ImportantConcepts
Mostremotesensinginstruments(sensors)aredesignedtomeasurephotons.
Thefundamentalprincipleunderlyingsensoroperationcentersonwhathappensinacritical
component thedetector.
Thisistheconceptofthephotoelectriceffect (foundbyAlbertEinstein)
Thissaysthattherewillbeanemissionofnegativeparticles(electrons)whenanegatively
chargedplateofsomeappropriatelightsensitivematerialissubjectedtoabeamofphotons.
Theelectronscanthenbemadetoflowasacurrentfromtheplate,arecollected,andthen
countedasasignal.
Akeypoint:Themagnitudeoftheelectriccurrentproduced(numberofphotoelectronsperunit
time)isdirectlyproportionaltothelightintensity.
Thus,changesintheelectriccurrentcanbeusedtomeasurechangesinthephotons
(numbers; intensity)thatstriketheplate(detector)duringagiventimeinterval(integrationtime).
Thekineticenergyofthereleasedphotoelectronsvarieswithfrequency(orwavelength)ofthe
impingingradiation.
But,differentmaterialsundergophotoelectriceffectreleaseofelectronsoverdifferent
wavelengthintervals;eachhasathresholdwavelengthatwhichthephenomenonbeginsanda
longerwavelengthatwhichitceases.
Now,withthisprincipleestablishedasthebasisfortheoperationofmostremotesensors,letus
summarizeseveralmainideasastosensortypes(classification)intwodiagrams:
Ternarydiagramofthe
classesofsensors
Radiometer isageneraltermforanyinstrumentthat
quantitativelymeasurestheEMradiationinsome
intervaloftheEMspectrum.
Whentheradiationislightfromthenarrowspectral
bandincludingthevisible,thetermphotometer can
besubstituted.Ifthesensorincludesacomponent,
suchasaprismordiffractiongrating,thatcanbreak
radiationextendingoverapartofthespectruminto
discretewavelengthsanddisperse(orseparate)
thematdifferentanglestoanarrayofdetectors,itis
calledaspectrometer.
Thetermspectroradiometer isreservedforsensors
thatcollectthedispersedradiationinbands rather
thandiscretewavelengths.Mostair/spacesensors
arespectroradiometers.
Thisisafunctionaltreatmentofseveralclassesof
sensors,plottedasatrianglediagram,inwhichthe
cornermembersaredeterminedbytheprincipal
parametermeasured:Spectral;Spatial;Intensity.
SirIsaacNewtondiscoveredthat
whitelightcouldbedispersedinto
itsspectralcomponentsbypassing
itthroughaprism.
Thesecondcoversawider
arrayofsensortypes:
Classificationofsensors
Thetwobroadestclassesofsensors:
Passive (energyleadingtoradiationreceivedcomesfromanexternalsource,e.g.,
theSun);Passivesensorsoperateinthevisiblewaveband,thermalIRandmicrowave
domains.
Active (energygeneratedfromwithinthesensorsystem,beamedoutward,andthe
fractionreturnedismeasured).Activesensorsonsatellitealloperateinthe
microwave.
NotethatactivesensorsoperatinginthevisiblewavebandareknownasLIDAR.
Sensorscanbe:
Nonimaging (measurestheradiationreceivedfromallpointsinthesensedtarget,
integratesthis,andreportstheresultasanelectricalsignalstrengthorsomeother
quantitativeattribute,suchasradiance)
Imaging (theelectronsreleasedareusedtoexciteorionizeasubstancelikesilver
(Ag)infilmortodriveanimageproducingdevicelikeaTVorcomputermonitorora
cathoderaytubeoroscilloscopeorabatteryofelectronicdetectors);sincethe
radiationisrelatedtospecificpointsinthetarget,theendresultisanimageora
rasterdisplay.
Natureofspacebornesensorsandtheirapplicability
Passivesensors
Wavelength
Information
Visible/NearInfrared
wavelengthradiometers
400nm 1m
Solarradiationreflected
byocean/land
ThermalInfrared(TIR)
radiometers
about10m
Thermalemissionofthe
ocean/land
Microwaveradiometers
1.5 300mm
Thermalemissionofthe
ocean/landinthe
microwave
Altimeters
3 30GHz
Seasurfacetopography
Scatterometers
3 30GHz
Seasurfaceroughness
Syntheticapertureradars
3 30GHz
Sea/landsurface
roughnessandmovement
Activedevices
Visible/NearInfraredRemoteSensing
Theobservationmethodtoacquirevisiblelightandnearinfraredraysofsunlight
reflectedbyobjectsontheground.
Byexaminingthestrengthofreflection(atdifferentwavelengths),wecan
understandaconditionsoflandsurface,e.g.,distributionofplants,urbanareas,
rivers,seas.
Duringperiodofdarkness,Thismethodcannotmakeobservation.Also,clouds
blockthereflectedsunlight,sothismethodcannotobserveareasunder
clouds.
