind-induced ventilation by siting the ridge of a building perpendicular to the summer winds.
Approximate wind directions are summarized in seasonal "wind rose" diagrams available from
the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). However, these roses are usually
based on data taken at airports; actual values at a remote building site can differ dramatically.
Buildings should be sited where summer wind obstructions are minimal. A windbreak of evergreen trees
may also be useful to mitigate cold winter winds that tend to come predominantly from the north.
Naturally ventilated buildings should be narrow.
It is difficult to distribute fresh air to all portions of a very wide building using natural ventilation. The
maximum width that one could expect to ventilate naturally is estimated at 45 ft. Consequently, buildings
that rely on natural ventilation often have an articulated floor plan.
Each room should have two separate supply and exhaust openings. Locate exhaust high above inlet to
maximize stack effect. Orient windows across the room and offset from each other to maximize mixing
within the room while minimizing the obstructions to airflow within the room.
Window openings should be operable by the occupants.
Provide ridge vents.
A ridge vent is an opening at the highest point in the roof that offers a good outlet for both buoyancy and
wind-induced ventilation. The ridge opening should be free of obstructions to allow air to freely flow out of
the building.
Allow for adequate internal airflow.
In addition to the primary consideration of airflow in and out of the building, airflow between the rooms of
the building is important. When possible, interior doors should be designed to be open to encourage
whole-building ventilation. If privacy is required, ventilation can be provided through high louvers or
transoms.
Consider the use of clerestories or vented skylights.
A clerestory or a vented skylight will provide an opening for stale air to escape in a buoyancy ventilation
strategy. The light well of the skylight could also act as a solar chimney to augment the flow. Openings
lower in the structure, such as basement windows, must be provided to complete the ventilation system.
Provide attic ventilation.
In buildings with attics, ventilating the attic space greatly reduces heat transfer to conditioned rooms
below. Ventilated attics are about 30F cooler than unventilated attics.
Consider the use of fan-assisted cooling strategies.
Ceiling and whole-building fans can provide up to 9F effective temperature drop at one tenth the
electrical energy consumption of mechanical air-conditioning systems.
Determine if the building will benefit from an open- or closed-building ventilation approach.
A closed-building approach works well in hot, dry climates where there is a large variation in temperature
from day to night. A massive building is ventilated at night, then, closed in the morning to keep out the
hot daytime air. Occupants are then cooled by radiant exchange with the massive walls and floor.
An open-building approach works well in warm and humid areas, where the temperature does not change
much from day to night. In this case, daytime cross-ventilation is encouraged to maintain indoor
temperatures close to outdoor temperatures.
Use mechanical cooling in hot, humid climates.
Try to allow natural ventilation to cool the mass of the building at night in hot climates.
Open staircases provide stack effect ventilation, but observe all fire and smoke precautions for enclosed
stairways.
Photo of visitor center at Zion National Park showing downdraft cooling tower with evaporative media at the top, and exhaust
through high clerestory windows.
(Courtesy of Robb Williamson)
Natural ventilation in most climates will not move interior conditions into the comfort zone 100% of the time. Make sure
the building occupants understand that 3% to 5% of the time thermal comfort may not be achieved. This makes natural
ventilation most appropriate for buildings where space conditioning is not expected. As a designer it is important to
understand the challenge of simultaneously designing for natural ventilation and mechanical coolingit can be difficult
to design structures that are intended to rely on both natural ventilation and artificial cooling. A naturally ventilated
structure often includes an articulated plan and large window and door openings, while an artificially conditioned building
is sometimes best served by a compact plan with sealed windows. Moreover, interpret wind data carefully. Local
topography, vegetation, and surrounding buildings have an effect on the speed of wind hitting a building. Wind data
collected at airports may not tell you very much about local microclimate conditions that can be heavily influenced by
natural and man-made obstructions. Hints about what type of natural ventilation strategies might be most effective can
often be found in a region's historic and vernacular construction practices.
C. Materials and Methods of Construction
Some of the materials and methods used to design proper natural ventilation systems in buildings are solar chimneys,
wind towers, and summer ventilation control methods. A solar chimney may be an effective solution where prevailing
breezes are not dependable enough to rely on wind-induced ventilation and where keeping indoor temperature
sufficiently above outdoor temperature to drive buoyant flow would be unacceptably warm. The chimney is isolated from
the occupied space and can be heated as much as possible by the sun or other means. Air is simply exhausted out the
top of the chimney creating suction at the bottom which is used to extract stale air.
Wind towers, often topped with fabric sails that direct wind into the building, are a common feature in historic Arabic
architecture, and are known as "malqafs." The incoming air is often routed past a fountain to achieve evaporative cooling
as well as ventilation. At night, the process is reversed and the wind tower acts as a chimney to vent room air. A modern
variation called a "Cool Tower" puts evaporative cooling elements at the top of the tower to pressurize the supply air with
cool, dense air.
In the summer, when the outside temperature is below the desired inside temperature, windows should be opened to
maximize fresh air intake. Lots of airflow is needed to maintain the inside temperature at no more than 3-5 F above the
outside temperature. During hot, calm days, air exchange rates will be very low and the tendency will be for inside
temperatures to rise above the outside temperature. The use of fan-forced ventilation or thermal mass for radiant cooling
may be important in controlling these maximum temperatures.
D. Analysis and Design Tools

