B Collaudin N Rando - Cryogenics in Space - A Review of The Missions and of The Technologies

Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819
www.elsevier.com/locate/cryogenics
Cryogenics in space: a review of the missions and of the technologies

B. Collaudin a,1, N. Rando b,*
b
a
Mechanical System Department, European Space Agency, Noordwijk, Netherlands
Astrophysics Division, Space Science Department, European Space Agency, ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2200 Noordwijk, Netherlands
Received 13 November 2000; accepted 12 February 2001
Abstract
Cryogenics has made a remarkable amount of progress over the last 15 years. The increased reliability and simplicity of operations of cryogenic equipment have allowed to install and to successfully operate them onboard spacecrafts. At the same time, the
improved performance of cryogenic devices, such as sensors and cold electronics, has drastically enlarged their utilisation, creating
new perspectives for space-based applications. In this paper we provide an up-to-date review of the non-military space missions
making use of cryogenic instrumentation and a summary of the present and envisaged applications of cryogenic equipment in space.
The impact of cryogenics on the spacecraft system design and the main technical solutions presently adopted are also discussed.
Finally, this paper provides an outlook on near- and mid-term future activities involving cryogenics in space and on the related
technology development, with particular emphasis on the work carried out by the European Space Agency. 2001 Elsevier Science
Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cryogenics; Detectors; Spacecraft engineering
1. Introduction
Since the rst liquefaction of 4He and the discovery of
superconductivity by H. Kamerlingh-Onnes (1908 and
1911), cryogenics and its applications have gone a long
way. The continuous improvement of cryogenic equipment [1] has made it easier and easier to achieve temperatures well below the liquefaction point of nitrogen
(77 K) either by means of cryogens (liquid gases such as
Xe, H2 ; O2 ; N2 ; 4 He and 3 He) or by means of mechanical cooler (Fig. 1). Cryogenic devices, such as
sensors and cold electronics, have taken advantage of
the progress made in materials science, oering a reliable
and eective solution to otherwise unsolvable problems.
In the last 15 years, several spacecrafts were involved
with cryogenic equipment, mostly in relation to astrophysics missions, targetting the electromagnetic radiation emitted by celestial objects over a wavelength
range otherwise dicult to work with from ground
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +31-71-5653638; fax: +31-715654690.

E-mail address: nicola.rando@esa.int (N. Rando).
1
Present address: Alcatel Space Industries, BP 99, 06156 Cannes la
Bocca cedex, France.
(Fig. 2). Among such missions we should mention

IRAS (Infrared Astronomical Satellite, launched in
1983), COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer, launched
in 1989) and ISO (Infrared Space Observatory, launched in 1995) [2].
The Japanese satellite Astro-E (X-ray Observatory,
launched in 2000) was designed to carry a spectrometer
(XRS) built by NASA and operating at a temperature of
65 mK [4]. At this moment, several space missions involving cryogenic applications are in advanced development in Europe as well as in Japan and US. The ESA
space science missions Planck (dedicated to the mapping
of the cosmic background radiation) and Herschel
(formerly known as FIRST Far Infrared and Submillimetre Telescope) are clear examples [3]. Both
satellites will carry scientic payloads working at temperatures of 0.1 and 0.3 K, respectively. SIRTF (Space
Infrared Telescope Facility, launch in May 2002), one of
the four large NASA's observatories, is based on a 4He
cryostat and it will perform photometry, spectroscopy
and imaging in the 3180 lm spectral range [5].
On a longer time-scale, other space missions with
cryogenic equipment are planned. On the ESA side we
have XEUS (a post-XMM mission, planning to use
cryogenic detectors at temperatures of about 100 mK)
0011-2275/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 1 - 2 2 7 5 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 3 5 - 2
798
B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819
Fig. 1. Historical development of refrigeration techniques. The rapid

progress of the last 30 years is clearly visible (reproduced from [1] with
permission from the editor).
[6] and DARWIN, a mid-infrared (k 5 to 30 lm)

space observatory dedicated to the search of planets. On
the US side, we should mention Constellation-X (the
high throughput X-ray spectroscopy mission) also envisaging micro-calorimeters working at T < 100 mK [7].
In the higher temperature range, between 100 and 10 K,
many missions are already operational or in development.
They include military reconnaissance satellites (such as
Helios), earth observation satellites (SPOT) and meteorological spacecrafts (MSG, Meteosat second generation), with IR detectors operating at about 85 K [8].
Considerable progress has been achieved in the area

of low temperature superconductors (LTSs), with the
fabrication of thin lm-based micro-devices (Nb, NbN,
Ta), showing highly uniform properties and excellent
resistance to thermal cycles. Such devices include single
Josephson junctions (or superconducting tunnel junctions, STJs), superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) and simpler components, such as
resonating cavities and low loss RF lters. Even if at a
lower pace than that initially predicted, also high temperature superconductors have moved from a pioneering phase to more mature technological applications. In
particular, the advent of radiofrequency (RF) devices
based on HTS has opened up new perspectives for
spaceborne cryogenic instrumentation, with the potential for more energy ecient and better performing
telecommunication platforms. Smaller-scale developments are now being considered for the International
Space Station (ISS), in the form of technology demonstrators for telecommunication applications [9].
It cannot be denied that developing, installing and
operating cryogenic instrumentation in space adds a degree of complexity, risks and associated costs. Any application must then be justied on the basis of its specic
return. In the case of scientic missions, the cryogenic
detectors and related payloads are the only candidates for
the accomplishment of the task proposed, oering unmatched performance and unique advantages. In the case
of other applications, such as telecommunications, the
advantages oered by superconducting devices must be
evaluated against their development and operating costs
and compared with alternative technologies.
Fig. 2. Atmospheric transmission as a function of photon wavelength at sea level. At several wavelengths the atmosphere attenuates strongly the
propagation of electromagnetic waves (e.g. in the range 30500 lm). At high altitudes (e.g. onboard aircraft and balloons) the situation improves, but
a residual absorption of 1% is responsible for the emission of a background which is intense enough to saturate sensitive low background IR cameras.
2. Applications of cryogenics in space

In this section we provide an overview of the applications involving cryogenics in space, including scientic
instrumentation, telecommunications and large-scale
superconductivity.
2.1. Cryogenic detectors for space science
Cryogenic photon detectors oer two main advantages over conventional sensors:
1. The much higher sensitivity (expressed by the noise
equivalent power, i.e. the amount of incident power
required to achieve a signal-to-noise ratio equal to
unity).
2. The better energy resolution (expressed in terms of
resolving power, i.e. the ratio E=DE k=Dk, with
DE representing the full width at half maximum of
the detector response to a monochromatic excitation
of energy E).
Cryogenic detectors have driven the utilisation of
cryogenics in space, determining the requirements in
terms of operating temperature, temperature stability
and architecture of the payload system. This trend is now
well established across the electromagnetic spectrum;
Fig. 3 provides a summary of the dierent detectors,
including operating photon energy and temperature
range. Table 1 provides an overview of other characteristics of the detectors, including typical power dissipations, array size and operating temperature.
Applications involving the lower energy end of the
electromagnetic spectrum (i.e. sub-mm wave and IR) are
the ones which benet most from the utilisation of
cryogenic detectors. Semiconductor bolometers have
provided the rst answer to the needs of astronomers in
this wavelength range, with operating temperatures
ranging from just above 50 (NIR) to 0.1 K (sub-mm)
and with NEP reaching values below 10 17 W/Hz1=2 .
799
A bolometer is a detector that works by recording the

temperature rise due to the absorption of radiation via a
resistance thermometer. Dramatic developments have
recently taken place in the infrared detector technology,
mostly driven by the vast investments made by the US
Department of Defence throughout the 1980s. Such
developments embrace a very large spectrum range,
from the near-infrared (NIR) (k 1 lm) to the far-infrared (FIR) (k 200 lm), and have focused on lowbackground, high sensitivity and large format arrays.
IRAS used a total of 62 detector elements, while since
1995 large format arrays for IR astronomy are available
with a total number of pixels in excess of 106 [10].
Astronomical observations in the FIR investigate objects that are colder than those observed in the visible or in
the NIR as blackbody radiation in the 30300 lm wavelength range (emitted by bodies at temperatures ranging
from 100 to 10 K). An example of such cold objects is the
interstellar dust in our galaxy (at 2030 K), as detected by
IRAS in 1983, which conrmed the existence of interstellar dust and detected its thermal emission. FIR radiation is totally blocked by the atmosphere, thus requiring
observations from stratospheric balloons (4050 km altitude) or, better, from space. Photo-conductors represent
the main detection technique use throughout the IR
range. At low temperatures and low photon uxes, the
conductivity of these semiconducting materials is inuenced by the absorbed IR photons, which can ionise impurities and free charge carriers. The ionisation energy of
the impurities sets the cut-o wavelength of these detectors, ranging from 200 lm (stressed lattice Ge:Ga) down
to 40 lm (blocked impurity band Si:Sb or Ge:Ga). Such
photo-conductors are typically operated at T < 3 K. In
the case of ISOPHOT, a broad band photometer own
onboard ISO, Ge:Ga detectors were combined with low
noise CMOS integrating pre-ampliers and multiplexers
operating at 2 K to achieve an NEP of order
1=2
10 18 W=Hz [11].
Fig. 3. Overview of photon detectors and related operating temperatures. It is worth mentioning the extended sensitivity region of the cryogenic
detectors such as STJ and bolometers.
800
Table 1
Main characteristics of photon detectors and SQUIDsa
Detector type
Ge crystal
CCD
STJs
l-Calorimeters
TESs
Photo-conductors NIR
Photo-conductors MIR
Photo-conductors FIR
Sub-mm bolometers
SQUIDs (LTS)
a
Temperature range (K)
Dissipation range (W)
Detector size
(pixel and array)
Utilisation
Min
Max
Min
Max
Pixel (lm)
Array
n n
Wavelength
50
150200
0.01
0.05
0.05
30
2
1
0.1
1
100
300
1
0.3
0.3
100
20
2
0.3
4
0
0.1
10 9
10 12
10 11
0.01
0.01
0.001
10 9
10 12
0
20
10 6
10 11
10 9
0.02
0.02
0.003
10 8
10 11
10000
1030
2050
100
100
3050
50100
50100
100500
na
<10
106
<103
<100
<100
106
<104
<103
<102
na
Gamma
X-ray/Vis.
X-rayUVVis.NIR
X-ray
X-rayUVVis.NIR
NIR
MIR
FIR
Sub-mm
Read-out/accelerometer
na: Not approved.
Bolometers have also been used to detect sub-mm

photons. Neutron-transmutation-doped (NTD) Ge detectors are well established and operate at temperatures
between 300 and 100 mK, with NEP of order
1=2
10 17 W=Hz . Such devices will be used onboard the
ESA mission Planck (see Section 2.2).
In the sub-mm wavelength range heterodyne receivers
provide very high sensitivities up to frequencies as high
as 500 GHz. Several laboratories have shown that receivers based on superconductorisolatorsuperconductor (SIS) devices (such as STJs) oer better
performance than the conventional Schottky diodebased systems [12]. Nb-based junctions have been used
for such applications in the 300500 GHz range, showing noise temperatures ve times lower than the corresponding values of Schottky devices. Operating
temperatures are of the order 2 K. At frequencies
m > 500 GHz the so-called hot-electron bolometers
(HEBs) compete with SIS and Schottky diodes for the
next generation of heterodyne receivers (e.g. onboard
the ESA missions Planck and Herschel). In such devices,
the incoming radiation excites the electron population
(either in a semiconductor or in a superconductor absorber) without heating up the corresponding lattice.
The excited population of charge carriers determines
changes in the resistance of the device, according to a
non-linear behaviour, which can be exploited for mixing
the signal voltage with the local oscillator voltage. Operating temperatures range from 70 (2DEG, InSb
HEBs) to 0.3 K (NIS HEBs).
In the NIR (at wavelengths between 1 and 5 lm)
other photo-conductors are used, mainly PtSi, HgCdTe
and InSb. Over the last decade, the introduction of
two-dimensional InSb arrays has drastically changed
the eld of IR astronomy, with 1k1k pixel array,
based on the hybrid technology (e.g. InSb detector
array bumped to a silicon source follower read-out in
NMOS, PMOS or CMOS technology). These detectors
have operating temperatures ranging between 77 and

