Power System Dynamics Part 1-Manual

Power
System Dynamics
2/9/15
Course originally based on content of EPRI Power Systems Dynamics Tutorial

Tutorial available free from EPRI
u Go to EPRI.com & enter 1016042 in search window
Press download buHon for free copy
u
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Copyright O-T-S 2014
1-1
Power System Dynamics
2/9/15
Fundamentals Review (ILA #1)

Describe & illustrate fundamental AC principles and concepts
u Topics addressed include descripPon of capacitance, inductance, &
phase angle, descripPon of MW, Mvar & power triangle
Describe & illustrate fundamental concepts of generator operaPon.
u Topics addressed include theory of electromagnePc inducPon,
construcPon of generators, and an illustraPon & descripPon of
types of generator prime movers including steam turbines, wind
turbines, hydro turbines & combusPon turbines
Describe & illustrate fundamental principles of generator control systems
u Topics addressed include illustraPon of basic governor control
system operaPon, basic excitaPon control system operaPon, &
illustraPon of synchronizing process
Describe purpose & funcPon of NERC
u Topics addressed include descripPon of NERC's boundaries,
descripPon of NERC's operaPon & organizaPon, & explanaPon of
need for NERC Standards
1-2
2/9/15
AcPve & ReacPve Power (ILA #2)

Explain & illustrate concept & usage of voltage phase angle & develop
equaPons for MW & MW ow
u Topics addressed include the meaning and value of a voltage phase
angle measurement, a descripPon of the design and operaPon of
synchrophasors, a descripPon of the PI model of a transmission line,
uPlize the PI model to develop equaPons for MW & MVar ow, PI
model use in the MOD-032-1 standard
Describe construcPon & operaPon of phase shiîng transformer
u Topics addressed include explanaPon of cause of 30 degree shi^ in
wye-delta transformer, descripPon & illustraPon of types of PST,
illustraPon of how PSTs are used to control MW ow, illustraPon of
how PSTs are used to reduce angle across open CB, descripPon of
how PSTs can be used to manage congesPon as related to
IRO-006-5
Describe & illustrate concepts of power ow using graphical tools & explain
purpose & usage of power transfer limits & distribuPon factors
u Topics addressed include descripPon & illustraPon of usage of
power-angle curve, descripPon & illustraPon of usage of power-
circle diagram, descripPon of purpose & usage of power transfer
limits, descripPon of ATC concept as described in MOD-001-1a,
1-3
2/9/15
Frequency Control (ILA #2)

Describe fundamental theory of frequency control, review historical load data for NERC systems, examine
actual frequency deviaPons & describe importance of load-frequency relaPonship & inerPa
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Topics addressed include an explanaPon of load to resource balance, examinaPon of historic
load levels in NERC InterconnecPons, explanaPon of range of allowable frequency deviaPons,
descripPon & illustraPon of load frequency relaPonship, explanaPon of role of inerPa in
frequency control process, descripPon of content of BAL-003-1 as applies to loud damping
Describe & illustrate usage & operaPon of governor control systems
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Topics addressed include descripPon of basic operaPon of governor system, explanaPon &
illustraPon of concepts of droop, speed regulaPon, & deadband, analysis of frequency events to
determine impact of droop & deadband seangs, dierence between speed droop & speed
regulaPon, examinaPon of trends in NERC frequency response measure (FRM), descripPon of
content of BAL-003-1 as applies to governors
Describe & illustrate usage & operaPon of (AGC) systems
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Topics addressed include illustraPon of how interconnecPon divided into BAs, descripPon of
duPes of BA, explanaPon of the concepts of scheduled, actual and inadvertent interchange, an
explanaPon of frequency bias value, minimum bias values as dened in BAL-003-1, descripPon
& illustraPon of usage of constant frequency, constant interchange & Pe-line bias methods of
AGC, descripPon of NERC AGC requirements as contained in BAL-005-0.2b
Explain need for operaPng reserves & explain & illustrate current & future NERC control performance
standards
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Topics addressed include descripPon of types & sources of operaPng reserves, descripPon &
illustraPon of CPS1 & CPS2 performance standards, descripPon & illustraPon of DCS, descripPon
& illustraPon of BAAL concept, explain & illustrate primary, secondary & terPary frequency
control, descripPon of content of BAL-001-1 & BAL-002-1a
Describe purpose & operaPon of UFLS & examine impact of generator trip using Pme-based 4 stage
approach
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Topics addressed include descripPon of purpose, design & operaPon of UFLS along with
descripPon of content of PRC-006-1, examinaPon of frequency data from actual disturbances, a
calculaPon & illustraPon of voltage phase angle changes during frequency events, analysis of a
generaPon trip in terms of a 4-stage, Pme-based process including (1) electromechanical stage,
(2) inerPal stage, (3) governor stage, & (4) AGC stage
1-4
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1-5
2/9/15
Capacitor is energy storage device

Capacitor stores energy in its electric eld
Electric eld is intense concentraPon of voltage
u Capacitors electric eld is between plates of capacitor
u Capacitance of capacitor is measure of its energy storage capability & measured in
farads
Factors that impact capacitance illustrated above
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2/9/15
Inductor also energy storage device

Inductor stores energy in its magnePc eld
u Inductors magnePc eld is created by wrapping conductor around magnePc core
& running a current through conductor
u Inductance of inductor measure of its energy storage capability & measured in
henrys
Factors that impact inductance illustrated above
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2/9/15
Diagram above illustrates both leading & lagging phase angles
1-8
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In above phasor diagram:

Current sine wave lags behind voltage sine wave by angle theta ()
Called lagging circuit as current lags voltage
1-9
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Power angle () is voltage phase angle dierence

Trick to measuring power angle is compare both voltages at exactly same Pme
If 1 cycle (1/60th of second) lapse occurs between measuring 2 voltages
u Equivalent to 360 error
1-10
Grant County Voltage Control & Stability
2/9/15
InserPon of shunt capacitor

Reduces angle between VL & IL
u Called power factor correcPon capacitor
Would also reduce angle between VG & VL because higher VL requires less
u InserPon of series capacitor
Reduces angle between VG & VL
Would also reduce angle between VL & IL because series capacitor
produces MVar
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1-11
2/9/15
4 analogies for reacPve power illustrated above
1-12
2/9/15
Recall relaPonship between MVA, MW, & MVar

MVA2= MW2 + MVar2
u Also recall that Z, R, & X are related in same manner
Z2 = R2 + X2
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1-13
2/9/15
Natural capacitance of transmission line illustrated above

Note natural capacitance is both phase to phase & phase to ground
u Typical per mile natural capacitance values for various voltage overhead lines:
230 kV 1/3 MVar/mile
345 kV 3/4 MVar/mile
500 kV 2 MVar/mile
765 kV 5 MVar/mile
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1-14
2/9/15
Simple single-phase generator illustrated above

As armature winding turns it cuts through magnePc eld lines & voltage is induced
in armature winding
u Brush / slip-rings used to maintain electrical connecPon between staPonary load &
rotaPng armature
u Generator above referred to as rotaPng armature because induced voltage is in
rotaPng winding
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AC voltage created by generator in previous gure illustrated above

Note voltage induced dependent upon how many magnePc eld lines rotaPng
armature cuts through at point in Pme
1-16
2/9/15
Figure above illustrates staPonary armature single-phase generator

Design normally used for large modern generators
u Note that armature winding is permanently imbedded in stator & rotaPng
magnePc eld created about rotor
u Brush / slip rings are sPll used but not for load current, rather for lower magnitude
eld current
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2/9/15
Generator in previous gure was single-phase unit

Voltages produced by 3-phase unit illustrated above
u Stators armature windings are located in proper locaPons so as rotor turns
3voltages,120 degrees out of phase, induced
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1-18
2/9/15
Holcomb (362 MW) is pictured above
1-19
2/9/15
Note the exciter in unit above is a brushless system
1-20
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1-21
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1-22
2/9/15
This nameplate is from 1 of the large units at Grand Coulee

These units are in the process of being rewound to increase their MW
raPng
1-23
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2/9/15
Wind turbine generators may be synchronous or may be inducPon

Modern machines are oên inducPon but have on-board electronics that provide
MVar producPon & absorpPon capability
1-24
2/9/15
Various opPons available to connect wind turbine generators to power system

Directly connected asynchronous machines
u InducPon generators with no MVar capability
Synchronous machines
u Must be constant speed turbines which creates strong blade stress
Synchronous or inducPon machines connecPng via frequency converters or
adjustable gear boxes
u Frequency converters are expensive
Double fed inducPon generators or DFIGs
u Allow turbine speed to vary possibly 30% from synchronous speed
u Double Fed InducPon Generator (DFIG)
Generators with windings on both staPonary & rotaPng parts
Both windings capable of transferring MW between machine & power system
Stator winding is directly connected to grid
Rotor winding (3) is connected to grid through frequency converter
u Frequency converter (typically VSC) can be rotaPng or staPc design
u Brushes & slip rings used for electrical connecPon
u DFIG feeds power to system via double path!
Commonly used with wind turbine prime movers
u Some wind turbine generators are connected to grid with AC/DC converters
Converter changes output frequency of machine to match frequency of system
u In this design converter has to be sized to match wind turbine capability
In DFIG, converter only handles porPon of machines output power
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1-25
2/9/15
Graphic above illustrates speed of rotor eld in DFIG