Handbook methods such as those presented in ASHRAE's Fundamentals Handbook or Bansal and Minke's Passive
Building Design: A Handbook of Natural Climatic Control (ISBN: 044481745X) are very useful in calculating
airflow from natural sources for very simple building geometries.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): In order to predict the details of natural airflow, numerical computational fluid
mechanics models can be used. These computer simulations are detailed and labor intensive, but are justified where
accurate understanding of airflow is important. They have been used to analyze new buildings including the atrium of
a courthouse in Phoenix and the hangar of an air and space museum in the Washington, DC area.
An extensive list of journals, books, and other reference material regarding natural ventilation and other passive
technologies is included in the Solstice Archive. For example:
DOE Building Energy Codes Program
EERE Fact Sheet: Cooling Your Home Naturally (PDF 110 KB, 8 pgs)
Software packages for natural ventilation analysis include:
AIRPAK: provides calculation of airflow modeling, contaminant transport, room air distribution, temperature and humidity
distribution, and thermal comfort by computational fluid dynamics.
FLOVENT: calculates airflow, heat transfer, and contamination distribution for built environments using computational
fluid dynamics.
FLUENT: A computational fluid dynamics program useful in modeling natural ventilation in buildings. It models airflow
under specified conditions, so additional analysis is required to estimate annual energy savings.
STAR-CD: STAR-CD uses computational fluid dynamics to help civil engineers, architects and project managers who
need better and more detailed understanding of issues involved in heating and ventilation, smoke and pollutant dispersal
and fire hazard analysis, and clean room design.
Building models incorporate very limited features for deliberate natural ventilation, but they do include the calculation of
natural air infiltration as a function of temperature difference, wind speed, and effective leakage area, or schedules and
user-defined functions for infiltration rates.
URBAWIND: UrbaWind models the wind in urban area and calculates automatically the natural air flow rate in the
buildings, according to the surrounding buildings effects and the local climatology.
Designing Low Energy Buildings with Energy-10: An hour-by-hour simulation program designed to inform the earliest
phases of the design process. Runs on IBM-compatible platforms. Best operated with Pentium or higher processor and
32 Megs of RAM.
DOE-2: A comprehensive hour-by-hour simulation; daylighting and glare calculations integrate with hourly energy
simulation. IBM or compatible Pentium is advisable.
ENERGY PLUS: A building energy simulation program designed for modeling buildings with associated heating, cooling,
lighting, ventilating, and other energy flows.
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APPLICATION
Among the primary types of buildings that can benefit from the application of natural ventilation are:
bus stations, picnic shelters, and other structures where stringent space conditioning is not expected,
barracks and other single- and multi-family housing projects,
most small, free-standing structures in warm and temperate climates, and
warehouses, maintenance pools, and other high-bay facilities in warm climates.