35 K and have already been used onboard satellites
such as the Hubble Space Telescope (NICMOS
camera) [13].
A new generation of photon detectors is represented
by STJs [14] and transition edge detectors (TESs) [15],
both photon counting in the visible and NIR, with intrinsic spectroscopic capability. STJs have operating
temperatures ranging between 0.5 and 0.1 K depending
on the superconductors used (typically Nb, Al, Ta), responsivities of order 104 e-/eV, resolving power of order
10 at k 500 nm and maximum count rate of order 104
event/s. TESs operate at about 0.1 K, have also very
conspicuous responsivities, comparable energy resolution and a max count rate of order 103 event/s. Such a
combination of performance is particularly attractive to
modern astronomy, opening the way to new research
activities [16]. Both STJs and TESs can operate over a
large photon energy range with very interesting performance in the UV and X-ray. Both technologies oer
distinct advantages over the traditional UV detectors,
based on a photo-cathode, micro-channel plates and
related read-out system (such as multi-anode microchannel arrays and intensied CCDs). The key benets
are the much higher detection eciency (close to 100%),
the photon counting and intrinsic spectroscopic capability and the good imaging resolution (with individual
pixels of order 20 lm). In the case of STJs an energy
resolution of 15 eV at 6 keV has been demonstrated,
while TESs have achieved even better performance
(a few eV at 6 keV) [17]. On this basis, future space
observatories are likely to make use of cryogenic
detectors in narrow eld instruments dedicated to nondispersive spectroscopy.
Fundamental physics and planetary sciences can also
benet from the utilisation of cryogenic detectors. An
example is represented by SQUID-based gravity gradiometers to be used for low altitude earth and planetary
missions. In addition to the mapping of the intensity of

the gravitational forces, these sensors can be used to
verify the so-called equivalence principle, which postulates the coincidence of gravitational and inertial mass.
Such an issue is being addressed in the feasibility study
of dierent space missions such as STEP (ESA) and
LISA (NASA). SQUIDs-based accelerometers are the
only ones capable of achieving the required accuracy; to
date SQUID devices based on LTSs are favoured with
operating temperature around 4 K. SQUIDs based on
high temperature superconductors (HTSs) are also investigated in view of their capability to operate at about
77 K [18].
2.2. Scientic missions: a review
Scientic missions dominate the present scenario of
cryogenics applications in space due to the advantages
oered by cryogenic detectors over conventional
sensors. In this paragraph we provide a review of the
scientic missions. The review is organised in chronological order, starting from IRAS, the rst `cryogenic
mission', which ew in 1983. Mission in operations (or
post-operations), missions presently under development
and missions under study are grouped in dierent
sections. Tables 2 and 3 provide a summary of all nonmilitary space missions that involve cryogenics.
2.2.1. Missions in operations/post-operations
Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) is the rst scientic satellite based on cryogenic instrumentation. It
was launched in January 1983 as a joint project sponsored by the US, the UK and the Netherlands. Its
mission was to map the entire sky at IR wavelengths
from 8 to 120 lm. The satellite was equipped with a
0.6 m telescope cooled with liquid He to about 4 K. The
focal plane assembly was located at the Cassegrain focus
at about 3 K. It contained the survey detectors (based on
62 photo-conductive elements made from four dierent
materials), a low resolution spectrometer and a chopped
photometric channel [19].
German Infrared Laboratory (GIRL) was a project for
atmospheric and astronomical observations promoted
by a consortium of German industries and universities
aiming at the construction of a 40 cm liquid He-cooled
IR telescope for repeated ights on Spacelab. The study
started in 1978, but it was cancelled in 1985 due to the
high costs of the Spacelab ights. The experience gained
with GIRL proved very useful to the ISO mission.
Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) was developed
by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Centre to measure
the cosmic background radiation. The satellite was
launched in November 1989 and operated for about 10
months in survey mode. It carried three instruments:
an FIR absolute spectrometer (FIRAS), a dierential
microwave radiometer (DMR) and the diuse IR
801
background experiment (DIRBE) at wavelengths between 1.25 and 240 lm. FIRAS and DIRBE operated
at 1.6 K cooled by a 650 l superuid helium cryostat
[20].
Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) was developed by
ESA and operated at wavelengths from 2.5 to 240 lm
between November 1995 and May 1998 in a highly elliptical orbit. The satellite (Fig. 4) is based on a cryostat
containing about 2200 l of superuid helium and on a
0.6 m diameter telescope, feeding four instruments (an
infrared camera, a photometer and two spectrometers
working in dierent wavelength ranges). The instruments made use of dierent photo-conductors based on
InSb, Si and Ge and operating between 1.8 and 10 K
[21].
Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX) is a Ballistic
Missile Defence Organisation (BMDO) project also
open to scientic application in the form of a co-operation agreement. MSX has been launched in 1996, with
an IR telescope onboard, cooled by a solid hydrogen
cryostat to about 89 K for a period of about 20
months.
Near-Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer
(NICMOS) is a Hubble Space Telescope (HST) instrument based on three cameras designed for simultaneous
operations and operating between 0.8 and 2:5 lm and
using HgCdTe photo-conductive detectors. NICMOS
has been installed on the HST during the second servicing mission in 1997. The cameras are cooled down to
5060 K via 120 kg of solid nitrogen. Due to structural
deformation of the cryostat the actual system performance and lifetime did not meet the original expectations and the instrument is not active since January
1999. It is planned to overcome such problems by replacing the instrument Dewar with a turbo-Brayton
cooler, which will ensure a temperature of about 77 K
[13].
A mission study involving cryogenic equipment not
selected for ight is represented by ESA's satellite test of
the equivalence principle (STEP). Such a mission would
have performed experiments on the equivalence of
gravitational and inertial mass to a precision of one part
in 1017 . Such a level of precision would have been
guaranteed by superconducting accelerometers cooled at
1.8 K by a bath of superuid He [22].
Among the post-operation missions, we should mention Wide Field Infrared Explorer (WIRE), one of the
NASA small explorers, launched in February 1999 and
scheduled to remain operational for a period of 4
months. Due to technical problems, the satellite was lost
during its commissioning phase. It was supposed to
survey the sky at mid-infrared wavelengths between 12
and 25 lm with a sensitivity 1000 times better than
IRAS. A two-stage, solid hydrogen cryostat maintained
the optics colder than 19 K and the 128 128 Si:Ga
detector array below 7.5 K [23].
802
Table 2
Summary of cryogenic space programmes (space science)a
Mission
Type/class
Launch year
Cryogenic system
In-ight T (K)
Lifetime
Orbit
Status
290 dd
Near-polar
Post-ops.
24
1.41.6
1.8
0.3
305 dd
840 dd
30 dd
LEO
Near-Earth
HEO
LEO
Not approved
Post-ops.
Post-ops.
Post-ops.
<8
60
0.065
600 dd
700 dd
1 dd
LEO
LEO
Suborbital ight
Post-ops.
Post-ops.
Post-ops.
<7.5
1.8
0.065
120 dd
180 dd
730 dd
LEO
LEO
LEO
Post-ops./loss
Not approved
Loss
85
1.4
<7.5
0.10.3
25 yr
2.5 yr
400
tbd
HEO
Earth trailing
Polar
LEO
Development
Development
Not approved
Study
0.050.3
>10 yr
LEO
Study
0.3 & 1.7
4.5 yr
SunEarth L2
Development
0.1 & 20
440
460
510 yr
SunEarth L2
SunEarth L2
Development
Study
0.05
20
4
30
35 yr
tbd
tbd
5 yr
SunEarth L2
HEO
L2/Earth trailing
L2/Earth trailing
Study
Study
Study
Study
80
1.41.6
10 yr
?
Heliocentric
Development
Not approved
Science/IR
Satellite (surveyor)
1983
Science/IR
Science/IR
Science/IR
Science/IR
Spacelab payload
Satellite (observat.)
Instrument (IRST)
1989
1995
1995
MP/UV to FIR
Science/NIR
Science/X
Nicmos, instrument
Sounding rocket
1996
1997
19961999
Science/IR
Science/FP
Science/X
Satellite
1999
2000
INTEGRAL (ESA)
SIRTF (NASA)
NGSS (NASA)
Submillimetron (ASC)
Science/gamma
Science/IR
Science/IR
Science/sub-mm
Instrument (observ.)
ISS telescope
2001
2002
>2004
XEUS (ESA)
Science/X
Instrument (observ.)
2005
Herschel (ESA)
Science/IR
2007
Planck (ESA)
NGST (NASA)
Science/FIR
Science/NIR
2007
2008
Constellation-X (NASA)
ARISE (NASA)
DARWIN (ESA)
TPF (NASA)
Science/X
Science/radio
Science/IR
Science/IR
Satellite
Satellite
Satellite
Satellite
20082010
2008
>2009
2010
Rosetta (ESA)
LEDA/MORO (ESA)
Science/Comet
Science/Moon
Instrument (probe)
IRAS (NASA, NIVR,