With prime mover speed matched to synchronous speed
u 1 DC excitaPon current used to control MVar output
u Machine is normal synchronous generator
When prime mover speed lower than that needed for synchronous
operaPon (sub-synchronous operaPon illustrated le^ side above)
u 3 AC excitaPon current is fed to eld which adds speed to rotor to
reach synchronous speed
u Added eld from excitaPon rotates with prime mover eld
When prime mover speed higher speed than that needed for synchronous
operaPon(super-synchronous operaPon right side above)
u AC current is fed to eld which reduces speed of rotor to reach
synchronous
u Added eld from excitaPon rotates opposite to prime mover eld
u In summary:
Frequency of AC voltage produced at stator of DFIG proporPonal to speed
of rotaPng magnePc eld at stator
Speed of stator rotaPng magnePc eld depends on rotor speed which is
funcPon of mechanical power & frequency of AC currents fed into machine
rotor
When DFIGs rota0ng eld operates above synchronous speed
u VSC operates as generator delivering MW to grid
When DFIGs rota0ng eld operates below synchronous speed
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1-26
2/9/15
Frequency of AC currents fed into rotor windings of DFIG conPnually adjusted to

counteract any variaPon in rotor speed caused by uctuaPons of mechanical
power provided by wind turbine that drives generator
u For example
Assume a wind turbines blades spin at 36 RPM
Assume gear box is 1:50
Assume DFIGs is 4 pole machine (2 pole-pair)
u Synchronous speed 1800 RPM
Assume wind turbine is currently spinning at 30 RPM
u Rotor speed is therefore 1500 RPM
u AC excitaPon currents injected into rotor must create addiPonal
rotaPon of 300 RPM
u 5 Hz currents injected into rotor
u To maintain voltage produced at DFIG stator equal to AC system voltage
MagnePc ux must be maintained in machine
Achieved by applying a voltage value to rotor winding that is proporPonal
to frequency of voltage applied to rotor windings
u Maintain V/f raPo constant for constant MVar output
Raise V/f raPo for machine to operate more lagging
Lower V/f raPo for machine to operate more leading
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1-27
2/9/15
Map as of 12/31/1999
2,472 total capacity
1-28
2/9/15
Map as of 9/30/2014
62,300 total capacity
1-29
2/9/15
Wind energy animaPon last 14 years
1-30
2/9/15
These numbers are from the Canadian Wind Energy AssociaPon as of January 2015
1-31
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2/9/15
A
Solar Field
B
Thermal Energy Storage Hot & Cold Tanks
C
Heat Transfer Fluid Expansion Vessels
D
Heat Transfer Fluid Pumps
E
Heat Transfer Fluid Supply Headers
F
Solar Steam Generators
G
Steam Turbines & Generators
H
OperaPons Control Building
I
Cooling Towers
J
Switchyards
K
Water/Wastewater Treatment Systems
L
Firewater/Cooling Tower Make-up Tank
M EvaporaPon Ponds
N Raw Water Tank
The Solana StaPon is a 280 MW concentrated solar power (CSP) project located about 70 miles
southwest of Phoenix near Gila Bend, Arizona
The staPon will interconnect at 230 kV with the APS system
Operates by using a parabolic trough system to concentrate energy from the sun using long curved
mirrors
Approximately 2,700 trough collectors covering roughly 1,757 acres comprise the solar eld
The trough systems focus sunlight on a pipe running through the center of the trough
Heat warms a synthePc oil (heat transfer uid up to 735) which ows through the pipe to the power
island
The heat transfer uid serves as the working uid of the collector eld & provides a means for
transferring the collected solar energy to the heat exchangers
The collected solar energy is used to convert water to steam for use in a convenPonal steam turbine
generator
1-32
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2/9/15
A
Solar Field
B
Thermal Energy Storage Hot & Cold Tanks
C
Heat Transfer Fluid Expansion Vessels
D
Heat Transfer Fluid Pumps
E
Heat Transfer Fluid Supply Headers
F
Solar Steam Generators
G
Steam Turbines & Generators
H
OperaPons Control Building
I
Cooling Towers
J
Switchyards
K
Water/Wastewater Treatment Systems
L
Firewater/Cooling Tower Make-up Tank
M EvaporaPon Ponds
N Raw Water Tank
The Solana StaPon is a 280 MW concentrated solar power (CSP) project located about 70 miles
southwest of Phoenix near Gila Bend, Arizona
The staPon will interconnect at 230 kV with the APS system
Operates by using a parabolic trough system to concentrate energy from the sun using long curved
mirrors
Approximately 2,700 trough collectors covering roughly 1,757 acres comprise the solar eld
The trough systems focus sunlight on a pipe running through the center of the trough
Heat warms a synthePc oil (heat transfer uid up to 735) which ows through the pipe to the power
island
The heat transfer uid serves as the working uid of the collector eld & provides a means for
transferring the collected solar energy to the heat exchangers
The collected solar energy is used to convert water to steam for use in a convenPonal steam turbine
generator
1-33
2/9/15
Ivanpah Solar Electric GeneraPng System is a solar project in Californias Death

Valley
u Project is on 3,500 acres of public land 40 miles southwest of Las Vegas
u Planned gross capacity of 392 MW
PG&E & SCE have contracted for energy output
u Uses 173,500 heliostats (each device includes two mirrors which turn so as to keep
reecPng sunlight toward a predetermined target) focusing solar energy on boilers
located on centralized power towers
Towers approximately 480 feet tall
Inlet water temperature to boiler 470 output temp 1050
u Unit 1 of project was connected to grid in September 2013 in an iniPal sync tesPng
u Facility formally opened on February 13, 2014 & all 3units should be fully
operaPonal by end of 2014
u Project developed by BrightSource Energy and Bechtel
u Cost $2.2 billion largest investor NRG Energy
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1-34
2/9/15
Rotors can be wound with as many magnePc eld pole-pairs as desired

A typical coal red steam unit is illustrated above
There are two rotor poles
u 1 north & 1 south
This unit spins at 3600 rpm to create a 60 Hz voltage
u Note that for each set of rotor pole-pairs
There are one complete set of stator phase windings
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1-35
2/9/15
Spins at 1800 RPM when connected to a 60 Hz system
1-36
2/9/15
2012 Total Energy Produced 4,054,485 GWH

Coal
1,517,203
Gas
1,241,920
Nuclear
769,331
Hydro
271,877
Renew
218,787
Oil
22,900
Other
12,466
u All informaPon from US Government Energy InformaPon Agency (EIA)
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1-37
2/9/15
2011 Total MW Nameplate Capability = 1,153,149

Gas
479,589
Coal
343,757
Nuclear
107,001
Hydro
78,194
Oil
57,537
Wind
45,982
Pump St. 20,816
Other
11,953
Wood
8,014
u All data from EIA Electric Power Annual
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1-38
2/9/15
A generators torque angle is best viewed via the voltage waves

The phase angle between the generators & power systems voltage waves is the
same as the angle between the rotaPng magnePc elds
u The diagram above shows a torque angle of zero on the le^ & 45 degrees on the
right
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1-39
2/9/15
The process of synchronizing two islands is illustrated above

Before closing the circuit breaker the status of three synchronizing variables must
be checked
Match the frequencies as close as possible
Reduce the voltage phase angle to zero degrees if possible
Match the voltages on both sides of the open circuit breaker
u If three synchronizing variables are held within reasonable limits before closing
then the power system will not be shocked excessively upon closing the circuit
breaker
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1-40
2/9/15
The connecPons for a synchroscope within the power system are illustrated above
Note the two PTs used to input the 2 voltage waves to the scope
u Also note the 25 relay
A 25 relay is a synchronizing relay
u A synchronizing relay will not allow the circuit breaker to close unPl
the angle across the open circuit breaker is less than a selectable
value
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1-41
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1-42
2/9/15
Once the rst circuit breaker is closed, the frequency is the same in the enPre
power system
u However, the other two synchronizing variables must be within reasonable limits
before the second breaker closing
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1-43
2/9/15
A governor control system is used to control the speed of the generator rotaPng
sha^
u The governor adjusts a valve posiPon as the sha^ speed changes
The valve controls the fuel ow
u Governors are a source of primary frequency control which is also called frequency
response
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1-44
2/9/15
An excitaPon control system is used to control the MVar output of the generator
The voltage regulator monitors the unit output voltage & sends an error signal to
the exciter
u The exciter controls the amount of eld current that ows to the generators eld
winding
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1-45
2/9/15
The graphic above illustrates the three major InterconnecPons of North America
NERC includes the Hydro Quebec InterconnecPon as part of the Eastern
InterconnecPon
u Approximate peak load of the major InterconnecPons
East 650,000 MW
West 160,000 MW
ERCOT 70,000 MW
Hydro Quebec 35,000 MW
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1-46
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The graphic above illustrates the 8 Regional EnPPes in NERC

Approximate peak MW of each RE
SERC 200,000
RFC 180,000
WECC 160,000
NPCC 110,000
TRE 70,000
MRO 45,000
FRCC 45,000
SPP 45,000
1-47
2/9/15
There are 16 RCs

AESO - Alberta Electric System Operator
u Shared responsibiliPes with Peak RC
ERCOT - ERCOT ISO
FRCC Florida Power & Light
ISNE - ISO New England
MISO Mid-ConPnent ISO
NBSO - New Brunswick System Operator
NYIS New York Independent System Operator
ONT - Ontario Independent Electricity System Operator
PEAK Peak Reliability (WECC RC)
PJM - PJM InterconnecPon
SOCO - Southern Company Services
SPC - SaskPower
SPP - Southwest Power Pool
TE TransEnergie Hydro Quebec
TVA - Tennessee Valley Authority
VACS - VACAR-South
1-48
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There are approximately 130 BAs in all of NERC
1-49
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10 RTOs in North America