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Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PDF 1.9 MB, 550 pgs)

Naturally ventilated buildings should be designed to provide thermal comfort, to achieve adequate moisture and
contaminant removal, and to meet or exceed Government Energy Conservation Performance Standards.
Standards for building thermal comfort have been defined by ASHRAE 55.
Standards for adequate ventilation rates and contaminant levels can be found in ASHRAE 62.
Additional standards effecting ventilation practice have been developed by:
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)

ACGIH: provides threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents and biological
exposure indices.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
OSHA (1989), Air Contaminants: examines Air Contaminants-Permissible Exposure limits (Title 29, Code of
Federal Regulations, Part 1910.1000).
Federal energy standards: The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has updated 10 CFR 435 to reflect the
codified version of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc./Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (ASHRAE/IESNA) Standard 90.1 to be closer to the
existing voluntary sector code. This new federal standard, 10 CFR 434 Energy Code for New Federal
Commercial and Multi-Family High Rise Residential Buildings, is mandatory for all new federal buildings.
For existing buildings, refer to ASHRAE 100 Energy Conservation in Existing Buildings. For residential
buildings, the applicable standard is ASHRAE 90.2 Energy Efficient Design of Low-Rise Residential
Buildings. Methodology and Procedures for Life-Cycle Cost Analysis are described in 10 CFR 436.
Observe all codes and standards regarding transport of smoke and fire when deciding on the applicability of natural
ventilation and in the design of the system.
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WBDG
Building / Spaces Types

Applicable to all building types and space types
Design Objectives
Historic Preservation, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable
Section 07 92 00: Joint Sealants, Section 23 31 00: HVAC Ducts and Casings, Section 23 05 93: Testing,
Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building Envelope Design Guide: Windows

07 10 00 (07100) Dampproofing and Waterproofing
08 50 00 (08500) Windows
Publications
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter 26 by American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Atlanta, GA: 2001.
A good discussion of natural ventilation equations and a basic source for the contemporary practice of
fan-forced ventilation.
Design with Climate by Victor Olgyay. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1963.
The human thermal comfort zone is defined and methods for providing expanded comfort using natural
means are investigated.
Guide to Energy Efficient Ventilation by Martin W. Liddament. Air Infiltration Ventilation Centre, 1996.
How Natural Ventilation Works by Steven J. Hoff and Jay D. Harmon. Ames, IA: Department of Agricultural
and Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State University, November 1994.
R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford, T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed.ASHRAE Journal,
September 2002.
Inside Out, Design Procedures for Passive Environmental Technologies by G.Z. Brown, B. Haglund, J.
Loveland, J. Reynolds, and M. Ubbelohde. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992. ISBN: 0471898740.
A basic discussion of natural ventilation issues aimed at architecture students.
Passive Building Design: A Handbook of Natural Climatic Control by Narenda Bansal, Narenda, Gerd
Hauser, and Gernot Minke. The Netherlands: Elsevier Science BV, 1994. ISBN: 044481745X. Contains
information on the physics of natural ventilation including a discussion of the equations associated with
wind and buoyancy ventilation effects.
Others
Air Infiltration Ventilation Centre (AIVC)

Air Information Review newsletter
International Energy Agency (IEA)
NATVENT project (Europe) Thompson, Lew. Correspondence with National Renewable Energy Laboratory
dated 9/26/95.
CostEffective
by the WBDG Cost-Effective Committee
OVERVIEW
Within This Page
Overview
"We no longer build buildings like we used to, nor do we pay for them in the same way.
Major Resources
Buildings today are...life support systems, communication terminals, data manufacturing
centers, and much more. They are incredibly expensive tools that must be constantly adjusted to function efficiently. The
economics of building has become as complex as its design." (Wilson, in foreword to Ruegg & Marshall, 1990)
Every owner wants a cost-effective building. But what does this mean? In many respects the interpretation is influenced
by an individual's interests and objectives, and how they define "cost-effective".
Is it the lowest first-cost structure that meets the program?
Is it the design with the lowest operating and maintenance costs?