SERC)
GIRL (FMST, D)
COBE (NASA)
ISO (ESA)
SFU (ISAS/NASDA/
MITI)
MSX (BMDO,US)
HST (NASA)
XQC (NASA-Wisc.
Univ.)
WIRE (NASA)
STEP (ESA)
Astro-E (ISAS, NASA)
(observat.)
(VLBI)
(VLBI)
(VLBI)
FP: fundamental physics; MP: multipurpose mission (defence + science).
2003
He (k) cryostat
He (k) cryostat
He (k) cryostat
4
He (k) cryostat
4
He (k) cryostat 3 He SC
sH2 cryostat
sN2 cryostat
4
He (k) cryostat ADR
Dual, sH2 cryostat
4
He (k) cryostat
sNe 4 He cryostat ADR
Stirling cooler
4
He (k) cryostat
Dual, sH2 cryostat
4
Stirling cooler ADR
4
H2 & 4 He JT DR
Passive radiation cooler
Astro-E like/coolers
Cryo-cooler H2 JT
Cryo-cooler H2 JT
Passive radiation cooler
Stirling cooler
Cryostat cooler
4
Application
Table 3
Summary of cryogenic space programmes (applications/technology)a
Application
Type/class
Launch year
Cryogenic system
In-ight T (K)
Lifetime
Orbit
Status
Meteosat 17 (ESA/EUM)
ERS-1 (ESA)
ERS-2 (ESA)
CRISTA (DARA, D)
MSG-1 (ESA/EUMETSAT)
ENVISAT 1 (ESA)
ENVISAT 1 (ESA)
Metop (ESA/EUM/NOAA)
MSG-2 (ESA/EUMETSAT)
Meteostat
Earth observat.
Earth observat.
Earth observat.
Meteosat
Earth observat.
Earth observat.
Meteosat
Meteosat
P/L
P/L
P/L
P/L
P/L
P/L
P/L
P/L
P/L
19771997
1991
1995
1994/1997
2000
2001
2001
2001
2002
Passive radiator
Stirling cooler
Stirling cooler
4
He >k cryostat
Passive radiator
Stirling cooler
Stirling cooler
Passive radiator
Passive radiator
90
80
80
4
7585
80
80
100
7585
2 yr
2 yr
10 dd
7 yr
5 yr
5 yr
5 yr
7 yr
GEO
LEO near-polar
LEO near-polar
LEO
GEO
LEO polar
LEO polar
Sun-synchr. polar
GEO
Post-ops./ops.
Operations
Operations
Post-ops.
Development
Development
Development
Development
Development
USMP/LPE (NASA)
SHOOT (NASA)
HTSSE III (NRL/USAF)
STRV-1B (DRA)
IN-STEP/CSE (NASA)
Technology
Technology
Technology
Technology
Technology
P/L (STS-52)
P/L (STS-57)
P/L (ARGOS)
Mini-satellite
P/L (STS-63)
1992
1993
19931999
1994
1995
2.2
<2.2
7080
80
65
>6 dd
>6 dd
3 yr
3 yr
8 dd
LEO
LEO
Sun-synchr. polar
GTO
LEO
Post-ops.
Post-ops.
Loss/ops.
Post-ops.
Post-ops.
BETSCE (NASA)
Technology
P/L (STS-77)
1996
10
<1 dd
LEO
Post-ops.
MIDAS (NASA)
CheX (NASA)
ISS/Bosch (ESA)
P/L (STS79/MIR)
P/L (STS-87)
P/L (ISS)
1996
1997
>2005
80
1.6
77
>8 dd
>6 dd
>1 yr
LEO
LEO
LEO
Post-ops.
Development
LTMPF (NASA)
FACET (NASA/JPL)
Technology
Technology/MS
Technology/
TLC
Technology/MS
Technology
He > k cryostat
He k cryostat
Stirling cooler
Mechanical cooler
Mechanical cooler
heat pipe
H2 Stirling
JT + sorpt.
Mechanical cooler
4
He k cryostat
Mechanical cooler
P/L (ISS)
P/L (STS)
2003
<2003
4
He k cryostat
sCO2 sNe cryostat
1.6
1.9
180 dd
>6 dd
LEO
LEO
Development
Development
UARS (NASA)
Landsat 7 (NASA)
Terra (NASA)
Aqua (NASA)
Aura (NASA)
Atmosphere
Earth observat.
Earth observat.
Earth observat.
Earth observat.
P/L
P/L
P/L
P/L
P/L
1991
1999
1999
2000
2002
sNe 4 He (k) cryostat

Passive radiator
Stirling cooler
Stirling-PTR passive
Stirling-PTR passive
16
90
80
6085
65
1.5 yr
5 yr
5 yr
6 yr
5 yr
Near-circular
Sun-synchr. polar
Sun-synchr. polar
Sun-synchr. polar
Sun-synchr. polar
Post-ops.
Operations
Operations
Development
Development
(ATSR)
(ATSR)
(STS-66/85)
(Seviri)
(MIPAS)
(AATSR)
(IASI)
(Seviri)
(CLAES)
(MISR)
(MODIS)
(CERES)
(HIRDLS)
Mission
P/L: payload/instrument onboard a satellite/STS/ISS; STS: Space Shuttle ight; MS: materials science; TLC: telecommunications.
803
804
Fig. 4. ISO, the Infrared Space Observatory of the European Space Agency, fully integrated and ready for transport to the launch facilities. The solar
panels shield the satellite from the direct sun illumination. The cryostat is xed to the service module via struts visible in the lower part of the picture.
Astro-E is a satellite for X-ray astronomy launched in

2000 [4]. The satellite is not operational due to a
launcher problem. Astro-E is a combined NASA and
ISAS (Japan's Institute for Space and Astronautical
Science) eort and was designed to provide X-ray images along with high resolution spectra from 0.4 to 700
keV. One of the instruments onboard, the high resolution spectrometer (XRS), was based on an array of 2 6
micro-calorimeters operating at 65 mK. Such a temperature is maintained by an adiabatic demagnetisation
refrigerator (ADR) hosted in a liquid helium cryostat
and thermally shielded by solid-neon cooled outer
jacket. The cryogens should have ensured an in-orbit
lifetime of about 2 years.
It is also worth mentioning the rocket program X-ray
quantum calorimeter (XQC), which has own Nike
Black Brant rockets provided by NASA and carrying a
small array of X-ray micro-calorimeters cooled at 65
mK by means of an ADR [24].
2.2.2. Missions under development
Several spacecrafts presently undergoing development
will make use of cryogenic instrumentation. An overview is provided below (see also Tables 2 and 3).
Planck is the third medium size mission (M3) in ESA's

scientic plan Horizon 2000 [25]. Its main objective is to
map the temperature anisotropies of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) over the whole sky with a
sensitivity of DT =T 2 10 6 and an angular resolution of 10 arc-min. Such goals require bolometers operating at 0.1 K, HEMT at 20 K and a low emissivity,
cooled telescope (60 K). The cryogenic system proposed
for Planck is based on pre-cooling to 60 K by passive
radiators, cooling to 20 K with a H2 JouleThomson
cooler (adsorption compressors), cooling to 4 K with a
He JouleThomson cooler (mechanical compressors)
and nal cooling to 0.1 K with an open-loop dilution
refrigerator. Nominal mission lifetime is 15 months.
Herschel (formerly known as FIRST) is the fourth
cornerstone mission of the ESA's scientic plan [26]. It is
dedicated to astronomical observations in the FIR and
sub-mm wavelength range from 85 to 600 lm. Herschel
is a multi-user observatory, based on a superuid helium
Dewar at 1.65 K and on a 3 He sorption cooler delivering
a base temperature of 0.3 K. The scientic goals will be
achieved with three instruments operating, respectively,
at 2 K (HIFI, heterodyne receiver based on SIS mixers),
1.7 K (PACS, spectro-photometer partly based on
photo-conductors) and 0.3 K (again PACS and SPIRE,

another spectro-photometer using bolometers). Herschel
is presently scheduled for launch in 2007 and its He
Dewar is designed for a mission lifetime of 4.5 year. Due
to the commonality in technologies, science objectives
and nal orbit (around the second Lagrangian point of
the SunEarth system), ESA has decided to develop
Herschel and Planck together, and to launch them with
a single Ariane-5 ight. Detail engineering assessments
are ongoing.
Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) is the
fourth member in NASA's family of `Great Observatories' [27]. It is designed to perform imaging and
spectroscopy in a large wavelength range from 3 (NIR)
to 180 (FIR) lm via a 0.85 m diameter helium cooled
telescope. The detectors' temperature is 1.4 K, while the
cryogenic system is optimised (passive radiation and
ecient use of helium gas enthalpy) to make use of only
360 l of superuid He for a minimum lifetime of 2.5
years. SIRTF is now in the development phase and is
presently scheduled for launch in May 2002. Thanks to a
number of trade-os, it has been possible to drastically
reduce the mission costs by selecting a solar obit and
limiting the satellite mass to about 900 kg.
Finally, among the missions under development, we
would like to mention International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL), as an example of
utilisation of space qualied Stirling cryo-coolers [28].
INTEGRAL is a medium size ESA science mission
dedicated to spectroscopy and imaging between 15 keV
and 10 MeV. The spectrometer on the spacecraft is
based on about 30 kg of germanium detectors maintained at a temperature of 85 K. The satellite is scheduled for launch in 2001.
2.2.3. Missions under study
Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST) is considered to be the successor of the HST [29]. The programme calls for a 68 m diameter passively cooled
telescope to minimise thermal self-emission and enabling
observations in the NIR and medium-IR (MIR) from 1
to 30 lm. The science objectives of the NGST are the
study of galaxies, stars and planets formation and
the study of the chemical and geometrical evolution of
the universe. The so-called `NGST Yardstick Mission'
(a mission design developed by NASA, academia and
industry starting from 1996) baselines a deployable
three-mirror telescope passively cooled below 50 K. The
science instruments are an NIR camera, an NIR low
resolution spectrograph and an MIR cameraspectrograph combination. The rst two instruments operate at
30 K (passive radiator cooling), the third one makes use
of either a turbo-Brayton mechanical cooler or a combination of H2 and He sorption coolers to achieve a base
temperature of about 8 K. ESA is also involved in the
805
NGST project with a nancial participation of order