ThermalInfraredRemoteSensing
Theobservationmethodtoacquirethermalinfraredrays,whichisradiatedfrom
landsurfaceheatedbysunlight.Alsoitcanobservethehightemperatureareas,
suchasvolcanicactivitiesandfires.
Byexaminingthestrengthofradiation,wecanunderstandsurfacetemperatures
oflandandsea,andstatusofvolcanicactivitiesandforestfires.
Thismethodcanobserveatnightwhenthereisnocloud,butcannotmake
observationundercloudyconditions.
MicrowaveRemoteSensing
Microwavesensorsreceivemicrowaves,whichislongerwavelengththanvisible
lightandinfraredrays,andobservationisnotaffectedbyday,nightor
weather.
Therearetwotypesofobservationmethodsusingmicrowavesensor:activeand
passive.
Activetype
Thesensoraboardearthobservationsatelliteemitsmicrowavesand
observesmicrowavesreflectedbysea(orland)surface.Itissuitableto
observelandandseaareas
Passivetype
Thistypeobservesmicrowavesnaturallyradiatedfromlandsurface.Itis
suitabletoobserveseasurfacetemperature,snowaccumulation,thicknessof
ice.
**Microwavealtimeterandscatterometerarenonimagingtypesofsensorsthat
comeunderactivesensors.Theirobservationsarenotaffectedbyday,nightor
weather.
OceanSensorsandtheirapplicability
Schematicillustratingthedifferentremotesensingmethodsandclassesof
sensorsusedinoceanremotesensing,alongwiththeirpotentialapplications
Past,presentandnearfutureoceansatellitemissions
Past,presentandnearfutureoceansatellitemissionscontd
Past,presentandnearfutureoceansatellitemissionscontd
Past,presentandnearfutureoceansatellitemissionscontd
Past,presentandnearfutureoceansatellitemissionscontd
PresentStatus
SeriesofOperationalandR&Dsatellitesensorsforoceanographyhas
beenandwillbefunctioningmorethantenyears
Altimeter
Scatterometer
SSTsensor
Icesensor
Oceancolour Sensor
LandRemoteSensors
Resolution SwathWidth
(m)
(km)
LinearImagingSelf
ScanningSystemI(LISSI)
72
148
LinearImagingSelf
ScanningSystemII(LISSII)
36
74
LinearImagingSelf
ScanningSystemIII(LISSIII)
HighResolutionLinear
ImagingSelfScanning
SystemIV(LISSIV)
WideFieldSensor(WiFS)
AdvancedWideField
Sensor(AWiFS)
23
142
50
148
70
5.8
24 70
188
774
5670
370740
Sensor
Channels
LISSI1
LISSI2
LISSI3
LISSI4
LISSII1
LISSII2
LISSII3
LISSII4
LISSIII2
LISSIII3
LISSIII4
LISSIII5
PAN
LISSIV2
LISSIV3
LISSIV4
WiFS1
WiFS2
AWiFS1
AWiFS2
AWiFS3
AWiFS4
SpectralBands(m)
0.450.52(blue)
0.520.59(green)
0.620.68(red)
0.770.86(nearIR)
0.450.52(blue)
0.520.59(green)
0.620.68(red)
0.770.86(nearIR)
0.520.59(green)
0.620.68(red)
0.770.86(nearIR)
1.551.70(midIR)
0.50.75
0.520.59(green)
0.620.68(red)
0.770.86(nearIR)
0.620.68(red)
0.770.86(near IR)
0.520.59(green)
0.620.68(red)
0.770.86(nearIR)
1.551.70(midIR)
Multi-angle Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MISR)
Onboard Terra
Hyperspectral sensors:
Airborne
hyperspectral
sensors:
1. AVIRIS
2. CASI
Satellite
hyperspectral
sensor:
Hyperion
Thetermscanning canbeappliedbothto
movementoftheentiresensorforlight
gathering.
Twobroadcategoriesofmostscannersare
definedbytheterms"opticalmechanical"and
"opticalelectronic
(b)opticalmechanical containinganessential
mechanicalcomponent(e.g.,amovingmirror)
thatparticipatesinscanningthescene
TheCrossTrack modenormallyusesarotating
(spinning)oroscillatingmirror(makingthesensor
anopticalmechanicaldevice)tosweepthescene
alongalinetraversingtheground.Thisis
sometimesreferredtoastheWhiskbroom mode
fromthevisionofsweepingatablesidetosideby
asmallhandheldbroom.
(c)opticalelectronic havingthesensed
radiationmovedirectlythroughtheopticsonto
alinearortwodimensionalarrayofdetectors
(CCDs).
TheAlongTrack Scannerhasalineararrayof
detectorsorientednormaltoflightpath.TheIFOV
ofeachdetectorsweepsapathparallelwiththe
flightdirection.Thistypeofscanningisalso
referredtoaspushbroom scanning(fromthe
mentalimageofcleaningafloorwithawidebroom
throughsuccessiveforwardsweeps).