Is it the building with the longest life span?
Is it the facility in which users are most productive?
Is it the building that offers the greatest return on investment?
While an economically efficient project is likely to have one or more of these attributes, it is impossible to summarize costeffectiveness by a single parameter. Determining true cost-effectiveness requires a life-cycle perspective where all costs
and benefits of a given project are evaluated and compared over its economic life.
In economic terms, a building design is deemed to be cost-effective if it results in benefits equal to those of alternative
designs and has a lower whole life cost, or total cost of ownershipFor example, the HVAC system alternative that satisfies
the heating and cooling requirements of a building at the minimum whole life cost, is the cost-effective HVAC system of
choice. Components of the whole life cost include the initial design and construction cost, on-going operations and
maintenance, parts replacement, disposal cost or salvage value, and of course the useful life of the system or building.
The federal government has numerous mandates that define program goals with the expectation that they be achieved
cost-effectively.
The challenge is often how to determine the true costs and the true benefits of alternative decisions. For example, what is
the economic value in electric lighting savings and productivity increases of providing daylight to workplace
environments? Or, what is the value of saving historic structures? Alternately, what is the cost of a building integrated
photovoltaic system (BIPV), given that it may replace a conventional roof?
The following three overarching principles associated with ensuring cost-effective construction reflect the need to
accurately define costs, benefits, and basic economic assumptions.
Utilize Cost and Value Engineering Throughout the Planning, Design, and Development
Process
As most projects are authorized/funded without a means of increasing budgets, it is essential that the
project requirements are set by considering life-cycle costs. This will ensure that the budget supports any
first-cost premium that a life-cycle cost-effective alternative may incur. Once a budget has been
established, it is essential to continually test the viability of its assumptions by employing cost
management throughout the design and development process. An aspect of cost management is a cost
control practice called Value Engineering (VE). VE is a systematic evaluation procedure directed at
analyzing the function of materials, systems, processes, and building equipment for the purpose of
achieving required functions at the lowest total cost of ownership.
Use Economic Analysis to Evaluate Design Alternatives

In addition to first costs, facility investment decisions typically include projected cost impacts of,
energy/utility use, operation and maintenance and future system replacements. At the beginning of each
project, establish what economic tools and models will be used to evaluate these building investment
parameters. The methodologies of life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA)will typically offer comparisons of total
life-cycle costs based upon net present values. Other methods usually used as supplementary measures
of cost-effectiveness to the LCCA include Net Savings, Savings-to-Investment Ratios, Internal Rate of
Return, and Payback.
Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation, Security, and
Safety
Most economic models require analysts to place a dollar value on all aspects of a design to generate final
results. Nevertheless it is difficult to accurately value certain non-monetary building attributes, such
as formality (for example, of a federal courthouse) or energy security. The objective of a LCCA is to
determine costs and benefits of design alternatives to facilitate informed decision-making. Costs can be
more readily quantified than benefits because they normally have dollar amounts attached. Benefits are
difficult because they often tend to have more intangibles. In some cases, these non-monetary issues are
used as tiebreakers to quantitative analyses. In other instances, non-monetary issues can override
quantitatively available cost comparisons, for example, renewable energy application. These costeffectiveness principles serve as driving objectives for cost management practices in the planning,
design, construction, and operation of facilities that balance cost, scope, and quality. Analyzing the
environmental costs through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) can be complementary to the dollar cost
implications of the design, materials selection, and operation of buildings. The LCA methodology, which
can enhance information gleaned from an LCC, includes definition of goal and scope, an inventory
assessment, life-cycle impact assessment, and interpretation-an iterative process.
Note: Information in these Cost-Effective pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a
total project context in order to achieve quality, high performance buildings.
BACK TO TOP
MAJOR RESOURCES
Mandates
Code of Federal Regulations, 10 CFR 436.a

National Energy Conservation Policy Act
OMB Circular A-94Guidelines for Benefit-Cost Analysis of Federal Programs
WBDG
Design Objectives
Aesthetics, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable
Project Management
Project Planning, Management, and Delivery
Publications
A Guide to Integrating Value Engineering, Life-Cycle Costing and Sustainable DevelopmentFederal

Facilities Council, 2001.
Air Force Military Construction and Family Housing Economic Analysis Guide. 1996.
Building Economics for Architects by Thorbjoern Mann. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. ISBN 0442-00389-7.
Building Economics: Theory and Practice by Rosalie Ruegg and Harold Marshall. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1990. ISBN 0-442-26417-8.
Facilities Standard for the Public Buildings Service, P100 (GSA)Chapter 1.7 Life-Cycle Costing
GSA LEED Cost Study