15%. The telescope should be launched in 2008.
Next Generation Sky Survey (NGSS) is another NASA
mission proposed as candidate for NASA's medium-class
Explorer (MIDEX) programme, but nally not selected
(October 1999). NGSS should have provided a sky survey
from 3.5 to 25 lm with a sensitivity 1000 times better
than IRAS. The satellite was based on a design similar to
WIRE with a cryostat based on solid hydrogen. With a
total mass of about 890 kg, NGSS would have included a
0.5 m telescope and a four-channel imager based on
HgCdTe and Si:As photo-conductive 1024 1024 element arrays. When selected, NGSS should have been
launched either in 2003 or in 2004.
X-ray Evolving Universe Spectroscopy Mission
(XEUS) is the potential follow-on mission to the ESA
XMM cornerstone (launched at the end of 1999). The
mission aims to place a permanent X-ray telescope in
orbit by exploiting the facilities available on the ISS and
by ensuring a signicant growth and evolution potential
[6]. Main features of the proposed observatory are the
very large telescope aperture and the utilisation of
cryogenic detectors in two narrow eld imaging spectrometers (respectively, TESs and STJs). The cryogenic
design would be based on Stirling mechanical coolers
combined with ADR systems in order to extend the
mission lifetime beyond which is achievable with consumable cryogens.
Another science study involving cryogenics in space is
Submillimetron, a sub-millimetre wave cryogenic telescope proposed for the Russian segment of the ISS [30].
The project is a co-operative eort of Chalmers University (Sweden), Astro Space Centre and IREE (Russia) and JPL (US). Submillimetron would make use of a
cryostat lled with superuid helium and of a 3 He
sorption cooler to achieve a base temperature of 300
mK. The telescope would be cooled to about 5 K in
order to minimise the role of any residual thermal
background.
Constellation-X is a next generation X-ray observatory presently under study by NASA [7]. Such a mission
is based on 24 identical satellites orbiting at the second
Lagrangian point of the EarthSun system (L2), thus
achieving a signicantly larger photon collection area in
a wide energy range between 0.25 and 40 keV. At the
focal plane of the telescopes, micro-calorimeter arrays
will ensure high resolution imaging spectroscopy. The
cryogenic system needs to allow operating at 50 mK;
dierent solutions are presently being considered, including a design similar to Astro-E (outer solid neon,
intermediate 4 He and inner ADR stage) and a revised
version, replacing the solid neon with mechanical coolers. Cryogens should ensure a mission lifetime between 3
and 5 years. Launch would take place in 20082010.
Advanced Radio Interferometry between Space and
Earth (ARISE) is another NASA mission presently
806
under study, consisting of a 25-m radio telescope in

highly elliptical Earth orbit, observing in conjunction
with a large number of radio telescopes on the ground
and using Very Long Baseline Interferometry [31]. This
would ensure high resolution images (10 larcsec) of the
most energetic astronomical phenomena, such as active
galactic nuclei (AGN). The mission requires low noise
ampliers and receivers operating at 20 K; the present
baseline consists of using a mechanical pre-cooler combined with hydrogen sorption coolers, similar to those
used on Planck.
DARWIN (Infrared Space Interferometry Mission) is
a cornerstone candidate in the ESA `Horizon 2000+'
science plan. Its goal is to detect terrestrial planets in
orbit around other stars and to allow high resolution
imaging in the medium infrared between 5 and 30 lm.
Interferometry would be carried out over a 50500 m
baseline including six free ying 1.5 m telescopes. Both
the telescopes and the focal plane detectors would be
cooled to about 2030 K [32].
Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) is a similar mission
under study at NASA, based on ve spacecrafts ying in
formation at about 1 AU from the Sun and focusing on
the identication of terrestrial planets outside our solar
system. As such, TPF is facing technological issues very
similar to DARWIN including cold optics and IR detectors. The present system baseline relies on passive
cooling to about 40 K and a Brayton cryo-cooler to cool
the IR detectors down to 5 K [33].
2.3. Technology validation missions
A number of cryogenic space missions have been
dedicated to the validation of specic technological issues. It is the case of payloads onboard research satellites, own onto the Space Shuttle or to be own on the
ISS.
High Temperature Superconductivity Space Experiment (HTSSE) I and II are payload units for validating
HTS components in space-based systems [34]. They
were developed by the US Naval Research Laboratory
(NRL) and launched in 1993 and 1999 onboard the US
Air Force satellite ARGOS (Advanced Research and
Global Observation Satellite). HTSSE II is based on a
Stirling cooler with an operating temperature between
70 and 80 K. A number of HTS-based devices have
been tested onboard this facility, including lter banks,
patch antenna arrays, delay lines, ADCs and multiplexers.
STRV-1A and 1B were developed by the Defence
Evaluation Research Agency (DERA) of the UK Ministry of Defence as two small space technology test-beds
and launched together in the geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) by an Ariane-4 in June 1994 [35]. The unit 1B
carried a mechanical cooler capable of a base temperature of 80 K.
NASA has own a number of cryogenic payloads on

several Space Shuttle ights. The lambda point experiment (LPE) is one of them, a small payload with a
cryostat containing superuid helium and dedicated to
the study of its behaviour in the absence of gravity [36].
LPE ew on STS-52 as part of the US Microgravity
Payload (USMP) 1 programme in 1992.
A ight demonstration has been conducted by NASA
with superuid helium on-orbit transfer (SHOOT), a
facility dedicated to experiments on the transfer of superuid helium between two vessels in low gravity
conditions. The facility successfully ew on STS-57 in
1993 and demonstrated the possibility to exploit the
fountain eect as the basis of a thermalmechanical
pump [37].
Another payload ew in 1995 as part of the NASA InSpace Technology Experiments Program (IN-STEP),
the cryo-system experiment (CSE), dedicated to the inorbit characterisation of a hybrid cryogenic cooling
system incorporating a 65 K Stirling cryo-cooler and an
experimental diode oxygen heat pipe from Hughes [38].
Such a heat pipe allows to increase the distance between
the cooler and its load and to thermally disconnect them
when the cooler is o (reducing the reverse heat ow).
Brilliant Eye-Ten Kelvin Sorption Cooler Experiment
(BETSCE) ew onboard STS-77 (1996) and demonstrated the capability to cool down IR detectors at about
10 K by using a JouleThompson hydrogen cooler,
based on a metal-hydride sorption compressor/pump
system and pre-cooled by a Stirling cooler (65 K) [39].
The base temperature could be maintained for over 20
min with a heat load of 100 mW.
Materials in Devices as Superconductors (MIDAS) is a
NASA cryogenic facility for the characterisation of high
temperature superconductors during extended ights. It
is based on a Stirling cooler capable of 1 W cooling at 80
K, with a maximum power consumption of 60 W [40].
Total weight of the facility corresponds to only 30 kg.
MIDAS ew onboard STS-79 (1996) to be transferred
onboard the Russian space station MIR, where it remained for about 3 months before returning to the
ground with STS-81.
Conned Helium Experiment (CHEX) is another test
facility from NASA that ew on STS-87 (1997) as part
of USMP-4. The experiment hardware is based on the
LPE equipment (see above), with a 4 He lled cryostat at
1.6 K, conned in 57 lm wide gaps between 400 thin
silicon wafers. The experiment aimed to investigate the
behaviour of He at the transition between superuid and
liquid state [41].
Low Temperature Microgravity Physics Facility
(LTMPF) is a NASA science project built to provide
long duration low temperature and microgravity conditions onboard the ISS. The unpressurised module will
be attached to the Japanese experimental module (JEM)
and is scheduled for ight in 2003. LTMPF will be based
on a liquid helium Dewar with a lifetime goal of about 5

months [42].
Finally we should mention FACET (fast alternative
cryogenic experiment test-bed), a proof of concept study
for the development of a compact and less expensive
ight facility for low temperature experiments, tting
into the space of two Space Shuttle hitchhiker cans. The
module would use a cryostat with a solid neon guard
and superuid helium guaranteeing an orbit lifetime
longer than 6 days. FACET should allow to perform a
larger number of cryogenics experiments before the entry into service of LTMPF [43].
2.4. Applications
In this paragraph we review the space missions which
have made or are planning to make use of cryogenic
equipment within the elds of telecommunications and
earth observations (here considered as applicative areas). We should notice that in these two elds the required operating temperatures are higher than for
scientic missions (typically >10 K). Considering the
recent progress made by cryogenics, such a requirement
is not too dicult to meet, allowing a number of possible applications and related design solutions onboard
satellites.
2.4.1. Telecommunications
The recent progress in the area of HTS has opened
new perspectives for the fabrication of RF superconducting devices, such as lters, delay lines, resonators
and antennas. Although superconductors have `zero'
DC resistance, at nite frequencies there are losses
which remain smaller than those of a normal metal for
all frequencies up to the millimetre wave region. For
instance, the superconductor YBCO (yttriumbarium
copper-oxide) at a temperature of 77 K and at a frequency of 10 GHz has a surface resistance that is 30
times smaller than that of copper at the same operating
frequency and temperature. Such a reduced surface resistance implies lower insertion losses and the possibility
to reduce considerably (of order 10 times) the size of the
devices (e.g. lters) without signicant eciency degradation. In engineering terms this implies the possibility
to signicantly improve the energy eciency of high
frequency telecommunications systems or to signicantly reduce their size and weight without increasing
the insertion losses [44]. Given a high frequency system,
the more the components benet from a low operating
temperature the more attractive will be the selection of a
cryogenic design. Such a system would simultaneously
employ passive HTS components (taking advantage of
the low insertion losses) as well as STJ-based cryoelectronics and cooled semiconductor active devices
(such as HEMTs and Schottky diodes). In addition, the
807
superior Q-factors in the HTS lters allow for improved

spectral eciency via reduced guard bands [45].
The nal decision to adopt a cryogenic design for a
satellite subsystem will be based on a trade-o analysis
considering the mass savings, the total power consumption and the reliability of the dierent solutions. A
more detailed discussion will be presented in Section 3.
We should mention that the total energy balance depends heavily on the eciency of the cooling system: a
passively cooled subsystem will have a positive energy
balance, while an actively cooled unit (e.g. Stirling
cooler) has a more critical energy balance. The choice
between passively and actively cooled systems will depend on the required operating temperature and on the
type of orbit of the satellite. As an example we can
discuss the case of band-pass lters for output multiplexers (OMUX) at about 4 GHz (C-band) [45]. The
insertion losses are inversely proportional to the resonator quality factor QHTS , which are considerably higher
than in conventional technology (Qconv ). The decreased
insertion losses translate into a lower RF amplier
power, and thus into lower power consumption. Due to
the additional cooler power, power saving can only be
achieved if
QHTS =Qconv > 1 gamp =gcooler ;
where gamp and gcooler are, respectively, the power eciency of the RF amplier and of the cryogenic cooler.
Using state-of-the-art in amplier gamp of order 0.5)
and cooler gcooler of order 0.06) technology, we derive
that if QHTS > 1:5 105 we can achieve savings in power
consumption in addition to the miniaturisation of the
payload (potentially leading to increased system capacity).
The US NRL, in collaboration with the US Air
Force, developed HTSSE, a technology demonstration
programme aimed at proving the viability of HTS devices for space applications (see Section 2.4). Several
organisations have participated in this programme [34],
including numerous industries. HTSSE I (lost due to a
launch failure) aimed at the testing of single YBCObased devices, such as resonators, lters, delay lines,
cavities and patch antennas (operating between 1.4 and
10 GHz). HTSSE II focused on more advanced HTS
components and subsystems, including hybrid (HTSsemiconductor) receivers, multiplexers and A/D (analogue/digital) converters.
In Europe, Bosch Telecom is currently developing a 3channel transponder including a front-end receiver with
HTS noise reduction lters and cooled low noise amplier. The demonstrator includes a 3-channel HTS input and output multiplexers. The system is scheduled for
delivery to the ISS in 2001 [46]. Cooling will be provided
by two redundant cryo-coolers with the objective of
evaluating the expected mass and power savings. ESA
has also initiated some actions in the frame of the
808
ARTES-5 development programme, in order to identify

components, cooling techniques and system architecture
related to the use of HTS in telecommunication satellites.
2.4.2. Earth observation and meteorology satellites
The eld of Earth observation (i.e. the remote sensing
of our planet from space for civilian purposes) has
grown considerably in importance over the last 1015
years. Several missions have been developed with the
objective of monitoring earth's natural environment and
to study the natural phenomena related to the planet
water cycle. Cryogenics is required because of the utilisation of detectors capable of imaging the earth surface
in the NIR and MIR (typically operating around or just
below 100 K). Due to the low altitude orbits of these
satellites, the large thermal ux emitted by the earth
precludes the utilisation of purely passive means, thus
obliging to make use of mechanical coolers.
Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) is the
rst major element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth
(MTPE) and was launched in 1991 to carry a comprehensive study of the upper atmosphere in terms of
chemical composition, temperature, winds and energy
balance [47]. Four instruments were devoted to spectroscopic measurements and among these cryogenic
limb array Etalon spectrometer (CLAES) was designed
to measure the atmospheric radiance and the concentrations of several molecular species [48]. The instrument consists of a solid-state FabryPerot spectrometer
coupled with a reective telescope and a photo-conductive detector. The wavelength coverage is from 3.5 to
12:7 lm. A solid CO2 (123 K) and a solid Ne (16 K)
cryostat maintained the detector at about 16 K, the
spectrometer at 50 K and the telescope optics at 150 K.
The instrument operated for a total of about 19 months.
LANDSAT 7, launched in 1999, is the latest NASA
satellite of a series of earth observation missions dating
back to 1972 [49]. It oers signicant improvements over
its predecessors, maintaining the characteristics of a
thematic mapper, with ground resolutions of 30 m
(visible range) and 60 m (NIR range). Adequate NIR
performance can be achieved by passively cooling the
imaging system at about 90 K.
Terra (formerly known as EOS AM-1) is the rst
mission of NASA's Earth Observing System [50], launched in December 1999. Terra's objectives are the study
of seasonal and climate changes over a nominal lifetime
of 5 years. Advanced spaceborne thermal emission and
reection radiometer (ASTER) is a high spatial resolution imaging instrument onboard Terra, and a co-operative eort between NASA and Japan's Ministry of
International Trade and Industry. ASTER includes a
thermal infrared imaging unit, based on HgCdTe detectors cooled at 80 K by a low vibration and long
lifetime Stirling cooler.
Aqua (formerly EOS PM) is the second mission of

NASA's Earth Observing System. Due for launch in
December 2000, Aqua objective is the multi-disciplinary study of the Earth's interrelated processes (atmosphere, oceans and land surface) and their impact on
earth system changes. Atmospheric infrared sounder
(AIRS) is an IR spectro-photometer onboard Aqua.
The focal plane of the spectrometer is based on an
array of HgCdTe detectors cooled to 60 K by a combined Stirling/pulse tube cryo-cooler, while the entire
optics is cooled to 150 K by a two-stage radiative
cooler. MODIS is a wide band radiometer also onboard Aqua, with two focal plane assemblies cooled
down to 85 K by a high performance passive radiator
cooler [51].
Aura (formerly EOS Chem) is the third mission of
NASA's Earth Observing System. Due for launch in
2002, Aura objective is the study of the Earth's atmosphere chemical composition, with specic attention to
the monitoring of the ozone layer. The instrument
HIRDLS (high resolution dynamics limb sounder) is an
infrared scanning radiometer onboard Aura, designed to
scan the upper layers of the atmosphere in the wavelength range between 6 and 17 lm. An array of 21 detectors is cooled down by a mechanical cooler to about
65 K [52].
The Earth Observation Programme of the European
Space Agency is based on a number of missions for the
monitoring of our planet's atmosphere, oceans and land.
The ESA satellites ERS 1 and ERS 2 (ESA Remote
Sensing Satellites) were developed to provide information on the earth and its environment and were launched, respectively, in 1992 and 1995. Onboard ERS 1
and ERS 2 the IR radiometer ATSR (along track
scanning radiometer) was equipped with Stirling cycle
coolers (Oxford University) cooling the focal plane assembly to about 100 K [53].
Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes for
the Atmosphere (CRISTA) is a limb-scanning satellite
experiment developed by the University of Wuppertal
and own on the free-ying ASTRO-SPAS satellite
(DASA, D). CRISTA 1 ew in 1994 (STS-66) and
CRISTA 2 in 1997 (STS-85). The spectrometers were
cooled by liquid He with a lifetime of the order of 10
days.
Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) continues the
legacy of the previous Meteosat missions, with largely
improved performance. Three satellites (MSG 1 to 3) are
going to be procured by ESA on behalf of Eumetsat and
launched to guarantee uninterrupted coverage from
2000 to 2012. Onboard MSG 1 two instruments have
focal plane assemblies operating at low temperature, the
imager SEVIRI (spinning enhanced visible and infrared
imager) and the radiometer GERB (Geostationary
Earth Radiation Budget), both cooled by passive radiators and operating at about 80 K [54].
Envisat 1 is a large multidisciplinary mission, dedicated to the study of the earth and atmosphere environment and having both science and application
objectives [55]. Onboard this spacecraft (due for launch
in July 2001) three instruments require cryogenic temperatures to operate. These are MIPAS, AATSR and
Sciamachy. MIPAS (Fig. 5) is a fourier transform
spectrometer operating in the wavelength range between
4 and 16 lm and using photo-conductive and photovoltaic HgCdTe detectors. Optics and detector assembly
are cooled to 70 K by a pair of Stirling cycle coolers
[56,57]. AATSR is an IRvisible radiometer whose focal
plane assembly is cooled to 80 K by another pair of
Stirling coolers. Finally, Sciamachy is an imaging spectrometer operating between 0.2 and 2.4 lm; it uses silicon and InGaAs detectors cooled down passively to
dierent temperatures ranging between 235 and 130 K.
ESA, EUMETSAT, CNES and NOAA are co-operating in the development of meteorological operational
(MetOp), a new generation of weather satellites [58].
MetOp will continue part of the ESR mission, complement the results provided by Envisat and allow for scientic investigations as well as weather forecasts.
MetOp, presently undergoing development, will carry
instruments similar to Envisat, with matching cryogenic
requirements.
2.5. Cryo-electronics and large-scale applications
2.5.1. Cryo-electronics
In the last 10 years electronics systems operating at
cryogenic temperature (often indicated by the term cryoelectronics) have found numerous applications in several
elds, including ight hardware onboard spacecrafts.
Fig. 5. The instrument MIPAS before integration onboard the ESA

satellite Envisat. The spectrometer operates between 4 and 16 lm and
its detector assembly is cooled down to 70 K by a pair of Stirling cycle
coolers. MIPAS is about 1.4 m long, 1.0 m large and 1.5 m high (including optics).
809
We will make here a distinction between semiconductorbased devices operating at low temperature in order to
reduce their noise gures and alternative devices (such as
superconductor-based devices) which can only be operated at low temperatures.
In the rst category we should mention the front-end
electronics (FEE) of several scientic payloads especially
in the area of astrophysics. In many cases the JFET
ampliers responsible for the initial signal conditioning
are anchored to a heat sink at about 20 K and operated
at about 120 K when powered on. This conguration
allows to achieve the lowest possible noise levels. As
examples we should mention the JFET pre-ampliers of
XRS onboard Astro-E and the detector assemblies of
ISOPHOT, ISO-SWS and ISO-LWS, onboard the ESA
satellite ISO (Infrared Satellite Observatory). In the
latter cases, the FEE had to be positioned as close as
possible to the detectors and to operate at about 1.61.8
K. In the case of ISOPHOT, these requirements were
met by developing a specic MOS IC which demonstrated low noise, low dissipation, multiplexed operations [59]. The use of cold read-out electronics is planned
by most of the science missions especially in the sub-mm
and FIR wavelength range. The NASA mission ARISE
is also planning to make use of cryo-electronics in the
form of low noise ampliers and receivers (in the 58
GHz frequency range) operating at about 20 K and, for
this reason, requiring the presence of a cryogenic cooler.
Over the last 10 years a remarkable eort has been
invested in the development of a new generation of high
speed digital electronics capable of outperforming the
present semiconductor technology. Superconducting
electronic (SCE) devices have shown interesting performance and the potential to provide the speed required
by future high density and large speed computing systems. Such devices allow increasing packing density
without the power dissipation problems suered by the
present technology. Two main eects are used by SCE in
the eld of digital applications: (1) ux quantisation and
(2) Josephson eects [46]. Such devices can be used as
basis for the logic gates and have very fast intrinsic
switching speeds (of order 1 ps) and low power dissipation. The switching energy of LTS and HTS technologies is typically of the order of 10 17 10 18 J against
10 13 J of CMOS devices operating at room temperature. More recently a new technology has been investigated using single-ux-quantum (SFQ) devices and
based on the movement of single quanta of magnetic
ux rather than on the dierent voltage levels. The SFQ
technology does not require any hysteretic STJs and
oers even lower energy dissipation [60].
Another important category of cryogenic devices is
represented by SQUIDs. A SQUID is based on two
STJs connected in series to form a closed loop; such a
device is the most sensitive magnetometer known to
date, reaching sensitivities of order of a few femtoTesla
810

0:5
(fT)/Hz at frequencies of a few Hz (1 fT 10 11 G).

SQUIDs are used in several applications including very
sensitive gravity gradiometers, fast digital electronics
and detector read-out circuitry. While the lowest noise
performances are achieved by LTS devices, it is envisaged that HTS-based units (T > 70 K) will be used in
applications not requiring very high sensitivities and
could be appropriate for high throughput digital systems [46].
2.5.2. Large-scale applications
Large-scale applications involving cryogenics in space
include two main categories, energy storage in large
superconducting magnets and gas storage by liquefaction for life support systems and propulsion purposes.
Energy can be stored in the form of an intense magnetic eld generated by a large current owing in a superconducting magnet with very low resistive losses.
Such a storage technique oers interesting advantages in
situations requiring the sudden absorption of large energy amounts that cannot be supplied by the more traditional combination of solar cells and batteries
onboard spacecrafts. Similar systems have been considered in the context of the Strategic Defence Initiative
sponsored by the US Department of Defence. Typical
operating temperatures would be close to 4.2 K in the
case of magnets based on traditional LTS windings.
The storage of gases in liqueed form is well known
and has been used since many years in the context of
spacecraft propulsion systems. Such a technique oers
obvious advantages for the storage of large amounts of
gas in a limited volume tank. In addition to propulsion
units, we can envisage the extension of this technique to
life support systems for inter-planetary missions (such as
the planned mission to Mars) or for the ISS [61]. Required operating temperatures are less demanding in
comparison with other cryogenics applications and vary
depending on the dierent gases (essentially N2 and O2 )
ranging between 70 and 90 K. This particular eld is
clearly of interest also for any future manned station
installed on the moon surface.
which are used to process signals coming from the earth

(earth observation, meteorological, telecommunication)
or space (astronomy). The instruments can either have
their own optics or share a common unit (e.g. main
telescope). Cryogenic installations have a strong impact
on the architecture of a spacecraft or of an instrument;
the key factors coming into play are summarised below.
A cooler needs to be used (i.e. cryogens, radiators,
mechanical coolers). The cooler must have a heat lift
compatible with the satellite size and the available
power resources (see Fig. 7 for an overview of the different coolers).
The low temperature equipment must be properly
supported, insulated from the room temperature satellite bus, and protected from solar and/or earth radiation. The lower the operating temperature, the
higher the demands on the thermal insulation.
The cold parts have to be accessed (e.g. optical access
to the detectors, signal wires, temperature sensors and
heaters) and wiring needs to be routed between the
cold payload, and the satellite bus for further processing (A/D conversion, data handling) before transmission to earth via telemetry.
Cryogenic ancillary equipment needs to be used to
operate the cryogenic payload (e.g. heat links, heat
switches, lters, thermometry).
System testability (instrument performances and payload cooling system) is likely to have an impact on the
architecture of the payload.
The complete system must survive the vibrations induced by the launcher: this requirement has a strong
impact on the cooler and on the instrument design
(e.g. a compromise is required between the large sup-
3. Cryogenics and spacecraft engineering

In this section we provide a summary of the engineering issues related to cryogenics in space. Overall
spacecraft architecture, coolers, thermal insulation and
ancillary equipment are described separately.
3.1. Architecture of cryogenic spacecrafts
A spacecraft is usually composed of a satellite bus (or
service module) and a payload module (Fig. 6). The
payload module carries one or several instruments
Fig. 6. Typical architecture of a cryogenic satellite for space science.

Three main sections can be identied: the telescope (cooled below 100
K), the payload module (with focal plane detectors maintained below
4K) and the satellite bus (or service module maintained at room
temperature).
Fig. 7. Space coolers. The range of operations of each cooler is represented in terms of cooling power vs. operating temperature. Dierent
temperature ranges imply the utilisation of dierent technologies.
port cross-section required for the launch, and the

thermal insulation requirements).
The cooler has to operate in zero gravity for a period
of time of order of a few years.
The payload needs to be built with materials compatible both for space and cryogenic environment.
The lifetime (or MTBF, main time between failures)
of the equipment should be compatible and possibly
exceed the mission duration.
3.2. Space coolers
3.2.1. Principle of cooling systems for space
Coolers provide a cold heat sink, by removing the
heat in the cold area, and dissipating it in the warm area.
In the case of a satellite, isolated in space, the energy will
be nally radiated to space. The process of cooling is
well described by elementary thermodynamics: either the
energy is directly radiated to space (via radiators) or
some work has to be performed to pump the energy
between two temperature levels, from a cold to a warm
level to then be more easily radiated away. Such a heat
pumping operation can be done according to an open
cycle conguration or in a closed cycle.
The open cycle corresponds to the use of stored cryogens, where the work is performed before the mission,
on ground, by a liqueer. The cold heat sink is provided
by evaporation of liquid or solid cryogens. In this case,
there is no energy to radiate, but gas is to be released.
The lifetime of the system is thus governed by the heat
losses and by the mass of cryogen that can be own.
The closed cycle corresponds to the use of mechanical
coolers, where the work is done continuously during
operations (see Fig. 8). Existing space coolers can provide about 1 W of cooling power in the temperature
range 50100 K (Stirling coolers, pulse tubes), about 100
mW in the range 1520 K (double-stage Stirling) or a
few mW at 4 K (JouleThomson). Very low temperature
(VLT) coolers (e.g. 3He cryo-sorption refrigerators, dilution, ADR) rely on the pre-cooling systems mentioned
811
Fig. 8. Block diagram of a space cooler. The cold end of the cooler is
interfaced to the focal plane (detectors), while its active part and
control units are linked to the satellite structure and ultimately to the
radiators. The heat load is minimised by thermally isolating the
cryogenic area from the rest of the system.
above to reach even lower temperatures (typically between 100 mK and 1 K).
In all cases, some electronics is required to monitor
the temperature, maintain it constant, or drive the
cooler mechanisms. For higher temperature systems
T > 50 K, a single stage can be sucient. For lower
temperature systems, multiple-stage coolers or a chain
of various types of coolers have to be used. Fig. 7 provides an overview of the dierent coolers and of the
related cooling power and operating temperatures.
3.2.2. Type of coolers
Radiators are the most ecient, simplest and more
reliable space coolers. They are based on the fact that all
objects emit infrared radiation proportionally to their
area S, emissivity e, and to the fourth power of their
temperature T , and on the fact that the environment
temperature (deep space) is very cold (blackbody at
T0 2.73 K). The net cooling power is thus
Qrad rSF eT 4 T04 rSF eT 4 , where r is the Stefan
constant and F 1 is the shape factor. Radiators are
ecient above 100 K, but have limited performance at
low temperatures (where the parasitic loads through the
insulation increase) and have limitations related to their
size (it is usually dicult to get more than a few m2 on a
spacecraft). Fig. 9 shows the actual performance of
satellite radiators against the theoretical heat rejection
capabilities. Another limitation of radiators is their
orientation: they need to be shaded from the solar radiation (1.4 kW/m2 ), and from the earth infrared and
albedo radiation (about 300 W/m2 for the Earth),
looking at the dark space in order to eciently radiate.
This is a severe limitation, which can be managed only
by constraining the spacecraft attitude and manoeuvring, together with a careful design of baes and
shields to reject the unwanted radiation. In addition, it is
812
Fig. 9. Heat lift of radiators as a function of temperature and area.

Actual radiators deviate from the theoretical expectation due to the
actual emissivity of their surface. In practice it is dicult to run a
passive radiator at T < 60 K even at orbits far away from Earth.
often necessary to have multiple stage radiators, thus

increasing their complexity. There is therefore a lower
limit to the temperature and cooling power that can be
achieved with radiators. For low earth orbits (e.g. Earth
Observation Satellites), the temperature limit is about
100 K, with a cooling power lower than 1 W/m2 . For
geostationary orbits (at 36 000 km, e.g. telecommunication satellites), the temperature limit can be reduced to
7590 K. For far away orbits (e.g. Lagrangian points),
the earth radiation constraint vanishes, and the radiator
architecture becomes simpler with lower temperature
and better performance. In the case of Planck, it is expected to have a cooling power of about 2 W and a
temperature of about 50 K; in the case of NGST or
DARWIN it is estimated to have a cooling power of 200
mW at about 35 K.
A stored cryogen cooler is composed of a cryogen
tank, a vacuum vessel (isolating the cryogen tank before
and during launch), lling and venting lines, heat
shields/MLI, and some interface or volume for instrument accommodation. In the absence of gravity, the
uid needs to be maintained inside the tank by a phase
separator (based on capillary forces or fountain eect
for superuid helium). For ground Dewars, the cryostat
neck is normally used as lling and venting line in addition to supporting the inner cryogen tank. Space
Dewars, due to the dynamic loads present during the
launch, are not compatible with this architecture. A
separate venting line is used to eciently use the gas
enthalpy to cool the shields, and to release the gas
without applying momentum to the spacecraft (two jets
symmetrically opposed around the centre of gravity). In
space it is also possible to cool the whole vacuum vessel
by radiation to space and by the venting line (as opposed
to ground, where the tank must be at room temperature
to avoid condensation). The ISO vacuum vessel (Fig. 10)
once in space was at 110 K; the Herschel vessel is expected to be at 77 K, and the one of SIRTF at 5 K. In
Fig. 10. Cross-section of the ISO vacuum vessel. The drawing shows
the main parts of the vessel including the dierent thermal shields and
the key structural components.
addition, the bath equilibrium pressure is not 1 bar as on

ground, but it is vented to the space vacuum. This allows
to pump on the cryogen bath and to use solid cryogens,
which usually have a sublimation heat much larger than
their latent heat. The proper design of the exhaust
nozzle allows to tune the base temperature (vapour
pressure) of the cryogen bath by adjusting the pressure
drop. The volume of cryogen to be carried depends on
the mission duration and on the heat input. The choice
of the cryogen to be used depends on the base temperature required. The cryogens available do not provide a
continuum of temperatures, but rather discrete values in

Table 4
Cryostat/cryogen choice on a number of spacecrafts
Missions
Cryogen
IRAS, COBE, ISO, Herschel, SIRTF

IBSS, STEP
WIRE
XRS on ASTRO-E
NICMOS
Superfluid 4 He
Supercritical 4 He
Solid H2
Solid Ne
Solid N2
dierent ranges. The most widely used are superuid or

supercritical helium, solid H2 and solid Ne. An overview
of the choices made on dierent missions is presented in
Table 4. For low temperature systems, in order to optimise the mass of cryogen, it is more interesting to use a
bi-cryogen system, such as N2 and He, or H2 and He.
However, the design is more complex, as all lines and
valves have to be doubled. In most of the cases, a single
cryogen is preferred, despite the mass penalty. Coolers
based on cryogens are cooled on ground and topped up
just prior to the launch. When on ground, the low vapour pressure is maintained by pumping on the bath
through the vent line. This is usually possible only up to
a few days before the actual launch. Such a period of
`Launch Autonomy' might become a design driver for
the cryostat, as the heat losses are signicantly higher on
ground that in orbit, and increase as the heat shields are
not vented. This requires an extra volume of cryogen or
an auxiliary tank to compensate for such extra losses.
In a mechanical cooler (or active cooler) mechanical
work produced by moving parts is transformed into
refrigerating power. There are many ways to classify
active coolers. The most widely used is to distinguish
between regenerative cycles (Stirling, pulse tube, Giord
coolers) and recuperative cycles (JouleThomson or
Brayton coolers).
The regenerative coolers are based on a pressure wave
generated by a compressor (usually mechanical), and a
cold nger, using a mobile (Stirling, Giord) or a xed
(pulse tube) regenerator. The heat is extracted at the
cold end when the gas expands, and rejected at the warm
end when the gas is compressed.
The recuperative cycles use the enthalpy dierence
between high and low pressure gas. The Brayton cycle
cooler use a cold turbine to expand the gas, whereas the
JouleThomson (JT) coolers use the expansion through
an orice, and the properties of real gas to get the
cooling eect. Being irreversible, the JT cooler (normally
coupled to Stirling units) is less ecient than Brayton's,
but it is simpler. Recently some eort has been invested
in developing a new generation of mechanical coolers
based on small turbines (typically running at 500 000
rpm) for both expansion and compression. Such coolers
have the potential to oer reasonable coecient of
performance (COP) without the low frequency vibration
problems of coolers with linear displacers.
813
The main dierence between ground and space coolers is the required lifetime; a useful review is provided in
[62]. A lifetime of 5 years is a typical requirement for
most space applications. This means that no friction can
be tolerated between moving parts. This leads to the
development and qualication of coolers based on the
`Oxford compressors': the compressor uses a linear
drive, while the leak tightness of the compressed volume
is guaranteed by a tight clearance seal (about 10 lm). A
diaphragm spring is then used to maintain an alignment
compatible with such a small gap, while allowing the
axial motion of the piston. Life tests as long as 8 years
have been performed with this system. Many such
coolers are currently ying.
Another important limitation for space coolers is the
electrical power demand. A typical power allocation for
a cryo-cooler is between 50 and 200 W. Most mechanical coolers (typically based on the Stirling cycle) have
an eciency of order 25% of the ideal Carnot cycle,
implying a cooling power of a few mW at 4.2 K with an
input power of about 100 W. Fig. 11 provides a summary of the COP of dierent active coolers as a function
of temperature, in the form of the ratio between cooling
power and absorbed electrical power. The COP is
compared to the eciency of the ideal Carnot cycle.
Mass also represents a critical parameter in the evaluation of space coolers, since the typical allocated values
are of order 100150 kg. In addition, coolers should not
generate vibrations degrading the performance of the
sensitive detectors they are supposed to cool down. Vibrating forces are generated as reaction to moving
masses within the cooler and such forces may cause the
elastic deformation of the instrument structure, either
aecting its alignment or causing electrical interference
in the form of micro-phonic pick-up.
To date most of the mechanical coolers proposed for
space applications are based on the Stirling cycle or on
the JouleThompson expansion, but more recently pulse
Fig. 11. COP of dierent coolers. The solid line represents the ecient
expected from an ideal Carnot cycle. The typical eciency achieved at
1020 K is of order of 0.001.
814
tube refrigerators have been proposed as an interesting

alternative, due to the lack of moving parts and to the
reduced level of vibration. Most of the development
eort is concentrated on improving the eciency of such
coolers. A small PTR developed by LockeedMartin in
collaboration with NIST (US) has own onboard the
Space Shuttle mission STS-90, delivering 50 mW at 100
K, with an input power of order 10 W (COP 0.005).
TRW (US) has also delivered several PTR units, among
which a system used on the instrument AIRS is to be
own onboard the mission Aqua (formerly EOS-PM)
with a cooling power of 1.75 W at 55 K (see Table 3).
Finally we should mention that closed-cycle hydrogen
sorption coolers are being developed by JPL (US), with
the potential to oer a vibration-free alternative to mechanical cooler in the 5020 K temperature range; such
an approach is presently baselined for the ESA mission
Planck [63].
3.2.3. Very low temperature coolers (T < 1 K)
In many scientic satellite applications it is necessary
to achieve even lower temperatures, well below 1 K [64].
Such a temperature range (see Figs. 1 and 7) can be
achieved by using closed-cycle 3He sorption coolers
(down to 250 mK), by dilution refrigerators (50 mK)
and by ADR (50 mK).
3
He sorption coolers oer interesting performance due
to the simplicity of operations, the lack of moving parts
and the possibility to work in a closed-cycle conguration with an ecient duty cycle 3 He condensation phase
vs. hold time at base temperature). Typical cooling
power is of order 10 lW at 300 mK. Sorption coolers
have already own onboard balloons (Boomerang,
Maxima, Archeops), sounding rockets and on the satellite SFU (IRST Infrared Telescope in Space instrument) [65,66]. Sorption coolers will be used onboard
Herschel instruments SPIRE and PACS (see Table 2).
Dilution refrigerators, based on the quantum mechanical properties of 3 He4 He mixtures, are routinely
used on earth to achieve temperature below 100 mK,
with cooling power exceeding 100 lW. This technique is
now being adapted for space applications and it is meant
to y on Planck (cooling power of order 0.1 lW) [67].
The absence of gravity and running the conventional
mixture circulation in space are the main challenges for
such a development. The proposed approach avoids the
use of circulation pumps by working in open-loop mode,
thus requiring a very large amount of gas mixture and
oering a lifetime limited by the gas reservoirs. Alternative techniques may combine the capillary liquid
connement with a closed-loop system based on cryosorption pumps [68].
Adiabatic demagnetisation refrigerators have already
been used onboard sounding rockets and scientic satellites (Astro-E) [69]. They produce base temperatures of
order 50100 mK by reducing the entropy associated to
the electronic spins of the atoms of paramagnetic salts.

Forcing the electronic spins to align in a single direction
via a magnetic eld of order a few Tesla reduces the entropy. Cooling powers of about 10 lW are achieved [1].
ADRs oer very low base temperatures with simple operations and good duty cycle eciency. The main challenges presented by ADRs are the need for large magnetic
elds (implying large currents and potential EMI issues)
and for high performance and high reliability thermal
switches. The use of an ADR system is baselined by ESA
for the future mission XEUS (Table 3).
Solid-state coolers, analogous to Peltier elements but
operating below 1 K, are also being investigated. They
are based on the metalinsulator superconductor which
provide cooling of the lattice by relying on phonon
electron coupling and removing the hottest electrons
present in the normal metal electrode of the device [70].
Cooling of membranes from 0.3 to 0.1 K has already
been achieved [71]. Such coolers are developed with the
aim of building self-cooling detectors (bolometers or
STJs) with simpler pre-coolers (e.g. 3 He sorption coolers).
3.3. Thermal insulation and ancillary equipment
3.3.1. Insulation technology for space
The goal of thermal insulation is to limit the heat
loads on the cold stage to a level compatible with the
heat lift of the cooler. Due to the limited COP of space
coolers, minimisation of the heat load is crucial to
meeting the mission requirements. In space conductive
and radiative coupling represent the loss mechanisms to
be reduced by thermally insulating the cold stages.
Low conductive supports such as metallic and composite supports are the key elements of the structure of
any cryogenic payload, especially in view of the dynamic
loads to be sustained during the launch phase. While
steel and titanium alloys are still frequently utilised,
Kevlar, glass and carbon bre-based materials are being
extensively investigated and used in ight hardware.
Such materials are light and have low thermal conductivity associated to high tensile resistance. Kevlar strings
are often used to ensure a high degree of stiness combined to small contact surfaces. Plastics (such as Teon,
Nylon, Vespel) can also be used whenever the structural
load requirements are less critical [72]. Struts and tension straps play an important role in supporting the
weight of Dewars and cold stages. Orbital disconnect
struts (ODS) are being investigated to limit heat losses
by removing unnecessary thermal bridges once the
spacecraft has reached its station orbit. A review on
cryogenic structural supports and materials can be
found in [73]. Supporting VLT elements add additional
constraints to the supports: also minimise the heat dissipated by damping of vibrations (for instance generated
by pre-cooler compressors).
Multi-layer insulation (MLI) is commonly used on

ground as well as in space. MLI consists of a stack of
polyester (Mylar) or polyamide (Kapton) foils that are
embossed, crinkled or separated by a spacing material
such as a thin net. The foils are aluminised on one or
both sides to reduce the radiative transfer of heat. MLI
is used to protect the spacecraft from intense solar radiation as well as to insulate cold stages located inside a
cryostat. As far as the radiative transfer is concerned,
the use of N layers allows reducing the surface emissivity
e to an eective value eeff by a factor proportional to
N 1. In practice, losses due to holes, edges, seams
impose a correction to the theoretical estimate of the
eective emissivity eeff [74,75]. Space applications require
specic attention to the outgassing of the satellite during
testing and during its launch ascent. Very eective utilisation of MLI is critical to extend the mission lifetime
of missions based on cryogen reservoirs (e.g. ISO,
Herschel).
V-groove shields are also used onboard spacecrafts,
for instance to shield a low temperature radiator from
warmer parts. V-groove shields are based on a few
(typically <5) angled and highly reective shields open
to space. The principle is to reject to space radiation
after a number of reections between the angled shields
rather than trapping it between layers (such as in MLI).
V-groove shields also imply limitations on the satellite
attitude control. Additional details can be found in [76].
3.3.2. Ancillary cryogenic equipment for space
Cryogenic ancillary equipment plays a critical role
during ground testing and must be adapted and qualied for space utilisation. It is worth mentioning the key
items which are required onboard spacecrafts.
High thermal conductivity links (K > 1 W/K) are required to link the focal plane to the cold stage of the
cooler. Such links often need to be exible, to provide
electrical insulation as well as damping eventual vibrations exported from the cooler to the detectors. Cryogenic heat pipes are presently being developed to
guarantee high thermal conductivity with the added
capability to function as thermal switches [77].
Heat switches play a critical role in several coolers
including 3 He sorption coolers and ADR systems. An
ideal cryogenic heat switch for space applications should
have no moving parts, ensure high insulation in OFF
mode and high conductance in ON mode, with negligible power dissipation, high reliability and a good level of
redundancy. To date gas-gap switches (based on cryosorption) and electromechanical switches are used, but
the performance and reliability levels need to be drastically improved [78].
High heat capacitance devices acting as cryogenic heat
reservoirs (e.g. 4 He gas volume providing a 4.2 K heat
sink when condensed) can play an important role to
815
stabilise the temperature of further stages or providing

additional cooling power at absorption peaks.
Space qualied temperature sensors are a critical item,
especially onboard instruments using bolometers, which
are very sensitive to temperature uctuations. An overview of cryogenic thermometry is provided in [79].
Critical issues are the radiation hardening of the sensors,
their calibration and associated heat load. A new generation of thermometers based on the Coulomb
Blockade eect has been proposed with the perspective
of providing a simple primary temperature standard
that could be qualied for space [80].
Pressure, level and ow meters are required to monitor
the performance of cryogenic equipment onboard
spacecrafts. There are almost no such space qualied
equipments. We should mention here the direct liquid
content measurements (DLCM) applied on ISO to determine the residual cryostat lifetime during the mission
[81].
Cold lters/windows are required to shield the focal
plane from any unwanted radiation while transmitting
the desired portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Typical applications involve the rejection of any visible/
IR radiation for X-ray bolometers with the reduction of
the heat load applied to the focal plane. Also in this case
highly reliable elements with sharp spectral attenuation
are required.
Cryo-mechanisms (e.g. choppers, lter wheels, grating
devices) also play an important role onboard demanding
space science instruments and requiring a high level of
reliability throughout the envisaged mission lifetime [82].
Special paints, coatings are required to achieve either
very low or high emissivity on given surfaces: typical
applications involve special paints used to absorb any
IR radiation (i.e. high ) impinging in the proximity of
the focal plane to minimise stray-light reections [83].
Cryogenic cables and wiring with low electrical resistance, low thermal conductivity and low capacitance are
crucial for the development of cryogenic instrumentation
for Space applications. Such items are even more critical
when the focal plane is operating at temperatures below 1
K. Ribbon cables have demonstrated the capability to
provide in excess of 1000 lines (metal or superconductor)
with a total DC resistance below 20 X and a total load on
the lowest temperature stage lower than 20 lW at 0.3 K
[84,85]. The development of connectors with large number of pins would be necessary to co-achieve practicable
high density ribbon cryogenic cables.
4. Key technologies
4.1. Present situation and future needs
On the basis of the needs highlighted in the preceding sections, a number of critical technologies have
816
been identied. In this paragraph we briey describe

the main issues involved and the envisaged development needs.
Passive radiators (in the range between 100 and 40
K) play a major role on board scientic satellites,
reducing the requirements imposed on active cooling
systems. They need to guarantee high emissivity at
low temperature (see the role played by micro-cavities), while the related thermal isolation technology
requires improvements; design as well as testing tools
are required.
Active cooling systems (between 100 and 50 K) are
slowly moving from the pioneering phase of the technology demonstrators to a mature commercial phase.
Due to the lack of a large customer base, the existing
space qualied coolers are very expensive (order of
million EUR) and quite heavy; in addition they remain a
major source of vibrations and their eciency needs to
be improved.
Twenty K coolers also have an important role to play
as pre-cooling stages within more articulated and lower
base temperature cryogenic systems. The Stirling cyclebased coolers are not easily accommodated on board
spacecrafts, while JouleThompson coolers are less efcient but more exible, allowing the use of radiative
pre-cooling. Modularity and cooling power scalability
are also important qualities to be pursued. Cryo-sorption-based systems represent an attractive alternative to
be explored.
Two to four K coolers should provide larger cooling
power (>50 mW) in view of supporting lower temperature stages. Absence of (or low) vibration levels is
also required in applications involving very low temperature coolers, sensitive detectors and high accuracy
spacecraft pointing and/or positioning (e.g. astrophysical observatory).
VLT coolers (T < 1 K) are becoming more and more
important to space missions due to the utilisation of
very sensitive cryogenic detectors. A large eort is required to develop closed-loop, space qualied coolers
(such as ADR, DR, sorption coolers) providing subKelvin temperatures and oering reliable performance
and long lifetime.
Miniaturisation also represents an important trend,
since it should allow reducing heat losses, power consumption and sensitivity to vibrations. New activities
are aimed to verify the possibility to use micro-machining technologies to develop both active and solidstate miniature coolers.
Finally ancillary equipment and devices should not be
neglected. It is the case of high conductivity thermal
busses (e.g. heat pipes) and connections; low thermal
conductivity and orbital disconnect supports; heat
switches (important also to the VLT coolers); cryo-mechanics; temperature stabilisation devices and low temperature measurement techniques.
4.2. Economic return of cryogenics in space

Cryogenics can be used in space, albeit at a signicant
cost. Any potential application is bound to address the
issue of the economic return of cryogenic equipment as
opposed to conventional instrumentation. A good example is set by satellite communications, commercially
operated and for whom viable alternatives to cryogenic
equipment are available (as opposed to the case of space
science missions).
Economic considerations might favour the use of superconducting components if miniaturisation can result
in both mass and power consumption. Payload launch
costs can be as high as 50 000 EUR/kg, while the mass to
radiated power relation is about 0.2 kg/W. In order to
compensate for the larger development and manufacturing costs, compact space qualied coolers are required,
with low mass, the highest possible eciency and high
reliability. In addition, HTS devices operating above 77
Kare needed. Additional economic return can be generated by increased performance, such as increased transmission capacity in a given bandwidth. Due to increased
crowding in the allocated frequency bands, HTS devices
might become more attractive due to their superior performance in terms of sharp separation between adjacent
bands and related interference suppression [46].
4.3. Technology road-map
In Table 5 we have summarised the key areas to be
explored in the future to produce signicant advances in
the eld of cryogenics for space applications. The content of the table reects what is discussed in the previous
sections with the addition of consideration on the development timescale and on the temperature range involved by each specic technology. The timescale
considered is limited to the next 1020 years.
The European Space Agency, within its Technology
Research Programme, the General Support Technology
Programme and specic Projects, is active in most areas
indicated in the table. It is worth mentioning the potential advantages oered by an improved co-operation
between ESA and other institutions of the European
Union (e.g. in the eld of materials science such as advanced composites).
The small size of the market of cryogenics for space
applications (e.g. qualied mechanical coolers) has determined the high costs and has drastically reduced the
number of suppliers. In order to improve the situation it
is necessary to promote the maximum possible compatibility between space and ground products, thus
widening the potential market base. To this end, future
development activities should include the space qualication of cryogenic systems largely based on or derived
from commercial o the shelf (COTS) units, originally
developed for ground purposes.
817
Table 5
Technology road-map for cryogenics in space
Area
Critical technologies
Time (yr)
T (K)
Coolers
High eciency, low T passive radiators

Improved eciency, large size Dewars for space
Low vibration, high COP Stirling coolers
High COP, space qualied PTR
Space qualied compressors based on turbines
High COP, miniaturised active coolers.
>5
>5
>10
>10
>10
>15
<60
<4
<10
na
<10?
<50?
VLT
Optimisation of space qualied ADR

Development of closed-loop DR for space
Space qualication of sorption coolers
Solid-state coolers based on NIS devices
Orbital disconnect supports
Very low emissivity coatings
Improved V-groove shields
>5
>10
>2
>10
>5
>2
>2
<0.1
<0.1
<0.5
<0.3
<10
<50
<100
Ancillary equipment
Cryogenic heat pipes for Space

Cryogenic heat switches for Space
IR absorbing paints
Space thermometry/in-ight calibration
Pressure/level/ow meters
Cryo-mechanisms (e.g. lter wheels)
Cryo-optics, large area cooled mirrors
Cryogenic wiring for low amplitude signals
High heat capacitance devices.
Testing facilities (e.g. vibrating table at low T )
>5
>10
>10
>10
>5
>5
>5
>5
>2
>2
<10
<10
<10
<4
<4
<10
<50
<10
<10
<10
Materials
HTSs lms/wires
High temperature superconductor devices
Low temperature superconductor devices
Advanced composite materials for cryogenics
>5
>5
>5
>10
>80
>8
<10
3001
Thermal insulation
5. Conclusions
Cryogenics has made remarkable progress over the
last 15 years, moving from laboratory prototypes to
commercial applications in several elds. Such a progress, coupled with the advanced performance oered by
cryogenic and superconducting devices, has triggered a
virtuous cycle of ever-growing initiatives and new applications.
Reliability and simplicity of operations have opened
the possibility to use cryogenics in space, albeit at the
price of additional complexity and larger costs. Continuous improvements have resulted in longer lifetime
and reduced risks, with a number of design solutions,
from cryostat to mechanical cooler-based systems capable of covering a large range of base temperature requirements.
The utilisation of cryogenic devices onboard spacecrafts, such as photon detectors, has allowed unprecedented results, especially in the eld of space science.
Over the last 1015 years several missions have demonstrated that these devices outperform any competing
technology. HTSs have the potential to play a signicant
role in telecommunications, providing improved performance and higher eciency. In this eld, managed in
commercial terms, cryogenic equipment is faced with the
need to prove economically viable when compared to

more conventional systems. Such a condition implies the
capability to demonstrate high reliability, improved
power eciency and lower mass in addition to equivalent or improved performance with respect to alternative
technologies.
An emerging trend is the development of complete
cryogenic payloads, in which the use of cryogenic devices is extended to FEE (e.g. low noise ampliers and
input multiplexers) and back-end electronics (e.g. output
multiplexers and superconducting digital electronics), in
addition to the more traditional detectors and optics
applications. The development of cryogenic payloads
for space calls for a system approach, thus involving,
from the very beginning of the project, the complete
spacecraft design. Clear examples are set by several
space science observatories, which are built around their
cryogens tank, or by the crucial role played by the
spacecraft geometry and by mission control in the case
of passively cooled instruments.
Several technologies need to be improved to extend
the application of cryogenics in space, including active
mechanical coolers, thermal insulation techniques and
the miniaturisation of equipment, with the goal of reducing heat losses and the sensitivity to vibrations. The
development of high conductivity thermal busses and
818
connections (e.g. heat pipes), low conductivity or disconnect supports, heat switches, temperature stabilisation units and low temperature measurement techniques
is all necessary to improve further cryogenic payloads.
In the previous sections we have discussed the dominant space engineering trends and the guidelines along
which cryogenic technologies are expected to develop in
the next 10 years. The eort produced by the leading
space organisations shows without any doubt that
cryogenics is going to play a strategic role on board
future space missions.
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Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

Cryogenics in space: a review of the missions and of the technologies

Received 13 November 2000; accepted 12 February 2001

Corresponding author. Tel.: +31-71-5653638; fax: +31-715654690.

(Fig. 2). Among such missions we should mention

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

Fig. 1. Historical development of refrigeration techniques. The rapid

[6] and DARWIN, a mid-infrared (k 5 to 30 lm)

Considerable progress has been achieved in the area

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

2. Applications of cryogenics in space

A bolometer is a detector that works by recording the

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

Temperature range (K)

Dissipation range (W)

na: Not approved.

Bolometers have also been used to detect sub-mm

have operating temperatures ranging between 77 and

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

missions. In addition to the mapping of the intensity of

0.3 & 1.7

IRAS (NASA, NIVR,

FP: fundamental physics; MP: multipurpose mission (defence + science).

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

sNe 4 He (k) cryostat

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

Astro-E is a satellite for X-ray astronomy launched in

Planck is the third medium size mission (M3) in ESA's

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

photo-conductors) and 0.3 K (again PACS and SPIRE,

NGST project with a nancial participation of order

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

under study, consisting of a 25-m radio telescope in

NASA has own a number of cryogenic payloads on

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

on a liquid helium Dewar with a lifetime goal of about 5

superior Q-factors in the HTS lters allow for improved

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

ARTES-5 development programme, in order to identify

Aqua (formerly EOS PM) is the second mission of

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

Fig. 5. The instrument MIPAS before integration onboard the ESA

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

(fT)/Hz at frequencies of a few Hz (1 fT 10 11 G).

which are used to process signals coming from the earth

3. Cryogenics and spacecraft engineering

Fig. 6. Typical architecture of a cryogenic satellite for space science.

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

port cross-section required for the launch, and the

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

Fig. 9. Heat lift of radiators as a function of temperature and area.

often necessary to have multiple stage radiators, thus

addition, the bath equilibrium pressure is not 1 bar as on

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

IRAS, COBE, ISO, Herschel, SIRTF

dierent ranges. The most widely used are superuid or

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

tube refrigerators have been proposed as an interesting

the electronic spins of the atoms of paramagnetic salts.

B. Collaudin, N. Rando / Cryogenics 40 (2000) 797819

Multi-layer insulation (MLI) is commonly used on

stabilise the temperature of further stages or providing