ISOs grew out of FERC Orders 888/889 where FERC suggested the concept of an
ISO as 1 way for exisPng power pools to saPsfy the requirement of providing non-
discriminatory access to transmission
u In Order 2000, FERC encouraged the voluntary formaPon of RTOs to administer
the transmission grid on a regional basis throughout North America
Including Canada
u Order 2000 listed 12 characterisPcs & funcPons that an enPty must saPsfy in order
to become an RTO
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2/9/15
Review of acPve & reacPve power theory

Development of equaPons for MW & MVar ow
u Graphical tools for determining MW & MVar ow
u Design & operaPon of phase shiîng transformers
u IntroducPon to power transfer limits
u Development & usage of power transfer distribuPon factors
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1-51
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Lagging & leading condiPons are illustrated in above gure

The power industry convenPon is for a lagging phase angle to be called a posiPve
phase angle
1-52
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Power angle () is the voltage phase angle dierence

Trick to measuring a power angle is to compare both voltages at exactly the same
Pme
If a one cycle (1/60th of a second) lapse occurs between measuring the two
voltages
u It is equivalent to a 360 error
1-53
2/9/15
Graphic above illustrates maximum possible angle in an AC power system

90 angle between buses
181 is 179 in other direcPon
So maximum possible angle is 180
1-54
2/9/15
The US Government has invested a large amount of money in a program called the
Smart Grid Investment Grant or SGIG
Many uPliPes have provided matching funds
1-55
2/9/15
The generators voltage angle must lead the power system

Otherwise MW would not ow out of the generator
u Note that is the relaPve voltage phase angle at the bus
The power angle is the dierence in voltage angles between two locaPons
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Generator torque angle

Torque angle is the angle by which the rotaPng magnePc eld about the rotor
leads the stator (air-gap) eld
u The torque angle a generator holds depends on:
Its output (MW & MVar) level
Its design
The power system design
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Pi () model of transmission line

Note series impedance (R + jXL)
Note charging (XC)
u We will use this model to develop equaPons for MW & MVar ow
u Note that Reliability Coordinators are geang very dependent on power ow
modeling so^ware
Each of the power systems transmission lines are modeled in the so^ware
using PI models
u During the 8/14/2003 outage invesPgaPon engineers put models of the power
system together with:
44,300 buses
59,086 transmission lines
6,987 generators
The engineers then validated the model by comparing actual system data
at 1500 dierent power system locaPons at 15:05 on 8/14/03
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2/9/15
4 equaPons are illustrated above

These equaPons were developed from graphic on previous page using
Kirchhos Laws
u Note the vector symbol: VS
Voltages, currents, & impedances have both magnitude & direcPon & are
therefore vectors
u Actually these quanPPes are phasors
Phasors are vectors that rotate at a frequency
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1-59
2/9/15
The equaPons above use the equaPons of the previous page to nd sending (SS) &
receiving (SR) end complex power (P + Q)
u The symbol (^) is for the conjugate
A conjugate is a mathemaPcal operaPon to keep the signs of P & Q correct
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Using standard methods (sin / cosine conversion) for switching between the
rectangular and polar coordinate frames the equaPons of the previous page are
separated into acPve (P) & reacPve (Q) components
Sending end posiPve powers are out of bus & into line
Receiving end posiPve powers are out of line & into bus
1-61
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If we ignore the series resistance in the equaPons of the previous page

The equaPons simplify as illustrated above
u If we know the:
Line-to-line voltages
InducPve reactance (X)
Power angle
Charging
u We can calculate the MW & MVar ows
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We will only use the sending end equaPons from this point forward
You should memorize these two equaPons
1-63
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Use of acPve power ow equaPon

Which way is acPve power owing?
Which way is reacPve power owing?
1-64
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Generators produce MW & MVar & the power ows to the loads
Seems simple but somePmes we forget simple things
u High voltages means lower
u High impedance means greater
u System equipment (like a PST) can impact MW ow
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Use of phase shiîng transformer (PST)

PSTs are oên called phase angle regulators (PAR)
u PST pushes/pulls power to/from a parallel path
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3 PST photograph
1-67
2/9/15
Diagram above illustrates transformer with delta winding on le^ & wye winding on
right
u Delta coil 1 is magnePcally linked (on same core) as wye coil 4
Coil 2 with coil 5
Coil 3 with coil 6
u Polarity marks (red X) note polarity relaPonships of coils
Delta coil 1 from polarity to non-polarity is in phase with wye coil 4
from polarity to non-polarity
u Note phaser diagrams below transformer diagram
Voltage from VA-N on delta side leads voltage from VA-N on wye side by 30
Voltage from VB-N on delta side leads voltage from VB-N on wye side by 30
Voltage from VC-N on delta side leads voltage from VC-N on wye side by 30
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North American standard is:

In any delta to wye transformer (or wye to delta) high side phase to neutral
voltage leads low side phase to neutral voltage by 30
In other words, wye-delta transformer is xed 30 PST!
1-68
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PSTs can be designed to provide either xed or variable phase shi^

Some designs of PST also provide voltage regulaPon by controlling magnitude of
voltage
u Most common type of PST is illustrated above
u This PST design has delta connected series windings & grounded-wye connected
exciPng windings
u Series & exciPng windings are oên mounted in separate tanks
With connecPons between tanks
u Series primary winding center tap is connected to primary windings exciPng unit
The exciPng unit is connected grounded-wye / grounded wye
u This conguraPon oers the advantages of:
Wye connecPon excitaPon winding insulaPon
Grounded neutral available
Constant zero sequence impedance
u PST accomplishes power ow control by adding a variable quadrature voltage to
the source -N voltage
u Load tap changers (LTCs) permit phase angle variaPons in the advance or the
retard direcPons
u Secondary of exciPng unit is connected in a manner that impresses quadrature
voltage to series winding
See next slide
u
u
1-69
2/9/15
CreaPon of the quadrature voltage is illustrated above

Phase angle shi^s of the incoming A voltage are developed by adding a
quadrature voltage derived from a VB-C voltages
u Changing the magnitude of the quadrature voltage varies the phase shi^
u By varying tap on LTC (or NLTC) in exciPng winding you control amount of
quadrature voltage impressed on secondary of series unit & thus phase shi^
across PST
u
u
1-70
2/9/15
PST design with delta connected exciPng windings

Wye connected series & secondary windings
u Only A connecPons are illustrated
u
1-71
2/9/15
IllustraPon of PST OperaPon

Note 15.8 angle across both lines
u When le^ to its natural ow
MW splits according to relaPve path impedance
u Assume goal is to match path MW ows using PST
u
u
1-72
2/9/15
Install PST in upper line

Adjust for 6.8 angle to match path ows at 300 MW
19.9 across line #2
11.1 across line #1
u PST operaPon can be viewed as intenPonally creaPng a counterclockwise ow of
60 MW
Line #1 ow is then 360 60 = 300 MW
Line #2 ow is then 240 + 60 = 300 MW
u
u
1-73
2/9/15
In le^ side diagram (A) above Line #2 is open with a 40 angle across CB #2
Angle across CB #2 is representaPve of MW that will ow once CB #2 is
closed
u To reduce this angle you must reduce ow that would occur once
CB #2 is closed
u PSTs are a powerful tool for this purpose
u Right side diagram illustrates how PST in Line #1 can be used to reduce ow on
parallel path
Thus reducing angle across CB #2
u Angle across parallel path is same as angle across the open CB #2
u Note that while angle across line #2 gets smaller
Angle across Line @1 gets larger
u PST can be viewed as intenPonally creaPng a circulaPng ow
This circulaPng ow is illustrated in right side (B) diagram above
u CirculaPng ow unloads parallel path & further loads Line #1
u
1-74
2/9/15
In diagram above Line #1 is open with an iniPal angle of 40 across CB #1

PST in Line #1 can be used to reduce angle across CB #1
This is true even though PST is installed in an open line
PST can be tapped to reduce angle across CB #1 to small enough value to
allow closing
u In graphic above PST is tapped for a 30 angle
Think of it as Delta-Wye transformer with one side open
u Delta-Wye transformers always have a 30 shi^
Now angle across CB #1 is reduced to 10 & the CB can be closed
u
u
1-75
2/9/15
Use of the reacPve power transfer equaPon

To simplify reacPve transfer equaPon, rst ignore the line charging
Can then ignore the last term in the equaPon
u Also, if <20 then cos 1
This simplicaPon eliminates the cosine term
u Can now see why reacPve power normally ows from high to low voltage
This common assumpPon is based on a big simplicaPon
u
u
1-76
2/9/15
ReacPve power ows from reacPve sources to reacPve loads

The problem is there are all lots of reacPve sources & lots of reacPve loads
u Transmission lines are a good example
Lines are capacitors when lightly loaded
Lines are reactors when heavily loaded
u
1-77
2/9/15
The gure above illustrates a power-angle curve

This simple diagram only applies to a 2 bus system
u The diagram is a plot of the acPve power transfer equaPon
Point A is stable
Point C is unstable
Point B is PMAX
u Mechanical power input line is a key element of the Power-Angle curve
u
1-78
2/9/15
Development of a power-circle diagram

The equaPons above are a restatement of complex power equaPons rst given on
page 1-50
u Sending & receiving powers can be thought of as sums of two vectors:
u SS = S1 - S2
u SR = R1 + R2
u
u
1-79
2/9/15
If you plot S1 & S2 you form the sending-end circle

The Pp of S2 determines the sending-end power at a power angle of 0
u Note MVar ow is negaPve when = 0
MVar is sending-end bus due to the transmission lines natural capacitance
u Note that the posiPon of the S2 vector is exaggerated for visibility
u Can read MW & MVar power ows out of sending-end bus for dierent values of
Note = 70 for the transmission line in the above gure
u
u
1-80
2/9/15
Added receiving-end circle diagram to previous page graphic to obtain the gure
above
u Both sending-end & receiving-end illustrate a power angle of 70
u
1-81
u
u
2/9/15
Example of use of power-circle diagram