Life-Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management Program (PDF 9.73MB, 224 pgs)NIST HB 135
1995 Edition.
NAVFAC Economic Analysis Handbook 1993.
Project Estimating Requirements, P120 (GSA)

Standards on Building Economics, 7th ed. ASTM, 2012. ASTM Stock#: BLDGECON12, ISBN13: 978-08031-7032-2.
Others
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Federal Energy Management Programs (FEMP)
Tools
Training
WBDG16: The Principles and Process for Conducting a Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
Optimize Energy Use

by the WBDG Sustainable Committee
OVERVIEW
On an annual basis, buildings in the United States consume 39% of America's energy and
68% of its electricity. Furthermore, buildings emit 38% of the carbon dioxide (the primary
greenhouse gas associated with climate change), 49% of the sulfur dioxide, and 25% of the
nitrogen oxides found in the air. Currently, the vast majority of this energy is produced from
Within This Page

Overview
Recommendations
Emerging Issues
Relevant Codes, Laws, and
non-renewable, fossil fuel resources. With the world's supply of fossil fuel dwindling, demand Standards
for fossil fuel rising, concerns for energy supply security increasing (both for general supply
Major Resources
and specific needs of facilities), and the impact of greenhouse gases on the world's climate
rising, it is essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable fuel resources in facilities of all
types.
During the facility design and development process, building projects must have a comprehensive,integrated
Reduce heating, cooling, and lighting loads through climate-responsive design and conservation
practices;
Employ renewable energy sources such as daylighting, passive solar heating, photovoltaics, geothermal,
and groundwater cooling;
Specify efficient HVAC and lighting systems that consider part-load conditions and utility interface
requirements;
Optimize building performance by employing energy modeling programs and optimize system control
strategies by using occupancy sensors CO2 sensors and other air quality alarms;
Monitor project performance through a policy of commissioning, metering, annual reporting, and periodic
re-commissioning; and
Integrate water saving technologies to reduce the energy burden of providing potable water.
Apply this process to the reuse, renovation or repair of existing buildings as well.
2004 ASLA Award Recipients (Photos: Nancy Rottle)

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RECOMMENDATIONS
Reduce Heating, Cooling, and Lighting Loads through Climate-Responsive Design and Conservation
Practices
Use passive solar design; orient, size, and specify windows; and locate landscape elements with solar
geometry and building load requirements in mind.
Use high-performance building envelopes; select walls, roofs, and other assemblies based on long-term
insulation, air barrier performance, and durability requirements.
Consider an integrated landscape design that provides deciduous trees for summer shading, appropriate
planting for windbreaks, and attractive outdoor spaces so that occupants wish to be outdoorsthereby
reducing the occupant driven additional heat load to the building.
Employ Renewable or High-Efficiency Energy Sources
Renewable energy sources include solar water heating, photovoltaic (PV), wind, biomass, andgeothermal.
Use of renewable energy can increase energy security and reduce dependence on imported fuels, while
reducing or eliminating greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy use. Consider solar thermal for
domestic hot water and heating purposes.
Evaluate the use of building scale to take advantage of on-site renewable energy technologies such
as daylighting, solar water heating, and geothermal heat pumps.
Consider the use of larger scale, on-site renewable energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar
thermal, and wind turbines.
Evaluate purchasing electricity generated from renewable sources or low polluting sources such as
natural gas.
Specify Efficient HVAC and Lighting Systems
Use energy efficient HVAC equipment and systems that meet or exceed 10 CFR 434. For Department of
Defense facilities, refer to the standards within UFC 1-200-02 High Performance and Sustainable Building
Requirements.
Use lighting systems that consume less than 1 watt/square foot for ambient lighting.
Use Energy Star approved and/or FEMP-designated energy efficient products or products that meet or
exceed Department of Energy standards.
Evaluate energy recovery systems that pre-heat or pre-cool incoming ventilation air in commercial and
institutional buildings.
Investigate the use of integrated generation and delivery systems, such as co-generation, fuel cells, and
off-peak thermal storage. See also WBDG Distributed Energy Resources (DER) andMicroturbines.
Optimize Building Performance and System Control Strategies
Employ energy modeling programs early in the design process.

