Center for Sustainable Urban Systems

UCLA INSTITUTE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

URBAN METABOLISM LITERATURE
REVIEW
Winter 2012

Tisha Holmes
Stephanie Pincetl
Director Center for Sustainable Urban Systems

URBAN METABOLISM LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction
Cities have expanded dramatically in size, density and complexity across the globe (Kaye et al.,
2006). This rapid expansion has been accompanied by increased energy flows of inputs and
outputs such as fuel, food, waste and electricity that enter, exit and/or accumulate within and
external of the city boundaries (Kennedy et al., 2007). Energy production and use while
supporting human systems often also trigger a chain of negative environmental impacts. These
include pollution and alteration of land and water from extraction processes, loss of ecosystems
from power generation infrastructure and increased concentrations of air pollutants including
greenhouse gases (GHGs) as well as disruption of human settlements and negative impacts on
human health and economies. The linear nature of these urban energy flows increase the
vulnerability of cities, dependent on the hinterlands for supply and disposal of materials, and
pose one of the largest challenges to sustainability (Girardet, 2004).
The intended and unintended consequences of policy decisions shape energy flows through
urban systems. Understanding the complex and often invisible set of interacting and
interdependent policy decisions and outcomes of energy use can provide opportunities for
identifying specific forces that shape a citys energy consumption and its consequences. Urban
Metabolism (UM) is a multi-disciplinary and integrated platform that examines material and
energy flows in cities as complex systems as they are shaped by various social, economic and
environmental forces. Similar to biological organisms and ecosystems, cities cycle and transform
incoming raw materials, food, water and fuel into physical structures, biomass and waste (Decker
et al., 2000). Factors such as urban structure, form, climate, quality and age of building stock,
urban vegetation and transportation technology can influence the rate of a citys metabolism
(Girardet, 1992). As the demands for higher inputs of materials and energy to sustain the growth
of cities continue to increase, understanding the metabolism of cities becomes extremely
important for policy makers and decision makers. The UM framework provides a rigorous tool
for analyzing relevant energy pathways at different scales and can lead to the development of
management systems that increase resource use efficiencies, recycling of wastes and
conservation of energy.
This literature review will survey the various conceptual and empirical studies associated with
performance systems-based research on urban flows. The review discusses the implications of
these studies to larger research and policy questions to highlight points of convergence as well as
areas of debate and opportunities for further research.

I. Urban Metabolism Overview

Abel Wolman (1965) developed the urban metabolism (UM) concept as a method of analyzing
cities and communities through the quantification of inputs water, food and fuel, outputs
sewage, solid refuse and air pollutants and tracking their respective transformations and flows.
He identified the three pressing metabolic challenges faced by urban regions as water supply
management, sewage disposal and air pollution control. National data on water, food and fuel
use, with production rates of sewage, waste and air pollutants were used to determine per capita
inflow and outflow rates for a hypothetical American city of one million people. Wolmans

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seminal research was the first attempt to highlight system-wide impacts of goods consumption
and waste generation in the urban environment (Decker et al., 2000).
Since then, interest in using UM to assess the question of materials and energy use and cities has
grown substantially. In the context of energy, UM analysis emerged from a growing
understanding of the limited availability of fossil fuels and their impacts on the environment as
well as ideas about efficiency of that use. Starting with the second law of thermodynamics,
based in biology, physics and integrated in urban systems theory, UM offers a analytical
framework to think about human systems and energy use, and issues of long term sustainability
(Wolman, 1965; Odum, 1996; Barles, 2007; Kennedy et al., 2007). The realization that
nonrenewable energy resources were expended and lost to humans for reuse was a fundamental
aspect of developing UM research. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any
process, usable energy is transformed into unusable energy and it is irretrievably lost in the form
of waste heat, for example. Items requiring energy to be produced, enter and cycle through a
system, and in the production process, waste or output is generated that is a function of the
energy and resources required in their production. Any recuperation of waste requires further
inputs of energy to re-convert it into useful materials, if it is even possible. Thus, reducing
impacts means the reduction of current resource inputs in order to achieve more sustainable
outcomes in the future (Newman, 1999).
The first metabolism studies at the city scale were advanced in the 1970s by engineers and
ecologists and were focused on large metropolitan areas. The ecological approach to UM was
heavily influenced by H.T. Odums (1983) conceptualization of energy flows that he termed
Emergy. Emergy is measured in solar emergy joules (seJ) and integrates material flows with
energetic analyses of urban areas in order to understand cities in relation to their ecological
resource bases (Huang et al., 2006; Huang & Chen, 2009). In contrast, engineering approaches to
UM studies involve the quantification and assessment of energy and/or material flows (e.g. raw
materials, nutrients and food) in standard mass units (e.g. kilograms, tons, joules) as they enter,
accumulate and exit the urban system.
The following section reviews the emergence of the UM literature by providing a general
overview of the academic contributions to the main conceptual models of Emergy and Mass
Flows as well as related methodologies. The role of Emergy in UM studies will be explored first,
with particular attention to the theoretical concepts behind this type of study. This is followed by
a discussion on the analysis of material flows through the urban system using Material Flow
Analysis and Life Cycle Analysis and chronologically tracks the progression of relevant field
studies. Although the review provides a description of each approach, given its use of common
metrics, the engineering approach of reporting changes in material and energy flows dominate
UM studies as evidenced by the greater number of field applications discussed.
Emergy Flows and Urban Metabolism
Energy is one of the most important unifying concepts for the study of energy flows and sinks; it
connects ecosystems and socio-economic systems (Odum, 1998). H.T. Odum defined Emergy as
the available energy used directly or indirectly to make a product or deliver a service. It
measures the work of nature and humans in generating products and services and serves as a