Using equaPons for S1, S2, R1, R2 (see page 1-69) can calculate:
S1 = 70 MW & 930 MVar
S2 = -70 MW & -990 MVar
R1 = -70 MW & -880 MVar
R2 = 70 MW & 990 MVar
1-82
2/9/15
Plot S1, S2, R1, R2 on a diagram with MW & MVar axes

Flows illustrated are for a = 0
u Note the S1, S2, R1, & R2 values plot on top of one another so all are not visible
u
u
1-83
2/9/15
Raise to 40
Note power ows in boHom right of gure
These were obtained from the power-circle diagram above
u Note the large MW changes as a result of the angle changes
u Note the Mvar ows are not balanced
This is due to uneven voltage levels coupled with innite buses
u Innite bus means bus will supply whatever amount of MVar
needed to keep voltage constant
Mvar ows are measured at bus
Lower voltage on right side (340 kV) produces less MVar from natural
capacitance so more Mvar must be drawn from the bus to meet needs of
line
u
u
1-84
2/9/15
Raise to 86
PMAX into receiving end occurs at 86, not 90
The angle of maximum power transfer is the impedance angle of the
transfer path
This angle is always less than 90 degrees due to resistance of the transfer
path
u Note dierent angle for PMAX at sending & receiving ends
u
u
1-85
2/9/15
Note the rapid increase in the MVar usage of the line
1-86
2/9/15
Three general categories of power transfer limits

Thermal
Voltage
Angle Stability
u Any of the three may limit power transfer
The limiPng element is the most constraining of the three
u NERC refers to these limits collecPvely as:
OperaPng Security Limits
u
NERC states that no maMer what the opera0ng security limit is calculated to be,
under no circumstances may a transmission operators net schedule across a
transmission path exceed the physical capability of the transmission path
1-87
2/9/15
Major power transfer paths in the WECC are illustrated above
1-88
2/9/15
TTC is the acronym for total transfer capability

The TTC is the amount of MW that can be transferred across a transmission
path while sPll ensuring that the path can suer its most severe single
conPngency & stay within acceptable boundaries
u ATC is the acronym for available transfer capability
The ATC is that porPon of the TTC that is available for further commercial
acPvity
u NERC denes the ATC as:
ATC = TTC TRM ETC
u The TRM is an uncertainty factor
u ETC stands for ExisPng Transmission Commitments & includes the
transmission service that is already sold to transmission users
And any transmission capacity reserved for generaPon
sharing agreements
Such as CBM
u
1-89
2/9/15
PTDF
Power Transfer DistribuPon Factor
In the pre-conPngency conguraPon of a system under study, a measure of
the responsiveness or change in electrical loadings on transmission system
faciliPes due to a change in electric power transfer from one area to
another, expressed in percent (up to 100%) of the change in power transfer
1-90
2/9/15
1-91
u
u
u
2/9/15
The PTDF of 10% in the previous page was the percentage of the A-to-C schedule that owed
on the path from A-B-D-C
Lines A-B, B-D, & D-C all have the same 10% PTDF for the schedule from A-C
Line A-C has a PTDF of 90%
Assume that Line A-B is always overloading
Further assume you want to create a tool that you can rapidly consult to determine
what schedules would be best curtailed to relive an overload on Line A-B
A table, such as the one shown above, could be created to show the PTDFs on Line A-B for
various schedules
For example, for a schedule that sources at A & sinks at C, 10% of the ow is across Line A-B
This PTDF (10%) is entered in the table as shown in large type above
To further illustrate the concept, what about a 100 MW schedule that sources at B & sinks at
C, how much of it will ow on Line A-B?
A schedule with a source B & sink C has two possible paths to ow
u Path B-A-C has 60% of the impedance & will absorb 40% of the ow
u Path B-D-C has 40% of the impedance & will absorb 60% of the ow
The PTDF for this schedule on Line A-B is therefore 40%
Note that the 40% is shown as a negaPve number in the table above
The negaPve is because the MW actually ows from bus B to bus A on Line A-B
u A negaPve PTDF means that increasing the Source B to sink C schedule would
lower the ow from A to B
1-92
2/9/15
Cause, eects & control of frequency deviaPons

Concept of inerPal response
u Concept of load response
u Governor control design & operaPon
Speed regulaPon, droop, deadband
u AGC design & operaPon including calculaPon of ACE
u Concept of operaPng reserve
u Concept of Pme error control
u NERC Control Performance Standards CPS & DCS
Include an introducPon to reliability based control or RBC
u Impact of frequency deviaPons on power system & equipment
u UFLS concept & operaPon
u Nature of Frequency DeviaPon
u CalculaPon of frequency response measure (FRC)
u DescripPon of the stages that follow a generaPon loss
u
u
1-93
2/9/15
Load/resources balance analogy

Load includes interchange-out
u Resources includes interchange-in
u
u
1-94
2/9/15
TRE peak hour demand 2003-2012
1-95
2/9/15
WECC peak hour demand 2003-2013
1-96
2/9/15
NERC peak hour demand 2003-2013
1-97
2/9/15
1-98
2/9/15
What is considered normal depends on the size of the interconnecPon

What is normal in Alaska is abnormal in New York
u In general, frequency is more volaPle today than it was a few years ago
u
1-99
2/9/15
The tail of the frequency deviaPon approximates the governor response

More on this later
1-100
2/9/15
The graphic above is from the 8/14/03 disturbance report

The graph illustrates the acceptable range of frequency in the NERC
systems
1-101
2/9/15
The plot above is from the 8/14/03 disturbance report

The plot shows that the frequency was normal prior to the collapse
u Also note the fast Pme error correcPon at 12:00
Fast correcPons are no longer done in peak hours
u
1-102
2/9/15
The load/frequency relaPonship is the most important concept in frequency

control
u The load/frequency relaPonship states that:
A 1% change in frequency leads to approximately a 2% change in the
systems total load
u NERC uses the term load damping
As the frequency declines load magnitude reduces
The total load is reduced or damped
u
1-103
2/9/15
The gure above illustrates the inerPa of a rotaPng mass

InerPa is that property of a mass that resists changes to its rotaPonal speed
u InerPa response is provided by synchronously connected generators & motors
u InerPal response quickly provides power that is proporPonal to the frequency &
the change in frequency
u InerPal response limits the rate of change of frequency unPl sucient frequency
response can be supplied to arrest the change in frequency
u InerPal responses reliability value increases as the Pme delay associated with the
delivery of other frequency response on the InterconnecPon increases
u The reliability value of inerPal response is the greatest on small interconnecPons
because the size of a disturbance event is larger relaPve to the inerPa of the
interconnecPon
u If the proper electronic controls are implemented a synthePc inerPal response can
be created
For example a typical wind turbine does not provide inerPal response as
the rotaPng mass of the wind turbine is not connected directly to the AC
power system
u The wind turbines power is fed into the power system via a DC to
AC converter
However, electronic controls could be installed to vary the wind turbines
MW output as a funcPon of system frequency
u This is a synthePc inerPal response
u
1-104
2/9/15
The generator sha^ speed changes when system load changes

The governor monitors sha^ speed
u The governor will vary the steam ow to arrest speed (frequency) deviaPons
u
u
1-105
2/9/15
This gure illustrates the components & operaPon of a centrifugal ball-head

governor
u Trivia:
The centrifugal ball-head governor is the origin of the expression:
u Balls to the walls
When the sha^ is rotaPng quickly, the governor ballhead is far out in its
rotaPonal arc
u There are 2 types of deadband in speed governing systems
Inherent (natural) & intenPonal
u Test results from dierent types of governors indicate that inherent deadband is
very small (less than .005 Hz) on most governors & can be neglected
u IntenPonal deadband is used to reduce the response for normal frequency
variaPons & may be large enough (about .05 Hz) to aect overall frequency control
performance
u
1-106
2/9/15
The photograph above is a centrifugal ball-head governor designed by James WaH

in 1788
The governor is controlling the speed of a steam engine
1-107
2/9/15
Governor response has time delays associated with its delivery

Governor response provided with shorter time delays has a higher reliability
value as the shorter time delays require less inertial response to arrest
frequency
u Time delays associated with governor response vary depending on the type
of turbine-generator providing the response
The longest time delays are usually associated with high head hydro
units that have long delays (perhaps 10 seconds) from the initial
governor response to a water ow increase through the turbine
Intermediate time delays are usually associated with steam turbine/
generators
u The delivery times associated with the full delivery of response
may require the steam to flow through high, intermediate &
low pressure turbines including reheat flows before full MW is
delivered
Gas turbines typically have the shortest time delays
u Control changes can be initiated rapidly & the mass flow has
the shortest path to the turbine blades
u The withdrawal of response due to the loss of steam pressure in steam units may
be oset by the slower response of hydro turbine/generators
The reliability value of the combined hydro & steam response is greater
than the individual response
u
u
1-108
2/9/15
Isochronous characterisPc curve

An isochronous governor uses its full valve range in an aHempt to hold 60 Hz
u This mode is not typically used during normal operaPons but does have a use
during abnormal operaPng condiPons
Especially during system restoraPon condiPons
u
u
1-109
2/9/15
Speed droop is the amount of speed (or frequency) change that is necessary to
cause the prime mover control mechanism (for example a water valve) to move
from fully closed to fully open
If the speed droop is 5% then a 5% change in the turbine speed would
moves valves from fully open to closed or from fully closed to open
u Speed regula0on is the amount of speed or frequency change necessary to cause
the MW output of the synchronous generator to change from zero output to full
output
In contrast with droop, speed regulaPon focuses on the MW output of the
generator, rather than the posiPon of its valves
u The gure above illustrates a 5% speed regulaPon curve
For a 5% change in frequency (3 Hz), the governor will move the generator
across its full MW output range
u From 0 to rated or rated to 0
u As frequency drops, MW increases
u As frequency rises, MW drops
u Industry pracPce is a droop of 5%
u
1-110
2/9/15
Figure illustrates how droop is implemented in a centrifugal ballhead governor
1-111
2/9/15
The gure above illustrates the governor responding to a decline in system

frequency
The generator must have (responsive) spinning reserve to respond
u Just because a generator has spinning reserve does not mean that it will respond
to frequency deviaPons
For example, the governor may be blocked
u Nuclear units typically have blocked governors
u
1-112
2/9/15
The movement of the governors set-point restores the frequency
1-113
2/9/15
The load frequency relaPonship is always in eect

As the frequency is restored the load in the system rises
u The load frequency relaPonship dampens the frequency deviaPon
u
1-114
2/9/15
Governor response in the interconnected systems

Note how Unit B slides back up curve
u When set-point on Unit A is adjusted the enPre generaPon loss is replaced so
Unit B can return to its original operaPng point
u
u
1-115
2/9/15
Speed droop is the amount of speed (or frequency) change that is necessary to
cause the prime mover control mechanism (for example a water valve) to move
from fully closed to fully open
If the speed droop is 5% then a 5% change in the turbine speed would
moves valves from fully open to closed or from fully closed to open
u Speed regula0on is the amount of speed or frequency change necessary to cause
the MW output of the synchronous generator to change from zero output to full
output
In contrast with droop, speed regulaPon focuses on the MW output of the
generator, rather than the posiPon of its valves
u In some cases, especially hydro, the droop seang is oên signicantly dierent
from the resulPng speed regulaPon
This is due to the nonlinear relaPonship between valve posiPon & water,
gas, or steam ow through the turbine
u To illustrate the dierence between speed droop & speed regulaPon the response
of a large (690 MW raPng) hydroelectric generaPng unit to a system frequency
disturbance is illustrated in the series of plots above
Note the iniPal frequency drop from 59.95 to 59.91
Valves open an addiPonal 1%
690 MW rated unit MW output moves from 600 to 610
u See speed droop & speed regulaPon calculaPons next page
u
1-116
2/9/15
Speed droop of 6.7 % means that it would take a 6.7% change in frequency to
move the control valve from fully closed to fully open
u Speed regulaPon of 4.6 % means that it would take a 4.6% change in frequency to
move the MW output from 0 to 690
u
1-117
u
u
2/9/15
The frequency trace tail approximates the governor response

A good governor response is a 50% recovery in the frequency
1-118
2/9/15
Same unit size, same speed regulaPon (5%)

Share 200 MW load increase evenly
u Assuming both units have similar generator response to the
governor commands
1-119
2/9/15
1-120
u
u
2/9/15
Same unit size, dierent speed regulaPon (3% & 6%)

Unit with smaller speed regulaPon (3%) takes more of load increase
1-121
2/9/15
1-122
u
u
2/9/15
Same unit size, dierent speed regulaPon (3% & 0%)

Unit on isochronous control (0% droop) will aHempt to take all of load increase
3% speed regulaPon unit does not move unPl 0% unit is out of room
1-123
2/9/15
The graphic above illustrates the frequency response measure (FRM) of the
Eastern InterconnecPon
The FRM will change as system condiPons change
1-124
2/9/15
Speed RegulaPon seang is an intenPonal limitaPon

Must have room (spinning)
u If mismatch is too large, governor response may not be enough
u Must break deadband to acPvate governor
OEMs typically use a deadband around .03 to .04 Hz
u If unit cannot back up governor, governor response means nothing
u Many units have blocked governors
u
u
1-125
2/9/15
There are approximately 130 BAs in all of NERC

Approximately 55 of Eastern BAs are Local BAs or LBAs
Leaves about 40 BAs in East that run AGC
1-126
2/9/15
Alberta Electric System Operator (AESO), Arizona Public Service Company (AZPS),
Avista CorporaPon (AVA), BA of Northern California (BANC), BPA Transmission
(BPAT), BA Hydro Authority (BCHA), California ISO (CISO), Comisin Federal de
Electricidad (CFE), Arlington Valley, LLC (DEAA), El Paso Electric Company (EPE),
Gila River Power, LP (GRMA), Grith Energy, LLC (GRIF), Idaho Power Company
(IPCO), Imperial IrrigaPon District (IID), Los Angeles Department of Water & Power
(LDWP), NaturEner Power Watch, LLC (GWA), Nevada Power Company (NEVP),
New Harquahala GeneraPng Company (HGBA), Northwestern Energy (NWMT),
PaciCorp East (PACE), PaciCorp West (PACW), Portland General Electric
Company (PGE), Public Service Company of Colorado (PSCO), Public Service
Company of New Mexico (PNM), PUD No. 1 of Chelan County (CHPD), PUD No. 1
of Douglas County (DOPD), PUD No. 2 of Grant County (GCPD), Puget Sound
Energy (PSEI), Salt River Project (SRP), SeaHle City Light (SCL), Sierra Pacic Power
Company (SPPC), City of Tacoma Department of Public UPliPes (TPWR), Tucson
Electric Power Company (TEPC), Turlock IrrigaPon District (TIDC), WAPA
Colorado-Missouri Region (WACM), WAPA, Lower Colorado Region (WALC),
WAPA Upper Great Plains West (WAUW), NaturEner Wind Watch (WWA)
1-127
2/9/15
2 primary generaPon control duPes of a BA

BAs typically have many other duPes
u Note that these 2 duPes may conict
When supporPng the InterconnecPons frequency a BAs actual
interchange will be dierent than its scheduled interchange
u
1-128
2/9/15
Inadvertent interchange is the dierence between the actual ow & the scheduled
ow
u All BAs keep inadvertent accounts for peak & o-peak periods
u
1-129
2/9/15
Primary or unintenPonal inadvertent is incurred by which ever BA causes a

frequency deviaPon
u Secondary or intenPonal inadvertent is incurred by the BAs that respond to the
frequency deviaPon
u In the gure above
BA A loses generaPon in the top
BA C loses load in the boHom
u
1-130
u
u
2/9/15
Components of an AGC system

The standard Pme input is used to determine the Pme error for the
InterconnecPon
1-131
2/9/15
Modes of AGC control

The Pe-line bias mode is normally used
u The constant frequency mode is rarely used during normal system operaPons
u The constant net interchange mode is relaPvely common
BAs may use it if they have contracted with another BA to provide their
regulaPon service
u Constant frequency & constant net interchange may also be used during system
restoraPon or other abnormal events
u
u
1-132
2/9/15
1907 - 1989
Following graduaPon from MIT joined Leeds & Northrup Company where worked
for 48 years
u Best known for contribuPons to control of interconnected power systems
u Devised many of fundamental concepts & techniques now in widespread use for
automaPc control of generaPon & power ow
u Major contribuPons included:
Use of sustained frequency bias in generaPon control process
Use of distributed frequency biased net interchange controls in all areas
interconnecPon for control of bulk power transfers
Analysis of system response that permits coordinaPon of area controls with
inherent area governing characterisPcs
Development of combined feed forward & feedback computer control
technique for stable economic generaPon allocaPon
Developed method for compuPng magnitude of unscheduled energy
transfers caused by each of parPcipaPng areas of interconnecPon
u
u
1-133
2/9/15
Simple diagram for Pe-line bias control

View the ACE signal as being composed of two components
Frequency component
Interchange component
u Importance of the bias value
u Bias value (B) is the expected MW response of the BA to a 0.1 Hz frequency event
More on bias calculaPon later
u
u
1-134
u
u
2/9/15
Tie-line bias example for an external disturbance

If AGC works properly, ACE = 0
If the bias is exact!
1-135
2/9/15
1-136
u
u
2/9/15
Tie-line bias example for an internal disturbance

A negaPve ACE means this BA is under-generaPng
700 MW approximates the loss
1-137
2/9/15
1-138
2/9/15
OperaPng Reserve
That capability above rm demand required to provide for regulaPon, load forecasPng error,
equipment forced & scheduled outages & local area protecPon
OperaPng Reserve consists of Spinning & Non-Spinning Reserve
OperaPng Reserve Spinning
The porPon of OperaPng Reserve consisPng of:
u
GeneraPon synchronized to the system & fully available to serve load within the
Disturbance Recovery Period following the conPngency
u
Load fully removable from the system within the Disturbance Recovery Period
following the conPngency
Non-Spinning Reserve
That generaPng reserve not connected to the system but capable of serving demand within a
specied Pme
InterrupPble load that can be removed from the system in a specied Pme
ConPngency Reserve
The provision of capacity deployed by the BA to meet the DCS & other NERC & RRO
conPngency requirements
RegulaPng Reserve
An amount of reserve, responsive to AGC, which is sucient to provide normal regulaPng
margin
OperaPng Reserve Supplemental
The porPon of OperaPng Reserve consisPng of:
u
GeneraPon (synchronized or capable of being synchronized to the system) that is fully
available to serve load within the Disturbance Recovery Period following the
conPngency event or
u
Load fully removable from the system within the Disturbance Recovery Period
following the conPngency event
1-139
2/9/15
Frequency responsive reserves are automaPcally (governor, relay, etc.) & rapidly
(within seconds) responsive to frequency deviaPons
1-140
2/9/15
1-141
2/9/15
The Control Performance Standard (CPS) has two components

Both CPS1 & CPS2 are derived from a frequency based staPsPcal theory & are
technically defensible
u CPS1 & CPS2 apply during normal & disturbance condiPons
u CPS is supplemented by a Disturbance Control Standard (DCS) that applies during
disturbance condiPons
u Each BA is to strive for the best operaPon above the minimum levels of
conformance dened by the CPS & DCS standards
While recognizing control & economic limitaPons
u
u
1-142
2/9/15
CPS1 is intended to provide a BA with a frequency sensiPve evaluaPon of how well

the BA is meePng its demand requirements
u CPS1 was not designed to be a visual indicator that a System Operator can use to
control generaPon
Although CPS1 may be used for that purpose
u
1-143
u
u
2/9/15
The 2 graphs above are of frequency error & hertz

Note that when they are mulPplied together it is easy to view the MW-Hz
performance
1-144
2/9/15
Figure illustrates targeted frequency bounds for the Eastern InterconnecPon

As determined by the NERC Performance SubcommiHee
u Note that as the Pme period in which you are averaging the frequency error
lengthens, the allowable frequency error decreases
Allow larger short term errors in frequency
u Recall that CPS1 uses a 1-minute average for epsilon (eI1)
CPS2 uses a 10-minute average for epsilon (e10)
u Current Eastern InterconnecPon values for epsilon
1 minute average 18 mHz (.018 Hz)
10 minute average: 5.7 mHz (.0057 Hz)
u Current Western InterconnecPon values for epsilon
1 minute average 22.8 mHz (.0228 Hz)
u Current ERCOT InterconnecPon values for epsilon
u Current Hydro Quebec InterconnecPon values for epsilon
u
1-145
2/9/15
Each BA will calculate a Control Parameter value for each minute of the day
Procedures for calculaPng control performance when ACE values are not
available are described in the NERC Manual
u The Control Parameters for each minute are averaged together to determine the
Control Parameter value for each successive hour
u The monthly Control Parameter values are a weighted average that are based on
the Control Performance magnitudes from each minutes calculaPon & the
number of Control Parameter values used
u You could calculate average Control Parameter values for any Pme period
For example, for the duraPon of a System Operators shi^
u
1-146
2/9/15
The Compliance Factor (CF) is determined by dividing the average value of the
Control Parameter by the square of the frequency target value (epsilon)
u You could calculate a Compliance Factor for any Pme period but the 12 month
sliding average is the best indicator of overall control performance
NERC will monitor one & 12 month values of the Compliance Factor
u The NERC Performance SubcommiHee will determine the InterconnecPons
epsilon value
u NERC uses the Compliance Factor (which is a raPo) to create a percentage formula
for evaluaPng control performance
The equaPon NERC developed is shown on the next slide
u
1-147
2/9/15
The actual CPS1 value that is calculated to determine a BAs compliance or non-
compliance with CPS1 is determined using the Compliance Factor (CF)
u This formula was developed to state the CPS1 value on a percentage basis
u +100% is a key value for CPS1, to comply with the CPS1 standard a BA must reach
or exceed a 12-month CPS1 value of +100%
If a BA achieves a 12-month average CPS1 of greater than or equal to 100%
they pass CPS1
If a BA achieves a 12-month average CPS1 value of less than 100% they fail
CPS1
u Insight into CPS1 values:
A 12-month average CPS1 value of +100% is the minimum acceptable
performance & means the BA is performing to just meet the
InterconnecPons frequency deviaPon limits
If a BA has an ACE of zero for a Pme period, it will have a CPS1 value of
+200% for that same Pme period
u Since, in theory there is no limit to the magnitude of ACE, it follows that there is no
limit to the magnitude of CPS1
CPS1 could be a very large negaPve or a very large posiPve number
u Odds of violaPng CPS2 increase with the size of CPS1
u
1-148
2/9/15
CPS2 is designed to limit the magnitude of ACE

CPS2 is similar to the old A2 Criteria
u CPS2 helps limit excessive unscheduled power ows that could result from large
ACE values
CPS2 can be viewed as a measure of whether a BA is maintaining enough
OperaPng Reserves
u CPS1 can be viewed as a measure of whether a BA is maintaining
enough RegulaPng Reserves
u DCS is a measure of whether a BA or Reserve Sharing Group is
maintaining enough ConPngency Reserves
u
1-149
2/9/15
CPS2 states that the average ACE value for each ten minute period in the hour
shall not exceed a constant called L10
u L10 is similar to the old A2 Criterias Ld value
However, L10 is derived from frequency based staPsPcal theory & is
technically defensible
u ExplanaPon of terms used in the equaPon for L10:
1.65 is the number of standard deviaPons that will result in a 90%
probability of achieving the desired InterconnecPon frequency error
u The limits for the frequency error are determined from the 10 value
The 10 value is the InterconnecPons allowable ten-minute average
frequency error
Bi is a individual BAs frequency bias value
BS is the sum of the frequency bias values for all the BAs in the
InterconnecPon
u
1-150
u
u
2/9/15
BAs must report their compliance level to the standards on a monthly basis
Note that a BA must be in compliance with the CPS during both normal &
disturbance condiPons
1-151
2/9/15
The DCS measures the BAs (or RSGs) ability to uPlize its ConPngency Reserves
following a disturbance
Each BA shall have access to &/or operate resources to provide for a level
of ConPngency Reserve sucient to meet the DCS
RSGs shall have the same responsibiliPes as individual BAs with regards to
meePng the DCS
u An RSG shall be considered in a disturbance condiPon whenever a group member
has experienced a reportable disturbance & calls for the acPvaPon of ConPngency
Reserves
u If a group member has experienced a reportable disturbance but does not call for
reserve acPvaPon from other members of the RSG, then that member shall report
DCS compliance as a single BA
u Because generator failures are far more common than signicant losses of load &
because ConPngency Reserve acPvaPon does not typically apply to the loss of
load:
The applicaPon of the DCS is limited to the loss of generaPon & does not
apply to the loss of loads
u BAs & RSGs shall at least annually review their probable conPngencies to
determine their most severe single conPngencies
u
1-152
2/9/15
The DCS states that a BA (or RSG) shall return their ACE either to zero or to its pre-
disturbance ACE value within 15 minutes following a disturbance
The logic for not requiring recovering to zero is that DCS is a measure of
available ConPngency Reserves
u The example in the graphic below illustrates recovery of ACE to the pre-
disturbance value within 15 minutes so the enPty is in conformance with the DCS
u BAs (or RSGs) must conform to the DCS 100% of the Pme
u Compliance to the DCS may be demonstrated by either of the following methods:
The RSG reviews the group ACE & demonstrates compliance to the DCS
The RSG reviews each members ACE in response to the acPvaPon of
reserves
u The DCS only applies in disturbance condiPons
A key point then is what denes a reportable disturbance condiPon
u The next page denes a reportable disturbance
u
1-153
2/9/15
The text above is NERCs descripPon of a disturbance condiPon

For example assume that your company is part of an RSG
Assume the single most severe (SMS) conPngency for the RSG is 1000 MW
u NERC would say that this RSG is ocially in a disturbance condiPon if they lose 800
MW or more
However, if the RSG were to lose more than 1000 MW (more than their
SMS)
u The disturbance is not counted (it is excludable) as far as any DCS
penalPes are concerned
u The 15 minute rule does not apply to conPngencies exceeding the
single most severe & a disturbance exceeding 1000 MW would have
to be a double conPngency
u An Individual BA or RSR can lower the reportable threshold for the DCS
As long as the lowering does not cause normal operaPng events to be
counted as DCS events
u
u
1-154
u
u
u
2/9/15
MulPple conPngencies occurring within one minute or less of each other shall be treated
as a single conPngency
If the combined magnitude of the mulPple conPngencies exceeds the most severe
single conPngency, the loss is reported, but is excludable from DCS compliance
AddiPonal conPngencies that occur aêr one minute of the start of a reportable
disturbance but before the end of the disturbance recovery period can also be excluded
The enPty shall determine DCS compliance for the iniPal disturbance by
performing a reasonable esPmaPon of the response that would have occurred
had the second & subsequent conPngencies not occurred
AddiPonal reportable disturbances that occur aêr the end of the disturbance recovery
period but before the end of the ConPngency Reserve RestoraPon Period shall be
reported & included in the compliance evaluaPon
An enPty can request a waiver from NERC if their ConPngency Reserves were
rendered inadequate by prior conPngencies & a good faith eort to replace
reserves can be shown
Each BA must fully restore its ConPngency Reserves within the ConPngency Reserve
RestoraPon Period for its InterconnecPon
The RestoraPon Period begins at the end of the disturbance recovery period
The enPty shall restore its ConPngency Reserves within 90 minutes
This period may be adjusted to beHer suit the reliability targets of the
InterconnecPon based on analysis approved by NERC
1-155
2/9/15
1-156
2/9/15
BAL-001-2 was recently approved by NERC

CPS2 will be replaced by a new performance measure called the Balancing
Authority ACE Limit or BAAL
u Purpose of BAAL is to maintain InterconnecPon frequency within predened limits
u BAAL requires a BA to balance its resources & demand in real Pme so that its clock
minute average of ACE does not exceed its BAAL for more than 30 consecuPve
clock minutes
u
1-157
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
2/9/15
BAALLow
Low Balancing Authority ACE Limit (MW)
BAALHigh
High Balancing Authority ACE Limit (MW)
10 is a constant to convert the frequency bias seang from MW/0.1 Hz to MW/Hz
Bi
Frequency Bias Seang for a BA
u Expressed as MW/0.1 Hz
FA
Measured frequency in Hz
FS
Scheduled frequency in Hz
FTLLow
Low frequency trigger limit calculated as: FS - 31I Hz
FTLHigh
High frequency trigger limit calculated as: FS + 31I Hz
1I
Constant derived from a targeted frequency bound for each InterconnecPon as
follows:
u Eastern InterconnecPon = 0.018 Hz
u Western InterconnecPon = 0.0228 Hz
u ERCOT InterconnecPon = 0.030 Hz
u Quebec InterconnecPon = 0.021 Hz
1-158
2/9/15
Graphic Above calculates the raPo ACE/Bias for an Eastern InterconnecPon BA

assuming an FS=60.00 & 1i =.018 Hz
u For an FA = 59.99
ACE/Bias Is 2.916
u If BAs Bias were -100 there maximum 30 minute ACE is -292 MW
u For an FA = 59.90
ACE/Bias Is 0.2916
u If BAs Bias were -100 there maximum 30 minute ACE is -29.2 MW
u
1-159
2/9/15
Graphic above illustrates CPS1 limits & BAAL limits

Graphic assumes eastern interconnecPon BA & FS = 60 Hz
u InterconnecPon frequency is ploHed on the horizontal axis
u ACE/Bias raPo ploHed on the verPcal axis
For example an ACE/Bias of 0.5 means ACE is equal to of the BAs Bias
u Note that BA can have A very large ACE as long as the ACE supports the frequency
When frequency is low posiPve ACE values are a good thing
When frequency is high negaPve ACE values are a good thing
u
1-160
2/9/15
The gure above illustrates steam turbine o-frequency limits

The gure is generic, every generaPng unit is dierent
u O-frequency eects are cumulaPve
u Manufacturers turbine limits are likely conservaPve
OEMs are protecPng themselves
u
1-161
2/9/15
FormaPon of islands
A is likely island as it is loosely connected to the rest of the interconnecPon
u A needs well thought out UFLS program
u
u
1-162
2/9/15
UFLS scheme operaPon is illustrated above

UFLS is a last defense against declining frequency
u Typical seangs may be:
10% of load at 59.3 Hz
u May have UF relays on transmission lines
u May need to coordinate UFLS with shunt capacitors tripping schemes & OOS
tripping/blocking schemes
u May have automaPc load restoraPon schemes
Restore load based on frequency recovery
u UF tripping of generators must coordinate with UFLS
u
u
1-163
2/9/15
The scheme described above & on the next few pages is called the
coordinated plan
Areas of the WECC may develop an sub-area specific plan
u NWPP has a plan
u Desert Southwest has a plan
u Goal of the coordinated plan is to arrest the frequency decline before
frequency reaches 58.0 Hz & to recover frequency to 59.5 Hz or higher
u Simulation work shows that the coordinated plan will not activate until there
has been a cascading disturbance across multiple entities systems
In addition, none of the WECCs sub-areas will experience an offnominal frequency event due to either single or dual most-severecontingency losses of generation resources if the losses occur within
known island configurations
u
1-164
2/9/15
AutomaPc load restoraPon schemes are implemented to respond to high

frequency condiPons aêr operaPon of UFLS
u The loads listed above are restored from the 59.1 frequency block that was rst
tripped
u
1-165
2/9/15
Stall schemes are used to prevent frequency from stabilizing at values above the
main UFLS seangs
1-166
u
u
2/9/15
Once generators trip, a UFLS schemes value is diminished

Note that the stalling schemes are meant to avoid frequency stabilizing at values
that would pick up the generator relays but not the main UFLS seangs
1-167
2/9/15
Each SPP EnPty That Has A Peak Load 100 MW Shall Develop & Implement A
UFLS Program That Meets Following Requirements:
A Minimum Of 10% Shed At Each UFLS Step In Accordance With Table
Above
IntenPonal Relay Time Delay 30 Cycles
Undervoltage Inhibit Seang 85% Of Nominal Voltage
u Each SPP EnPty That Has A Peak Load < 100 MW Shall Develop & Implement A
UFLS Program That Meets Following Requirements:
A Minimum Of 1 UFLS Step With The Frequency Set Point As Assigned By
The PC
Minimum Accumulated Load Relief 30% Of Peak Load
u Each EnPty ElecPng To Use UF Islanding Schemes Shall Design Schemes To Operate
Aêr All 3 Steps Of UFLS Have Been Exhausted & The Frequency ConPnues To Fall
To 58.5 Hz Or Below
For Islanding Schemes Designed To Operate At Or Between 58.5 Hz & 58.0
Hz Minimum Time Delay 2 Seconds
For Islanding Schemes Designed To Operate Below 58.0 Hz No Time Delay
Required
u
1-168
2/9/15
Each GO Shall Verify That Their Generators Will Not Trip Above The Generator UF
Curve In Or Below The OF Curve (Illustrated Above) As Result Of Units Frequency
ProtecPve Relay Seangs
For Units With Operating Characteristics That Limit Units Ability To
Satisfy Curve The GO Shall Provide Technical Evidence To PC
Demonstrating That Unit Cannot Operate Within Specified Frequency
Range Without Causing Damage Or Violating Manufacturers
Equipment Ratings
1-169
2/9/15
PC Shall Determine If GO Has Provided Technical Evidence DemonstraPng That

Unit Cannot Operate Within The Specied Frequency Ranges Without Causing
Equipment Damage Or ViolaPng Manufacturers Equipment RaPngs
PC Shall Determine If Overall UFLS Program Performance Is Degraded Due
To The Removal Of The Generator From Program Parameters
PC May Decide That Load Shedding Is Required
If GO Is A UFLS EnPty & Has Required Amount Of Supplementary Load
Available, PC Shall Tell GO The Amount Of Load The EnPty Is Required To
Shed
If GO Is Not A UFLS EnPty Or Does Not Have The Required Load Available
For Shedding, PC Shall NoPfy Any Other UFLS EnPPes Within The PC Area
Of Load The EnPPes Is Required To Shed
1-170
2/9/15
Frequency control can be divided into 4 overlapping windows of Pme

Primary frequency control (frequency response)
u AcPons provided by the interconnecPon to arrest & stabilize frequency
in response to frequency deviaPons
u Comes from governor response, load response & other devices that
provide an immediate response based on local control systems
Secondary frequency control (AGC)
u AcPons provided by an individual BA or RSG to correct the unbalance
that created the original frequency deviaPon
u Restores both the frequency & the primary frequency response
u Comes from either manual or automated dispatch from a centralized
control system
TerPary frequency control
u AcPons provided by BAs that are coordinated so there is a net zero
eect on ACE
u Examples include dispatching generaPon to serve naPve load,
economic dispatch, dispatching generaPon to aect interchange, etc.
u Intended to replace secondary control response by reconguring
reserves
Time control
u Small osets to scheduled frequency to keep the average frequency at
60 Hz
1-171
2/9/15
Primary frequency control is the 1ST stage of overall frequency control & is the
response of resources & load to a locally sensed change in frequency in order to
arrest that change in frequency
u Primary frequency response is automaPc, not driven by any centralized system, &
begins within seconds rather than minutes
u NERC denes frequency response as:
Equipment
u The immediate & automaPc reacPon or response of power from a
system or power from elements of the system to a change in locally
sensed system frequency.
System
u The sum of the change in demand, & the change in generaPon,
divided by the change in frequency, expressed in MW per 0.1 hertz
(MW/0.1 Hz)
u Frequency response is a characterisPc of load & generaPon within BAs &
interconnecPons
It reacts or responds with changes in power to aHempted changes in load-
resource balance that result in changes to system frequency
u Because the loss of a large generator is much more likely than a sudden loss of an
equivalent amount of load
Frequency response is typically discussed in the context of a loss of a large
generator
u
1-172
2/9/15
Primary frequency control

Governor & load frequency eect
u Secondary frequency control
AGC
u TerPary frequency control
Operator acPon
u ArresPng period
Includes inerPal response, load frequency eect & start of governor
u Rebound period
Governor response
u Recovery period
AGC response & possibly System Operator response
u
1-173
2/9/15
NERC calls the iniPal frequency point A

The undershoot or the point at which the frequency drop is arrested is point C
Arrested frequency or the low point is also called the nadir
u The seHled frequency is point B
u D is the load damping raPo
Ranges from 0 to 2
u 2 if all load is motor
u 0 if no load-frequency eect exists
u H is the system inerPal constant
Ranges from 2.5 to 6.5
u H is greater if a system has more rotaPng mass
u
u
1-174
2/9/15
Assume the iniPal system is normal

1,000 MW of generaPon is then lost by a BA in the InterconnecPon
u Graphic above illustrates:
The iniPal power decit is 0
u 1,000 MW is then lost
Power decit goes to 1,000 MW
The iniPal scheduled & actual frequency is 60 Hz
u Frequency starts dropping once generaPon trips
u
1-175
2/9/15
Even though the generaPon has tripped & the 1,000 MW supplied by the
generator has been removed from the InterconnecPon
The loads conPnue to use the same amount of power
u The Law of ConservaPon of Energy requires that the 1,000 MW must be supplied
to the InterconnecPon if energy balance is to be conserved
u This addiPonal 1,000 MW is produced by extracPng kinePc energy that was stored
in the rotaPng mass of all of the synchronized generators & motors on the
interconnecPon
EssenPally using this equipment as a giant ywheel
u As the frequency decreases, motors slow & perform less work, resulPng in a
decrease in load called load damping
This load damping is the reason that the power decit iniPally declines
Synchronously operaPng motors contribute to load damping
Variable speed drives that are decoupled from the interconnecPon
frequency do not contribute to load damping
u Note in the graphic above that the power decit exactly equals the inerPal energy
usage
IndicaPng that there is no power or energy imbalance at any Pme during
this process
u The price we pay is a declining frequency
u
1-176
2/9/15
During the iniPal seconds of the event, the governors have yet to respond to the
frequency decline
This is illustrated with the doHed blue line above
The delay results from the Pme that it takes the governor controls to adjust
the equipment & the Pme it takes the mass to ow from the source of the
energy (main steam control valve for steam turbines, combustor for gas
turbines, or gate valve for hydro turbines) to turbine/generator
u Note that the frequency conPnues to decline due to the ongoing extracPon of
energy from the rotaPng turbine/generators & synchronously operated motors
u The reducPon in load also conPnues as the eect of load damping conPnues to
reduce the load while frequency declines
u
1-177
2/9/15
Aêr a few second delay governor response appears

The governor response exactly osets the power decit at the point in Pme that
the frequency decline is arrested
InerPa has provided its contribuPon to reliability & its MW contribuPon is
reduced to zero as it is replaced by the governor response
If the governor response Pme delay is reduced, the amount of balancing
inerPa required to limit the change in frequency by the disturbance can be
reduced
u The point at which the frequency is rst arrested is dened as point C & the
frequency response calculated at this point is called the arrested frequency
response
u The arrested frequency is normally the minimum frequency experienced during a
disturbance
Adequate reliability requires that frequency at the point of arrest remain
above UFLS seangs
Any frequency response delivered aêr frequency is arrested provides less
reliability value than frequency response delivered before Point C
u But greater value than the secondary frequency control that is
delivered minutes later
u
u
1-178
2/9/15
Once the frequency decline is arrested, governors conPnue to respond because of

the Pme delay associated with their response
This results in the frequency parPally recovering from the minimum
arrested value & results in an oscillaPng transient that follows the
minimum frequency point
Power ows & frequency seHle during the transient period that ends
roughly 20 seconds aêr the event
1-179
2/9/15
The complete event is illustrated above

Frequency & power contribuPons stabilize at the end of the transient period
u Frequency response calculated from data measured during this seHled period is
called the seHled frequency response
u The seHled frequency response is the best measure to use as an esPmator for the
frequency bias seang
u
u
1-180
2/9/15
Graph above idenPes the averaging periods used to esPmate the pre-disturbance
A-value & the post-disturbance B-value
The A & B values are used to calculate the seHled frequency response
u The measurement of seHled frequency response has been standardized to limit
the variability in measurement resulPng from the poorly specied selecPon of
points A & B
T-0 is dened as the rst scan value that shows a deviaPon in frequency of
some signicance, usually approaching about 10 mHz
The A-value averaging period of the previous 16 seconds prior to t-0 was
selected to allow for an averaging of at least 2 scans for enPPes uPlizing 6
second scan rates
u The B-value averaging period of (t+20 to t+52 seconds) was selected to obtain the
average of the data aêr primary frequency response was deployed & the
transient completed (seHled)
But before any signicant inuence of secondary frequency control
u
1-181
2/9/15
SeHled frequency response

Aected by the inerPal response, the complete governor response & load
damping
CalculaPon is used to validate BA bias seangs
Easier to measure than the arrested because the two frequency points
(A&B) are average values
u Arrested frequency response
Aected by the inerPal response, the iniPal governor response & load
damping
CalculaPon is valuable when designing UFLS schemes
Provides an esPmate of the maximum frequency deviaPon an
interconnecPon will experience for a given size event in MW
Unfortunately arrested frequency response cannot currently be measured
using the exisPng EMS-based measurement infrastructure
u This limitaPon exists because the scan rates currently used in
industry EMSs are incapable of measuring the net actual
interchange at the same instant that the maximum frequency
deviaPon is reached
u Can measure with synchrophasor data!
u
1-182
2/9/15
Event occurred 3/3/2012

2,060 MW of generaPon was lost
u Point A is the frequency at the beginning of the event
A equal 60.018
u Point B is the frequency aêr the governor response
B equal 59.515
u Point C is the low point of the frequency
C equal 58.792
u The seHled frequency response equals 2,060 / (A-B) or 410 MW / 0.1 Hz
u The arrested frequency response equals 2,060 / (A-C) or 168 MW / 0.1 Hz
u
u
1-183
2/9/15

842 MW of generaPon was lost
A equal 59.99
B equal 59.893
C equal 59.806
u The seHled frequency response equals 842 / (A-B) or 868 MW / 0.1 Hz
u The arrested frequency response equals 842 / (A-C) or 457 MW / 0.1 Hz
u
u
1-184
2/9/15
Event Occurred 3/30/2012

1,201 MW of generaPon was lost
Lost 2 LRS units
A equal 60.013
B equal 59.90
C equal 59.802
u The seHled frequency response equals 1,201 / (A-B) or 1,063 MW / 0.1 Hz
u The arrested frequency response equals 1,201 / (A-C) or 569 MW / 0.1 Hz
u
u
1-185
2/9/15

1,300 MW loss
A equal 60.007
B equal 59.940
C equal 59.949
u Point C is dened by NERC as the low point within 8 seconds of
iniPal event
u The seHled frequency response equals 1,300 / (A-B) or 1,940 MW / 0.1 Hz
u The arrested frequency response equals 1,300 / (A-C) or 2,241 MW / 0.1 Hz
u
u
1-186
2/9/15
The plots above were done using data from the synchrophasor system
1-187
2/9/15
NERC uses the metric ALR1-12 to track & monitor InterconnecPon frequency
response
u ALR1-12 measures the average FRC for all events where frequency drops more
than the InterconnecPons dened threshold
u The chart shows the FRC of 163 events in the East
u A graph of the linear regression line & FRC scaHer plot is given in the chart
u The regression line has a small posiPve slope
Meaning that the FRC variable has a slowly increasing general trend in Pme
On average, Eastern FRC increases:
u Daily by 0.26 MW / 0.1Hz
u Monthly by 7.87 MW / 0.1 Hz
u Yearly by 95.81 MW / 0.1 Hz
u
1-188
2/9/15
The A value is the iniPal normal frequency

The B value is the seHled frequency
u The C value is the undershoot
u FRS is acronym for frequency response service
u DCS is acronym for disturbance control standard
u
u
1-189
2/9/15

Cherokee Unit #3 tripped in Colorado while loaded at 719 MW
u Frequency data from 3 locaPons:
Denver
University of California San Diego (UCSD)
San Leandro (near San Francisco)
u Note how all three frequency measurements appear to be closely aligned
Also note the enPre plot is 10 minutes long
See next page
u
u
1-190
2/9/15
The 12 seconds immediately following the loss of Cherokee Unit #3 are ploHed
above
A whole lot is going on!
u This view is completely lost in the 10 minute plot of the previous
page
1-191
2/9/15
The idea of the IFRO is to ensure each InterconnecPon has enough frequency
response to respond to their largest credible conPngency without iniPaPng UFLS
u The IFRO is divided amount the Interconnections BA using the following
formula:
u
FROBA = IFRO
u
u
u
u
Annual Gen BA + Annual Load BA

Annual Gen Int + Annual Load Int
Annual GenBA
The annual MWH output of generating plants within BA Area
Annual LoadBA
The annual MWH load within BA Area
Annual GenINT
The sum of MWH GenBA values in Interconnection
Annual LoadINT
The sum of MWH LoadBA values in Interconnection
1-192
2/9/15
StarPng F
Typical frequency prior to an event occurrence
u UFLS 1ST Step
1ST Step of InterconnecPon UFLS program
u CBR
C to B RaPo is the staPsPcally determined raPo of the InterconnecPons
Point C to Value B values
u MDF
Maximum Delta Frequency is the maximum allowable frequency change
given a disturbance event
u The MDF is based on numerous InterconnecPon Data including
their 1ST step of UFLS
u RCC
Resource Contingency Criteria is the largest category C (N2) event
identified except for the Eastern Interconnection, which uses the
largest event in the last 10 years
u CLR
Credit for Load Response allows a portion of the IFRO to be covered
by load that responds to frequency deviations
u IFRO
InterconnecPon Frequency Response ObligaPon is calculated by dividing
the RCC by 10 times the MDF
u
1-193
2/9/15
Eects of distance (actually impedance) on observed frequency deviaPon

Undershoots vary with locaPon
u Need relaPve acceleraPon for a power angle change
u Those areas that are strongly Ped to area that lost generaPon will experience
similar frequency drops
u
u
1-194
2/9/15
Power angle = SR
The MW ow is strongly Ped to SR
u A change in MW ow is normally accompanied by a change in SR
u Need relaPve acceleraPon to change SR
Frequency deviaPons result in relaPve acceleraPon & power angle changes
u
u
1-195
2/9/15
Further eects of distance (impedance)

Assume a 0.05 Hz frequency deviaPon occurs
u Assume the deviaPon lasts for 2 seconds
u
u
1-196
2/9/15
1-197
2/9/15
Florida 2008 event
1-198
2/9/15
Stages overlap & Pme duraPons are rough esPmates
1-199
2/9/15
ElectromagnePc energy stage (t = 0 to t = 1/3 second)

C is electrically closest (lowest impedance path) so large response
u Note that the speed & power of the generator excitaPon systems plays a key role
during this stage
u
u
1-200
u
u
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InerPal stage (t = 0+ to t = 5 seconds)

B has high inerPa so large response
1-201
u
u
2/9/15
Governor response stage (t = 6 seconds to t = 15 minutes)

C has blocked governor so no response during this stage
1-202
u
u
2/9/15
AGC stage (t = 2 seconds to t = 20 seconds)

The response above assumes that generators A & C are in the same Balancing
Area
Generator C is pulsed to replace the loss of generator A
u May have up to 15 minutes to recover the loss of A
1-203

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Course originally based on content of EPRI Power Systems Dynamics Tutorial

Copyright O-T-S 2014