Use sensors to control loads based on occupancy, schedule and/or the availability of natural resources
such as daylight or natural ventilation.
Evaluate the use of modular components such as boilers or chillers to optimize part-load efficiency
and maintenance requirements.
Evaluate the use of Smart Controls that merge building automation systems with information technology
(IT) infrastructures.
Employ an interactive energy management tool that allows you to track and assess energy and water
consumption like the Energy Star Portfolio Manager.
Employ centralized remote meter reading and management to provide accurate analysis of energy use
and monitor power quality.
Use a comprehensive, building commissioning plan throughout the life of the project.
Use metering to confirm building energy and environmental performance through the life of the project.
Provide electronic interactive graphic dashboards in prominent locations to educate occupants of their
building's energy and water consumption and highlight sustainable building features.
See also WBDG Facility Performance Evaluation.
Deep Energy Retrofits
A deep energy retrofit is a whole-building analysis and construction process that achieves much larger energy cost
savings than those of simpler energy retrofits such as upgrading lighting and HVAC equipment. In taking a whole-building
approach, deep energy retrofits address many systems at once by combining energy efficient measures such as energyefficient equipment, air sealing, moisture management, controlled ventilation, insulation, and solar control. Resources
available to identify deep energy retrofit design opportunities are available from Rocky Mountain Institute and
Advanced Energy Retrofit Guides are available from the Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency &
Renewable Energy
.
Sustainability and Energy Security
Energy independence and security are important components of national security and energy strategies. Today, power is
mostly generated by massive centralized plants, and electricity moves along transmission lines. Energy independence
can be achieved, in part, by minimizing energy consumption through energy conservation, energy efficiency, and by
generating energy from local, renewable sources, such as wind, solar, geothermal, etc. (see WBDG Distributed Energy
Resources, Fuel Cell Technology, Microturbines, Building Integrated Photovoltaics
(BIPV),Daylighting, Passive Solar Heating) Additionally, using distributed energy systems adds to building resiliency
as the threats of natural disaster damage become more frequent.
CyberSecurity
Building automation systems (BAS), Industrial Control Systems (ICS) and Supervisory Control and Date Acquisition
(SCADA) are vulnerable to attack through the Internet. Cyber criminals can access these systems to disable controls
disrupt energy and water systems and even destroy equipment. Ensure these systems are protected from these
intrusions by employing cybersecurity measures.
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EMERGING ISSUES
Roof-mounted PV on carport, North Island Naval Base, San Diego, CA
Net Zero Energy Buildings Executive Order 13514 requires all new Federal buildings that are entering the planning
process in 2020 be 'designed to achieve zero-net-energy by 2030.' There are also commercial building and residential
programs promoting net-zero energy. Examples of commercial, residential and government net-zero energy buildings
exist and can provide guidance for the development of future net-zero energy buildings.
Passive survivability, which is described as the ability of a facility to provide shelter and basic occupant needs during
and after disaster events without electric power is becoming a design strategy to consider, particularly in areas of the
country where storms and floods have been reoccurring annually or more often. Incorporate facility survivability
concepts in the design of critical facilities, including on-site renewable energy sources that will be available to power the
building soon after a major storm passes. Checklist for Passive Survivability
Green Walls or Vertical Gardens are beginning to appear as a design element in urban buildings. Be sure they do not
conflict with site security requirements including Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED).
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RELEVANT CODES, LAWS, AND STANDARDS

Codes and Laws
Energy Codes and Standards

Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA 2007)
Energy Policy Act of 2005
Executive Order 13221, "Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices"
Standards
ASHRAE 90.1 Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
ASHRAE 100-2006 Energy Efficiency in Existing Buildings
ASHRAE 189.1-2011 Standard for the Design of Green Buildings, except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
Department of Defense
UFC-1-200-02, High Performance and Sustainable Building Requirements

IGCC-2012 International Green Construction Code, International Code Council
U.S. General Services Administration
P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service by the General Services Administration (GSA)
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MAJOR RESOURCES
WBDG
Building Types / Space Types

Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high energy users such as Health Care
Facilities, Hospital, Research Facilities, Automated Data Processing: Mainframe, Automated Data
Processing: PC System, Laboratory: Dry, Laboratory: Wet
Design Objectives
AestheticsEngage the Integrated Design Process, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational,Historic
PreservationUpdate Building Systems Appropriately, Productive, Secure / Safe,SustainableOptimize

Site Potential, SustainableProtect and Conserve Water, SustainableOptimize Building Space and
Material Use, SustainableEnhance Indoor Environmental Quality,SustainableOptimize Operational and
Maintenance Practices
Section 23 28 13: CommercialKitchen Hoods, Section 23 31 00: HVAC Ducts and Casings,Section 23 05
93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building Envelope Design GuideSustainability of the
Building Envelope
03 30 00 (03300) Cast-In-Place Concrete

03 40 00 (03400) Precast Concrete
04 20 00 (04200) Unit Masonry
07 30 00 (07300) Steep Slope Roofing
07 50 00 (07500) Membrane Roofing
07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants
08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors
08 50 00 (08500) Windows
11 13 00 (11160) Loading Dock Equipment
11 28 00 (11680) Office Equipment
11 30 00 (11450) Residential Equipment
12 10 00 (12100) Artwork
14 20 00 (14200) Elevators
26 50 00 (16500) Lighting
48 14 00 (13600) Solar Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
48 15 00 (13600) Wind Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
48 30 00 (13600) Biomass Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
Project Management
Project Planning, Delivery, and Controls, Building Commissioning
Tools
Energy Analysis category
Buildings Performance Database, DOE EERE
Minimize Energy Consumption
ASHRAE Advanced Energy Design Guides

Energy Design Resources
Energy Star, EPA
Energy Star for New Building Design
Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP), DOE
Federal Research and Develop Agenda for Net-Zero Energy, High-Performance Green Buildings (PDF 2.8
MB),
National Science and Technology Council Report October 2008

WBDG case studies
Center for Neighborhood Technology

EPA New England Regional Laboratory
NAVFAC Building 33
Federal Center South Building 1202
Bertschi School Living Science Building
Employ Renewable or High-Efficiency Energy Sources
Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) Guide to Integrating Renewable Energy in Federal
Construction
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

Photovoltaics Program, Sandia National Laboratory
Specify Efficient HVAC and Lighting Systems
10 CFR 434 Subpart A

FEMP Buying Energy Efficient Products
Lighting Research Center
Technology Performance Exchange, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). TPEx allows
building users, product manufacturers, and third-party certifiers to access, share, and compare
performance data for products and systems using an online tool.
Optimize Building Performance and System Control Strategies
WBDG: Productive, Functional / OperationalEnsure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration,Functional /

OperationalMeet Performance Objectives
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Buildings R&D Breakthroughs: Technologies and Products Supported
by the Building Technologies Program (PDF 15.8 MB)
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol
(IPMVP) Volume 1 (PDF 2.5 MB)
Building Energy Information Systems: State of the Technology and User Case Studies, (PDF 4.86 MB),
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, November 2009
Deep Energy Retrofit Guides
Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Office Buildings, Energy.Gov

Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Retail Buildings, Energy.Gov
Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Grocery Stores, Energy.Gov
Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for K-12 Schools, Energy.Gov
Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Healthcare Facilities, Energy.Gov
Building the Business Case, Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI)
How to Calculate and Present Deep Retrofit Value, Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI)
Identifying Design Opportunities, Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI)
Managing Deep Retrofits, Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI)
Others
FedCenter.govFedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship and Compliance Assistance

Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal
Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of
environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal
government facilities.
RenewableEnergyWorld.com
Tools
Training Courses
WBDG05 Daylighting Principles and Strategies for Sustainable Design

WBDG06 Sustainable Roofing Design Considerations and Applications
WBDG12 Window and Glazing Design Strategies for Sustainable Design
WBDG14 Building Commissioning Principles and Strategies
WBDG18 An Integrated Approach to HVAC Design and Performance
WBDG19 Fuel Cells: Advanced Distributed Generation
NIA01 Mechanical Insulation Education & Awareness
FEMP01 Commissioning for Existing Federal Buildings
FEMP02 Planning an Energy Assessment for Federal Facilities
FEMP04 Federal On-Site Renewable Power Purchase Agreements
FEMP05 Advanced Electric Metering in Federal Facilities
FEMP06 Managing Water Assessment in Federal Facilities
FEMP07 Selecting, Implementing, and Funding Photovoltaic Systems in Federal Facilities