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common metric of environmental and economic values (Odum, 1996; Odum & Odum, 2006).
From an ecological energetic perspective, all flows of materials are regarded as energy flows
(Huang et al., 2006). Emergy analysis seeks to provide a common value basis to study the
energetic flows in the metabolism of socio-economic systems.
Solar Emergy is defined as the available solar energy used up directly and indirectly to make a
product or service (Odum, 1996). Solar energy, deep Earth heat and tidal energy are major
energy inputs in the system. Emergy analysis characterizes products and services in terms of the
amount of energy needed to do a particular task if solar radiation were the only input (Hau and
Bakshi, 2004). The behavior of energy as it flows through ecosystems follows two principles of
thermodynamics First Law: energy transforms to another form and is neither created nor
destroyed; Second law: in all processes of energy, some energy will be degraded in quality and
transformed into waste heat (Lin, 2006). Emergy analysis is based on additional the Maximum
Empower Principle proposed by Lotka (1925) where successful systems are able to function
most effectively with the inflow of Emergy inputs by reinforcing productive processes and
overcoming resource limits through system organization (Brown & Herendeen, 1996) (for
example, more efficient processes or using renewable resources). Based on these principles,
Odum designed a set of energy circuit symbols for describing the interactions of ecosystem
components through energetic flows (See Figure 1; Odum, 1983).

Figure 1. Energy circuit symbol: a) energy circuit; b) source; c) tank; d) heat sink; e) interaction; f) producer;
g)consumer; h)transaction; i) box. (Huang et al., 2006).

Solar transformity is an important concept in Emergy, defined as the Solar Emergy required to
make 1 joule of a service or product and is measured in solar Emergy joules per Joule (sej/J)
(Odum, 1996). Solar transformity () is calculated by dividing a products available energy (B)
by its Solar Emergy (M) or M = x B. Odum argued that the different types of energy flows are
organized in an energy transformation hierarchy (Odum, 1996). Thus, Transformity measures
energy quality and can be used to measure the Emergy of resources and products. Most case

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studies utilize the Odums transformities calculations to calculate the Emergy of their inputs
(Hau & Bashki, 2004).
In their Emergy analysis of West Virginia, Campbell et al. (2004) outline the five main steps to
complete an Emergy evaluation as:
1) Complete a detailed systems diagram representing all interactions, components, money
transactions and energy flow pathways between human and natural components of the system
(See Figure 2).

Figure 2. An aggregated energy systems diagram of the Emergy resource base for the economy of West
Virginia. Emergy inflows and outflows include: renewable resource inflows (R), purchased resources fuel
(F), goods (G) and services (PI), exports of goods (B) and services (PE2 + PE3). Money flows on the dashed
lines (Is and Es) as a counter-current to Emergy in exchanges (diamond symbols). The System contains
interior storages of minerals (N3), water and soil (N0) and the lands and waters receiving (RR) and absorbing
(RA) renewable resources. The circulation of money, X, is as a money wheel, GSP, within the box representing
the states economy. (Campbell et al., 2005).

2) Translate variables into an aggregated diagram addressing specific pathways.

3) Translate pathways into Emergy analysis tables (See Figure 3).

Figure 3. Tabular format for an Emergy evaluation. Source: Campbell et al., (2005).

4) Gather raw data from government sources, needed to complete the Emergy analysis with
Transformity conversion factors needed to change the raw data into Emery units
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5) Calculate indices from subsets of data to compare systems, predict trends, and suggest
alternatives to improve Emergy efficiency through the system.
Emergy-based UM analyses have been conducted for specific cities including Zucchettos 1975
study of Miamis urban metabolism where economic, natural system and energy data were
compiled from 1950-1972. Huang, (1998), Huang & Hsu (2003) and Huang & Chen (2009)
analyzed the Emergy flows of Taipei, Campbell et al.s (2005) evaluated West Virginia and
Zhang et al. (2009) focused on Beijing and 5 other large Chinese cities. Each study recognized
that the variation in the quality of different forms of energy and utilized a universal metric to
produce comprehensive comparisons overtime (e.g. See Huang & Chen, 2009) Emergy flow
comparison in Figure 4). The studies were driven by the premise that maximizing Emergy
production and use would lead to choices that maximize real wealth and public benefit.

Figure 4. Major Emergy flows in the Taipei area. sej = solar equivalent joules. (Huang & Chen, 2009).

Huang & Chens (2009) updated analysis of Taipei demonstrated that Emergy flows are also
important for the calculation of Emergy indices to measure urban development and describe the
value of material flows within the urban system (See Figure 5). Further evaluation of these
flows provides a preliminary understanding of the value and contribution of these materials to
the urban ecological-economic systems.

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Figure 5. Emergy indexes. N = nonrenewable energy flows; F = imported Emergy flows; R = locally available
renewable Emergy flows; U = total Emergy used by a process. (Huang & Chen, 2009).

Since its first emergence in 1983, the Emergy methodology has evolved and matured as new
research projects revealed new elements to explore. In addition to the analysis of cities, it has
been used to study ecosystems, information flows, agriculture, landscape development,
ecological engineering and material recycling (Brown & Ulgiati, 2004). Huang et al.s (2006)
analysis of Taiwan attempted to extend material flow analysis to include energy flows and
incorporating Emergy evaluation to evaluate materials and energy through a common energy
basis. After completing separate Emergy and Material Flow Analysis (MFA) for Taiwan and
comparing indicators of mass and Emergy, the research team found that MFA was not able to
identify Taiwans increasing dependence on energy use or the quality difference of material
consumed. In contrast, they concluded that the Emergy concept can help systemize the
interrelations between society and the natural environment while analyzing energy flows.
Emergy analysis was also seen as an important comparative tool for understanding the relative
work of other materials flowing through a socio-economic system (Huang et al., 2006).
Although the concept of Emergy was developed decades before the acceptance of more popular
methodologies such as MFA and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Emergy specialists continue to
meet resistance in advancing Emergy as a conceptual framework for investigating the natural
ecosystems, human dominated systems and related processes. This is a result of the skepticism
around Emergy theory, underlying computations, its relationship with other thermodynamic

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quantities, and the quantification of global energy flows into solar equivalents (Mnsson &
McGlade, 1993; Ayres, 1998; Cleveland et al., 2000; Hau & Bakshi, 2004).
Mass-Energy Flows and Urban Metabolism
One of the core ideas behind UM analysis is that materials enter (flow) and are used to build up
biophysical structures human bodies, artifacts, buildings, machines, tools, agricultural crops,
domestic animals and livestock in society (Haberl et al., 2001). Through the application of
energy, human societies transform raw materials and resources in an economic process to
provide material goods to meet demand needs (Huang et al., 2006). Before discussing the
application of mass flow-based UM studies, a brief review of the main methodological tools used
Material Flow Analysis and Life Cycle Analysis as well as an assessment of each methods
strength and weaknesses is warranted.
Material Flow Analysis
The Material Flow Analysis (MFA) approach is widely used in UM analysis since metrics for the
assessment of urban materials, flows and stocks are available (Barles, 2007). Early MFA
analyses focused on identifying material flows at the national level (Wernick & Ausubel, 1995;
WRI, 2000; EUROSTAT, 2001). Countries such as Austria, Japan, Germany and Sweden have
also established material flow accounts (EUROSTAT, 2001). Material flows analysis provides a
framework for analyzing the ways urban areas transform natural resources and is frequently used
in the engineering field, however emphasis is placed on the flow of a specific substance rather
than through entire systems (Baccini & Brunner, 1991).
The goal of the MFA is to provide a system level understanding of how a city, region or nation
functions. Data is represented in mass (e.g. tons) to measure the weights of material inflows and
outflows. Based on the principle of mass conversion where mass in = mass out + stock changes,
MFA measures the materials flowing into a system, the stocks and flows within it and the
resulting outputs from the system to other systems (Sahely et al., 2003). This tool aids decisionmakers in analyzing material flows and stocks within a given system, evaluating the importance
and relevance of these flows and stocks and controlling material flows and stocks to achieve
management goals (Hendriks et al., 2000).
Baccini & Brunner (1991) outline the general methodological steps of urban metabolism using
Material Flow Analysis as follows:
1) Definition of goals and research questions of the study
2) System description Boundaries of space and time are defined and the relevant processes,
goods and substances are defined and linked. Indicator materials such as carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus are chosen based the nature of system.
3) Data acquisition Developed by measurements, market research, expert judgment, best
estimates, interviews and hands-on knowledge.
4) Material balances, dynamic mathematical modeling and scenario building Results can be
integrated into static or dynamic models to assess the impact of various decisions on specific
material stocks and flows

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5) Interpretation Loading quantities, comparisons of results against environmental standards,
sustainability indicators or other assessment approaches are made.
MFA results can be benchmarked against environmental standards or interpreted using
assessment methodologies such as ecological footprint analysis (Wackernagel & Rees,1996).
Rees & Wackernagel (1996) examined the flow of materials and energy into and out of an urban
area using a spatial ecological footprint analysis. The footprint expressed the amount of land
required to meet the citys metabolic needs. Their calculations were based on five major
categories of consumption food, housing, transportation, consumer goods and services. They
argue that consumption related human impacts reveal societal values or behaviors at a
community and individual level. Giradet (1999) utilized MFA in an ecological footprint analysis
to calculate the resource use in greater London and estimated the regions ecological footprint as
125 times the area occupied. Similarly, Folke et al., (1997) estimated the ecological footprint of
29 largest cities in Baltic Europe, the appropriation of global marine ecosystems for seafood
consumption and GHG emissions sequestration of global forest ecosystems. MFA has also been
heavily utilized in waste management and environmental assessments (Sahely et al., 2003).These
studies all demonstrated that the consumption of ecosystem outputs in the form of food, timber
and ecosystem waste sinks for cities were magnitudes larger than the geographic area of cities.
MFA has been established as a standardized approach to evaluating the metabolism of material
flows at a national scale (EUROSTAT, 2001). It provides quantitative understanding of the finite
nature of resources available to sustain metabolic processes in urban systems and points to the
importance of including material resource management into policy analyses and discourses.
Because MFA tries to simplify these complex relationships within a predefined socio-economic
system, many outflows and interactions within and between the natural environment and human
systems are omitted (Huang et al., 2006). Additionally, since the purpose of MFA is to provide
an overview of the system, it is necessary to aggregate material flows. This aggregation ignores
the specific identities of materials and can lead to inaccurate data outcomes, indicators and
policy decisions (Hau & Baski, 2004). Since MFAs focus is on materials, energetic aspects of
the metabolism are not addressed limiting the scope and power of the approach in understanding
the UM of a system (Haberl, 2001). To address this gap, Haberl (2001) proposed a materialenergy flow accounting (MEFA) method to analyze energy flows that enter and leave a national
economy. However, the analysis is limited to an accounting exercise and does not assess the
relative contribution of the flows nor address the external drivers (Huang et al., 2006).
Life-Cycle Assessment
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is used to provide a cradle-to-grave assessment of a process or
larger system including direct, indirect, and supply chain effects and analyze the associated
environmental impacts from extraction to final disposal (Solli et al., 2002; Chester, 2010). The
International Standards Organization (ISO) defines LCA as the complication and evaluation of
the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its
life cycle. It is a young field of research rooted in research related to energy requirements and
pollution prevention of the 1960s and 1970s (Rebitzer et al., 2004). The quantitative tool is
widely applied by various industries to measure and compare the life time environmental impacts
of materials and processes starting with the product design/development, followed by resource

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extraction, production, use/consumption and end of life activities. (See Figure 6; Huang et al.,
2009; Techato, 2009).

Figure 6. Schematic representation of a generic life cycle of a product. (Rebitzer et al., 2004).

LCA also estimates and assesses the environmental impacts of a product through its life cycle
such as climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, troposheric ozone creation,
eutrophication, acidification, depletion of resources. The ISO 14040 standards direct almost all
applied work on LCA (Heijungs et al., 2009). The analysis begins with the development of a
life-cycle inventory (LCI) where all environmental inputs and outputs from the life time of the
product or process are quantified and compiled. This is followed by a life cycle impact
assessment (LCIA) that presents results that enables comparisons or further analysis (See Figure
7; Huang et al., 2009).

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Figure 7. Framework of life cycle assessment. (Huang et al., 2009).

Process LCA and Economic Input-Output (EIO) LCA are the two primary approaches for
performing an LCA study. Process-based LCA evaluates the direct component of interest,
considering the inputs, outputs and sub-processes moving up the supply chain (Chester, 2010). It
is the most common approach and requires significant data and resource inputs, thus limiting the
ability to evaluate the entire supply chain (Hendrickson, 2006; Chester, 2010). The EIO-LCA
approach evaluates the resource inputs and emissions outputs associated with economic activity
in every sector of the economy (Chester, 2010). These approaches have also been combined to
reduce data and resource constraints in modeling while capturing the entire supply chain
(Chester, 2010). Data is derived generally from a mix of sources and are subject to differences in
quality.
Cities have not historically been major units of analysis in Industrial Ecology, however LCA is
gaining importance as an analytical tool in assessing of the overall environmental impact of
urban activities (Bai 2007). LCAs have been executed for energy, materials, water, nutrients and
waste footprints of cities (Chester, 2010). Huang et al. (2009) used LCA to measure and compare
the key environmental loadings from a road during its lifetime. The results provided decision
makers with a method of quantifying the impacts of road maintenance work and projects.
Heijung et al. (2009) examine life cycle assessments for sustainability, noting that the scope of
LCA is limited to environmental questions, while sustainability is much broader. They combine
the two concepts into a life cycle sustainability analysis (LCSA). This framework provides an
integrated way of evaluating economic, social and environmental impacts that are not covered by
present day LCA.
LCA is a consistent tool that can quantify all possible environmental burdens in relation to a
functional unit. Its attention to system boundaries and capturing direct and indirect effects of
supply chains effects can also help fill the gaps of the MFA approach and offers critical insight
into upstream components that may dominate the footprint of the city as well as the interrelated
components of the urban system (Chester, 2010). In determining the flows and processes within
the urban system, a great deal of data is needed to compile complex system-wide models of
resource flows that increase the analytical power. However the tool still requires greater spatial
and temporal resolution, improved non-linear modeling capabilities and greater consideration of
socio-economic dimensions of urban environmental impacts (Udo de Haes et al., 2004).
Mass-Energy Flow UM Studies
The engineering approach was advanced in early studies by Hanya & Ambe (1974) for Tokyo,
Duvigneaud & Denayeyer-De Smet (1975) for Brussels, including a comprehensive
quantification of the natural energy balance (See Figure 8.), and Newcombe et al. (1978) who
developed an energy analysis of construction materials and input-output of manufactured
products for Hong Kong.

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Figure 8. The urban metabolism of Brussels, Belgium in the early 1970s. Source: Duvigneaud and DenaeyerDe Smet 1977.

In the early 1970s, the concept of examining material flows for Urban Metabolism analysis was
formally incorporated as part of the UNESCO Division of Ecological Science Man and
Biosphere (MAB) program (Pomzi & Szab, 2009). This program aimed to support integrated
and multidisciplinary research into the sustainable use of resources, biodiversity conservation
and problems of urban ecosystems (Bonnes et al., 2004). The main element of the MAB is its
ecosystem approach that aims to integrate the study of natural and human/social processes of
ecosystems and their inter-relationships. Applied in over 105 countries, the MABs main lines of
action are threefold: 1) Minimizing biodiversity loss through research and capacity-building for
ecosystem management; 2) Biosphere reserves as a means of promoting environmental
sustainability and 3) Enhancing linkages between cultural and biological diversity (UNESCO,
2010).
During the 1990s, research in the field of UM received moderate attention with the increased
sophistication of methodological tools like MFA. Baccini and Brunner (1991) used the MFA
approach to understand the metabolism of the anthroposhere of the - the subsystem of the
environment in which humans interact and reported stocks and flows of resources in terms of
mass (See Figure 9). In 1993, the international symposium on urban metabolism was held in
Kobe Japan without many publications (Kennedy, 2010). Bohel (1994) considered the use on an
UM framework to managing food systems in developing countries and was critical of its
application. In 1996, Newman and his colleagues studied the increasing trends of per capita
resource input and waste metabolism of Sydney for the State of Environment report on Australia
between 1970 and 1990. This report, followed by subsequent annual accounting reports, was the

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first independent nation-wide assessment on the state of Australias environment developed to
aid decision makers in government, industry and community groups (State of the Environment
Advisory Council, 1996).

Figure 9. The anthroposphere: inputs and outputs. Source: Hendriks et al. (2000).

Newmans study of Australia identified larger cities as more sustainable in terms of per capita
use of resources and livability utilizing such indicators as income, education, housing and
accessibility. However, these cities were also more likely to reach unsustainable carrying
capacity limits, within increasing metabolic flows and livability deterioration from the core to the
fringe suburbs (Newman et al., 1996; Newman, 1999). Additionally, ex-urban and coastal
settlements are the least sustainable of all developments and rural settlements had the lowest
metabolic flows and livability measures. Newman (1999) extended the urban metabolism model
to address sustainability goals by including the dynamics of settlements and livability in these
settlements. Newman defined the physical, biological and human bases of the city and integrated
economic and social aspects of sustainability with the environment (see Figure 10). He applied
this extended model of assessing metabolic flows and livability to a range of human activities in
industrial areas, households and neighborhoods, urban demonstration projects and for city
comparisons (See Figure 11; Newman, 1999).

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Figure 10. Extended metabolism model of human settlements. (Newman, 1999).

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Figure 11. Indicators of sustainability. (Newman, 1999).

As the environmental stresses engendered by cities continued to increase with the expansion of
urban populations, there was a resurgence of UM studies in at the turn of the century (Kennedy,
2010). The research community began to build upon the data and findings of previous UM
studies for various cities. Hendriks et al. (2000) used similar approaches to analyze Vienna and
the Swiss Lowlands. Building on the 1978 work of Newcombe et al., Warren-Rhodes & Koenig
(2001) studied further the metabolism of Hong Kong. Their work described increasing

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environmental impacts with the transition from a manufacturing to a service based economy.
Not only did Hong Kong add over 3 million people between 1971 and 1997, but additionally
Warren-Rhodes and Koenig revealed that Hong Kongs increased wealth correlated with higher
consumption rates of food (20% over 1971 values), water (40% over 1971 values) and materials
(149% over 1971 values) per capita. Total air emissions, carbon dioxide outputs, municipal solid
wastes and sewage discharges increased by 30%, 250%, 245% and 253% respectively (WarrenRhodes & Koeing, 2001).
More recently, the quantification of the urban metabolism of several cities has been conducted.
In Decker et al.s (2000) extensive review of the energy and material flows through the worlds
25 largest cities, researchers found that water fluxes comprised 90% of all material entering the
system and proved to be the most dominant flux across the megacities. As a result, changes in
water infrastructure will be necessary to manage increasing water demand. The study also
investigated gross food consumption and indicated that although limited information is available,
the flow of food is likely to have an impact on nitrogen cycles in supplying agricultural areas and
solid waste accumulation in the city. They also compared fuel flows among cities and revealed
large variations in fuel type and quantity resulting in an overall degradation of ecosystems due to
technological development (such as roads and fuel distribution infrastructure) and fossil fuel use.
The review presents an interesting scenario; modern megacities will achieve climax states when
global energy sources are maximally utilized, energy fluxes are at a steady state and
infrastructure growth has ceased. They argue that in pre-modern times, cities approached a
steady climax state since they were dependent on localized and renewable energy, food and
transportation networks which limited the extent of dependence on the hinterland for resources
and waste disposal. Conversely, current earth system level succession patterns in urban areas
show an increase their use of urban energy and material flows as development continues. Thus,
analyzing the urban metabolism and subsequent succession stages of material and energy fluxes
at the regional scale over time is critical to determining the structure and function of climax
systems based on more local and renewable resource streams. It also provides opportunities for
insuring system stability and persistence through the management of infrastructure and efficient
recycling of waste flows (Decker et al., 2000).
The urban metabolism analysis of Greater Toronto by Sahely et al. (2003) identified an increase
of the rate of inputs and outputs over 12 years from 1987 to 1999. Inputs of water and electricity
were estimated to increase marginally less than the rate of population growth. With the exception
of diesel fuel, inputs of gasoline and food increased by marginally greater percentages than the
population. All measured output parameters except CO2 emissions, are increasing more slowly
than the population. Comparisons were also made between the metabolic flows of Greater
Toronto with Hong Kong (see Figure 12). The study attributed increased efficiency of
metabolism parameters to enlightened policy, wise investments, increased recycling and
improvements in infrastructure. They propose further research into the economic drivers of UM
and the integration of the UM findings into a macroeconomic model of the Greater Toronto
Area.

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Figure 12. Comparison of urban metabolism a) the GTA 1999 and b) Hong Kong 1997. Food, water,
wastewater and residential solid waste in tonnes per capita, CO2 and BOD5 in kilograms per capita and
electricity in megajoules per capita. (Sahely et al., 2003).

Although the rationale for selection is not explicitly addressed in the literature, there is a great
deal of variation in the scales of analysis in UM studies. Some studies have used the UM
framework to analyze specific elements at the micro-scale within an urban region. Burstrm et
al. (1997) and Faerge et al. (2001) studied flows of nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) in Bangkok
and Stockholm respectively. Burstrm et al. (1997) presented a comprehensive picture of the
citys metabolism of the two elements in one year (1995) using MFA to support the development
of local nutrient management policies. The study identified dominant pathways for N and P as
import food supply households waste management, however the fate of the elements
after waste management differ (Burstrm et al., 1997). The most important sources and sinks for
N were food consumption in private households and restaurants resulting in large emissions to
water, N emissions from transportation sector through combustion of fossil fuels, discharges
from industrial combustion engines and machines and the energy supply sector when converting
N in fuels to inert gas. For P, the most significant pathways were through food consumption and
the resulting municipal sludge and the service sector via import of P in detergents that end up in
sewage sludge. Similarly, Faerge et al. (2001) developed a nutrient balance model to understand
urban nutrient flows and explore the potential for nutrient recycling to agriculture in the face of

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mismanagement organic waste and urban development. They discovered that only a small
fraction of urban N (7%) and P (9%) are recovered from the total food supply. Most of the loss
of both nutrient flows occurred to the central Chao Phraya River where elevated levels were
detected. They concluded that in and outflows of N are almost in balance, but large amounts of P
accumulate within the metropolitan area. Faerge et al. also identify that organic waste from
Bangkok that is discharged into the rivers and oceans are heavily loaded with plant nutrients.
Analyzing urban flows at this scale enabled both research terms to identify the most significant
points of nutrient loss and identify where recovery and reuse efforts can be directed to close the
metabolic loop.
Other studies approached the evaluation of several material and energy flows at a city-scale or
regional level such as (Emmenegger et al.s (2003)) analysis of Geneva, Ngo and Patakis (2008)
study of Los Angeles County and Barles (2007 and 2009) evaluation of Paris. In her analysis of
the UM of Paris and its region, Barles selected MFA to analyze flows at multiple scales local,
city and region demonstrating that Paris is dependent on a wider area for its materials and on
the suburbs and region for its waste treatment. Barles also proposed linking MFA to socioecological conditions that drive material flows and their evolution in order to develop a holistic
understanding of urban systems (Barles ,2007).
Ngo and Pataki (2008) identified a decline in inputs of resources and outputs of pollution on a
per capita basis from 1990 to 2000 for all materials except food imports and wastewater outputs.
They compare metabolisms in Los Angeles to 8 other urban regions and demonstrate that per
capita food imports, water imports and energy imports are generally higher, while outputs of
waste and greenhouse gas emissions were comparable or lower. Additionally, total per capita
energy consumption, especially in the transportation sector and total water imports were quite
high in comparison to other cities (See Figure 13).

Figure 13. Comparison of urban mass and energy balances between Ngo and Pataki (2008) study of Los
Angeles County and previous studies since 1990 as compiled by Kennedy et al. (2007). (Ngo and Pataki 2008).

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Ngo and Pataki attribute the successful decrease in some inputs to improved local efficiency and
reduction management policies. They also highlight the water out flows as a critical area of
future research since evapo-transpiration and runoff losses are not recovered or reused for water
supply. There is also a great potential for increases in residential per capita energy consumption
due to increased demand, consumer behaviors and/or warming climates which needs to be
addressed (Ngo & Pataki, 2008).
Researchers have also begun to extend the UM framework beyond the city-region unit of
analysis to inform related aspects of the urban sustainability. In the field of urban design in
particular, using UM context is a relatively new development that serves as a descriptive
framework to the visioning process of more sustainable communities and cities. Oswald and
Baccini (2003; 2008) demonstrate how a combination of morphological and physiological tools
can be used in the reconstruction of the city. They provide four principles for redesigning cities:
shapability; sustainability; reconstruction; and responsibility. The four major urban activities: to
nourish and recover; to clean; to reside and work; and to transport and communicate, as
identified by Baccini & Brunner (1991). Together they are assessed in terms of four major
components of urban metabolism: water, food (biomass), construction materials, and energy
(Oswald & Baccini, 2008; Kennedy, 2010). Professor John Fernandez and students in MITs
School of Architecture have used the perspective of urban metabolism in the re-design of New
Orleans post-Hurricane Katrina, using MFA to produce more ecologically sensitive designs
(Quinn, 2008). Students in Civil Engineering at the University of Toronto also used UM as a tool
to guide the study of sustainable design infrastructure for Toronto (Kennedy, 2010). The students
evaluated design challenges typically at the neighborhood scale, which involve integration of
various infrastructure using the concept of neighborhood metabolism (Codoban & Kennedy,
2008; Engel-Yan et al., 2005). Thus the UM framework can serve as a complimentary tool that
can inform the design and decision-making process. By tracing the flows of water, energy,
nutrients and materials through an urban system, communities and cities can be designed in way
that may close identified metabolic loops, since critical leverage points and flows that threaten
system sustainability would have been isolated.
Summary
An urban systems metabolism can be examined by looking at energy flows or more broadly to
include flows of water, materials and nutrients to develop a quantified understanding of the
inputs that support urban systems and the wastes generated by city processes. Academics and
researchers have utilized the urban metabolism framework to analyze different urban areas and
system components for over forty years (See Figure Figure 14; Kennedy, 2010). The ability to
quantify material and energy flows has led to a diversification in the application of UM analyses
in a variety of research questions over time. Quantification of tangible flows in mass, dollars or
Emergy fluxes can provide a description of the main components and interrelationships that
make up a citys metabolism. The generic units used in most urban metabolism studies are in
joules per unit time and material and water balances in mass (grams or kilograms) per unit time
(Baccini & Brunner, 1991; Hendriks et al., 2000; Sahely et al., 2003), while other researchers
continue to advance solar emergy joules (seJ) as a more comprehensive and universal metric
(Odum, 1996; Huang, 1998; Huang & Hsu, 2003; Huang & Chen, 2009). Researchers face the
challenges of inadequate or disparate data as well as difficulties of comparing materials and
energy represented in different units. Additionally, qualitative assessments such social or

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sustainability indices, comparative usefulness of materials and valuation of ecosystem services
and disservices are limited in these types of models. Although these models address the flows
between the economy and environment, the relationships between the elements at vertical and
horizontal scales also require further exploration.
Current studies of urban metabolism from both an ecological and engineering perspective have
made a link between UM and sustainability through the use of indicators and policy analysis. A
consistent finding in these studies is that the urban metabolism of cities is increasing. This points
to the need to better characterize the amount of materials stored as stock within the urban system
buildings, roads, infrastructure -- and the flows into cities and out of them more broadly, since
studies have been conducted on only a limited number of cities worldwide (Kennedy et al.,
2007). As the inputs in most cities outweigh the outputs, there is a resulting growth in the
material stock remaining within the system. Quantifying the present stock becomes important for
future flows out of the city as well as the long-term stability of the entire urban system (Brunner,
2007).

Figure 14. Chronological review table of UM studies. (Kennedy et al. 2010).

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URBAN METABOLISM LITERATURE REVIEW

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URBAN METABOLISM LITERATURE REVIEW

II. Discussion
UM studies clearly demonstrate an increase in the rates of metabolism in cities throughout the
world (Kennedy et al. 2007). Large increases in material and energy flows of food-waste
streams, imports, solid-waste accumulation, paper, plastics and building materials from areas
outside the boundaries of the urban system keep the metabolic cycles in cities open. (Grimm et
al., 2008). Brunner (2007) categorizes cities as linear reactors whose metabolism remains open
and vulnerable depending on the hinterlands for material supply and disposal. In essence, the
linear pattern of production, consumption and disposal is different than natures circular
metabolism (Huang & Hsu, 2003). Additionally, the inputs outweigh the outputs resulting in a
growth of the material stock in urban areas which becomes significant for future flows and
pathways to sustainability.
Studies have examined altering the design and urban form of cities to close the metabolism loop
and to improve the characteristics of a citys flows. Barriers to closing this loop range from
significantly altering behaviors and attitudes to changing various processes within the urban
system. By designing cities that are less energy intensive and dependent on resources produced
beyond their boundaries, city and regional governments would be better positioned to manage
material and energy outflows. From an urban ecology perspective, cities are considered
unsustainable systems given their continuous dependence on material and energy imports and the
exports of waste (Camagni et al., 1998). Thus the sustainability of cities is heavily dependent on
the ability of the surrounding environment to provide the required resources and environmental
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services (Huang & Chen, 2009). Since the methodological tools do not adequately incorporate
considerations of ecosystem services, developing indicators and metrics of supporting, regulating
and provisioning ecosystem services to include in the UM framework is an important research
priority (Pataki, 2010).
Using the urban metabolism framework will also create an accounting inventory of the actual
and embedded energy used and its associated impacts in urban systems over short and long-term
time scales. This will enable a more complete consideration of the full economic, environmental
and social effects of energy use that will inform better policy-making decisions. By revealing the
intended and unintended consequences of policy decisions, identification of critical leverage
points of change can be made. Additionally, quantified metabolisms and indicators can
complement further research into the nature of funding for urban management programs, the
manner in which it is disbursed and the identification of the specific actors receiving allotments.
Standardized methods used to quantify the flows through urban areas enable comparisons and
projections of future scenarios. The two major approaches emergy and material flows
(including quantitative analyses of life cycle costs, material flows and economic valuation) differ
in information, calculation and metrics used. The variation in the units of analysis and metrics
may prove a challenge in comparing different results of urban metabolisms between city-regions,
countries as well as over time and across different spatial scales. However, the diversity of
metrics can also contribute to more robust modeling tools that combine the strengths of each
method.
UMs results contribute important parameters that provide criteria for sustainability indicators
(Maclaren, 1996). Political, demographic, economic and geographic factors directly influence
innovation and development of effective sustainable policies. Investigating the scales of
governance and institutional rules and conventions that undergird current urban systems is
critical in understanding path dependencies and critical policy changes necessary to reduce
impacts. However data availability and accuracy at the city level continues to be a major
limitation, and little work has been done connecting flows to policy frameworks at multiple
scales, from the local to the international. By conducting cross-cutting field research and data
analysis, the outcomes of UM research will be more accurate and useful.
Most system level research has explored the nature of multi-scale approaches; however it is
important to understand the interconnections and interrelations between and across scales
(Bunnell & Coe, 2001). Urban centers grow in complex ways due to dynamic and interlinked
geographical and institutional forces converging upon them (Grimm et al., 2008). Cities are now
dependent on access to resources and ecosystem functions outside of their administrative
boundaries. Folke et al. (1997) and Rydin & Moore (2009) highlight European cities as
embedded in a web of connections that link ecosystems and countries across all scales of space
and time revealing that boundaries of cities have become quite porous as a result of globalization
in trade, information and communication networks. Thus, focusing on one spatial scale prevents
the adequate analysis of all processes occurring within a system and can lead to unintended
effects. Given the heterogeneous nature of urban systems, the scale at which UM analysis is
performed can influence the modeling results, comparative outcomes and subsequent policy
decisions.

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At present, UM studies focus on the biophysical environment without addressing the social and
institutional drivers behind these flows and outcomes. Data gaps, omitted/hidden flows,
uncertainty regarding the appropriate scale of analysis and segregated information sources
continue to influence the comprehensive validity of assessments of overall urban energy use and
related policy decisions. Collaboration and open communication across sectors and research
centers working on sustainable energy problems is also critical for developing a comprehensive
pool of information that is accessible to various users and end types.

III. Conclusion
This review of the UM literature provides a general introduction to the various considerations
involved with developing an integrated approach and to understanding the complex dimensions
of energy-use in urban systems. UM is a quantitative framework that enables policy-makers and
practitioners to identify early trends, set priorities, develop indicators and establish policy
directives. UM has become an integral part in the analysis of the state of environment reporting
in Europe, and is gradually finding acceptance in other places. It provides information about
energy efficiency, material cycling, waste management and infrastructure in urban systems
(Newman et al., 1996; Sahely et al., 2003) and is an important tool to understanding energy use
in communities.
Emergy analysis, Material Flow Analysis and Life Cycle Assessment are methodologies that
attempt to quantify flows of material and energy in complex systems at multiple scales, and can
be incorporate into the urban metabolism framework. These different approaches will need to be
better synthesized such that more consistency is achieved across cities and nations. UM points
out, first and foremost, the significant amounts of energy embedded in materials (including their
life cycle), and the energy used in urban activities and the waste energy. This emphasis and data
can help policy makers better understand energy used by society and cities. This should help
policy makers better develop strategies to reduce energy use. Secondly, UM energy analyses
will provide a rigorous data set from which a better understanding of the sources of GHGs will
be developed, and the GHG emissions themselves. To date GHGs tend to be quantified in
isolation from energy use, from the generative structure of the GHGs.
However, further research is needed to understand the drivers of energy use such as economic
policy, institutional rules that guide urban development, and environmental protection.
Synthesizing UM with its social/economic and political policy underpinnings is the next research
frontier.

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