FEMP13 Energy-Efficient Federal Purchasing
FEMP15 Energy Savings Performance Contracting
FEMP16 Advanced HVAC in High-Tech BuildingsData Centers
FEMP17 Adanced HVAC in High-Tech BuildingsLaboratories
FEMP19 Fundamentals of Life Cycle Costing for Energy Conservation
FEMPFTS8 Energy Savings Performance Contracts
FEMPFTS10 Renewable Energy
FEMPFTS13 Energy-Efficient Product Procurement
FEMPFTS14 New Lighting Technologies
FEMPFTS15 Achieving Energy-Efficient Data Centers with New ASHRAE Thermal Guidelines
FEMPFTS16 Selecting and Evaluating New and Underused Energy Technologies
FEMPFTS17 Achieving Energy Security in Federal Facilities
FEMPFTS19 Implementing Deep Retrofits: A Whole Building Approach
FEMPFTS21 Combined Heat and Power: An Integrated Approach to Energy Resources
FEMPFTS22 Solid-State Lighting: Highlighting Indoor Applications
FEMPFTS24 Goal-Based Contracting for Energy Efficient Buildings
FEMPFTS25 New Developments in Federal Building Energy Efficiency Standards
FEMPFTS26 Energy Efficiency Expert Evaluations

WBDG High Performance HVAC

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High-Performance HVAC

by Carl Ian Graham, PE

Impact on Building Energy Performance Goals

Fundamentals of Energy- and Resource-Efficient HVAC Design

Energy-efficient, climate responsive construction requires a whole building perspective that

7.Use daylight dimming controls whenever possible.

Building Commissioning Association

Types of HVAC Systems

Geothermal heat pump system on the Georgia Institute of Technology Campus

More information on heat pumps can be found at:

Energy StarAir-Source Heat Pumps

Sam Nunn Atlanta Federal Center, Atlanta, GA

RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

Standard 62-2001 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality

Products and Systems

01 78 23 (01830) Operation and Maintenance Data

DOE Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT)Best Practices Program

WBDG Energy Analysis Tools

Department of Energy (DOE)

National Laboratories and Research Centers

Professional and Trade Associations, and Interest Groups

Building Technology: Mechanical and Electrical Systems, 2nd Edition

by Stein, Benjamin. New York: John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.

Underfloor air distribution

Ventilation System Controls

systems use a combination of digital logic controllers and pneumatic actuators.

Air-Conditioning Equipment Controls

Enthalpy recovery wheel

Types of heat recovery include:

Plate heat exchangers, with 60%-75% efficiencies

Sam Nunn Atlanta Federal Center, Atlanta, GA

RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

Standard 62-2001 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality

Energy Information AdministrationElectricity

Products and Systems

01 78 23 (01830) Operation and Maintenance Data

DOE Office of Industrial Technologies (OIT)Best Practices Program

Department of Energy (DOE)

National Laboratories and Research Centers

Professional and Trade Associations, and Interest Groups

Building Technology: Mechanical and Electrical Systems, 2nd Edition

by Stein, Benjamin. New York: John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.

sustainability planning, designing and procurement needs.

HVAC Integration of the Building Envelope

Within This Page

Integrated, Whole Building Design

Integrated, Whole Building Design

Minimize Energy Consumption at the Building Envelope

Figure 1. Factors Affecting Window Performance

Figure 3. Flow Chart to Determine Energy Costs

Figure 4. Air Leakage through a Building Enclosure

Commission Envelope Elementsthe building commissioning process should include commissioning of

Provide Comfortable Environments in Perimeter Areas

Physical Comfortthis is critical to workplace productivity and satisfaction. Uncomfortable conditions in

Achieve Appropriate Indoor Air Quality and Building Pressurization

Figure 7. Convection of moist air in enclosure assemblies can cause problems.

Employ Measures for Safety and Security

Figure 8. Example of Rooftop HVAC Equipment

Consider Rooftop Equipment

Building Information Modeling (BIM)

RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

ASHRAE Standard 62-2001 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality