3.

5 Cutting by hand chipping

3.5.1 Effect of the cutter
STRUCTURE AND CUTTING (CHIP FORMING)
EFFECT OF THE CUTTER

Cutting wedge

Cutting tace
Operating
{(cutting motion) I

Cut surface
Flank

A chip f o r m s as a result of t h e forward m o v e m e n t of t h e c u t

ter parallel to t h e surface of t h e w o r k p i e c e .
In this sort of work, it is important that worked surface is as smooth
as possible, the energy expenditure is minimal, the working time is
short, and the service life of tool is as long as possible. The angles at
the cutting tool are important in meeting these requirments.

3.161 chip-forming effect of the cutter

The wedge angle p is the angle between the cutting face and the
blank (surface below the cutting edge) of the tool. The smaller the
wedge angle is, the lower the expenditure of force (see resolution of
forces at the wedge). The wedge angle must, however, suit the
materia! being worked. A thin edge will break if the material being
worked is too hard.

The harder t h e material, t h e larger t h e w e d g e angle.

The clearance angle is the angle between the flank of the tool
and the surface being cut. Friction and heating depend upon this
angle. The angle should be so chosen that the tool can cut freely. Soft
materials require a larger clearance angle because they generate
more heat and friction.
The rake angle influences the chip formation. It is the angle between the cutting face and the plane of reference of the tool, an
imaginary surface perpendicular to the cut surface.

Operating direction
(Cutting motion)

Compression

Leading crack
and shearing

Pushing u p n
and breaking

Fig. 3 . 1 6 2 Chip f o r m a t i o n w i t h a small rake angle

Rake angle positive

/

Small rake angle(y = 0. . . 8). The material is first compressed

strongly in front of the chip surface. When the material is hard, a socalled leading crack forms in front of the cutter. The particles of the
material are then torn off and form a brittle tear chip. The maximum
cutting force acts shortly before the chip particles are torn off. As a
result of this changing cutting force, the cutting tool constantly
springs back and forth a little. Consequently, the worked surface is
not smooth.The harder the material and the thicker the chip is, the
rougher the cut surface will be.
Large rake angle. The material is compressed only slightly. The
chip does not break up but is c o n t i n u o u s Because the change of
load on the cutter is slight, the worked surface is smooth.

Fig. 3 . ^ 6 3 C u t t i n g effect of a p o s i t i o n rake a n g l e

EFFECTS OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE RAKE ANGLES

A positive rake angle exists when there is an open angle between the
chip surface and the perpendicular. The tool has a cutting effect. If
the angle is covered by the cutter, it is known as a negative rake
angle. The tool has a scraping effect The removal of material is
slower in scraping.

Rake angie negative

The clearance and wedge angles always have positive

values. The rake angle may have a negative value..
Clearance angle + w e d g e angle + rake a n g l e = 90 .
When y is positive: <x + p+y-90
W h e n y is negative: a + / ? - y = 9 0 *
Fig. 3.164 Scraping e f f e c t of a negative rake angle

122

3.5.2 Chiselling
CHISELLING TOOLS
In chiselling, t h e c u t t i n g edge of t h e t o o l is driven i n t o
material by i m p a c t .
Because it is a subclass of the group of production processes
involving chipping with geometrically precise cutters, chiselling is
also known as impact c h i p p i n g
The parts of.the chisel are known as: the head, the shank and the
cutting edge.
The chisel must be harder than the piece being worked. Most
chisels are made of alloyed tool steels.
Chisels are used for dividing and chipping. Values found to be
suitable in practice for the wedge angle of the chisel cutter are:
aluminium and soft Al-alloys p = 30... 40 ,p = 5 0 . . . 60; unhardened carbon steel, grey cast iron, cast steel p = 65... 70; alloyed
steels, chilled cast iron p = 7 5 . . . 85.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Flat chisel: commonest sort of chisel. For surfaces finishing,

cutting and deburring.
Drift p u n c h : to drive out webs between bore holes.
Hewing chisel: the cutting edge is curved. Used to carve out
curves and circles from sheet metal.
Cross head chisel: the cutting edge and the breadth of the
shank form a cross. Used to carve out grooves.
Groove chisel: to cut out lubricating grooves in bearing
shells.

THE HAMMER AS A STRIKING TOOL

This consists of a hammer-head (peen and hammer face) and
haft. The quality of the steel should be at least C 45. Hammers made
of lead, copper, rubber, plastic or wood are used to avoid
damaging workpieces.
The shaft should be of straight grained ash wood without knots;
and of hockory wood for sledge hammers.
The weight of the hammer must be suited to the workpiece, the
material being worked and the force used.

Cutting out grooves

The energy required is acquired by the hammer from its mass {m)
and the velocity (v) imported to it by the hand or the arm. Formula:
W kin =

A doubled mass yields twice the energy and a

doubled velocity four times the energy.

CHISELLING WORK
The type of chisel is chosen in accordance with the work to be done.
The chisel must be struck on the centre of the head, in the direction of
the axis of the chisel. The view is directed at the process of
cutting.
The workpiece must be clamped when chiselling. The correct
wedge angle must be maintained when grinding the chisel (measure
with an angle gauge). The tool must be cooled frequently when sharpening, so that it does not lose its temper. The ridges formed by
grinding must be removed by whetting against a whetstone. This
results in a better cutting edge.
Risk of accident
A bread, w h i c h is hard and brittle, is f o r m e d on t h e head of
the chisel as a result of c o l d h a r d e n i n g . It must be r e m o v e d
by grinding.
Flying chips can cause injury to you and your w o r k m a t e s .
Use protective g o g g l e s w h e n c h i s e l l i n g . Replace d a m a g e d
hammer hafts promptly. Observe d i r e c t i o n s regarding accident prevention-

Shearing off in the

vise

SIP
Surface working

Fig. 3.107 Different ways of w o r k i n g w i t h c h i s e l s

Wrong!
(break off)

Correct
Fig. 3.168 C h i s e l l i n g off edge
Chip from the end inwards when
nearing the end of the workpiece

123

3 . 5 . 3 Sawing
CHIP FORMATION IN SAWING
Several c u t t i n g w e d g e s w o r k successively in t h e saw.
Saws are used for cutting and scoring slits and grooves.
When the saw blade is driven horizontally, the chipping force F is
the diagonal of the force parallelogram built up of the downward
pressing force applied by the hand F d and the horizontal pulling or
pushing force (cutting force Fc).

Fig. 3 . 1 6 9 C h i p f o r m a t i o n by sawing

Relationship b e t w e e n t o o t h division a n d material

The teeth are small cutting wedges arranged one after the other. The
shape of the tooth and the size of the gap between the teeth depend
upon the material being sawed. The gaps between the teeth pick up
the chips and lead them out of the cutting seam. They must therefore
be longer when cutting soft materials. In hard materials, the cutting
effect of each tooth is smaller, but the number of teeth acting at the
same time is therefore made larger. The number of teeth also
depends upon the length of the cut. At least two teeth must rest upon
the workpiece at any given time. Thus, for instance, a fine tooth
division is required for cutting tubes.
One distinguishes between

Number of teeth

Coarse
Medium
Fine

18 t/25 mm
24 t/25 mm
32 t/25 mm

soft material
hard material
very hard material

Breast
Fig. 3 . 1 7 0 Angles o n t h e saw t o o t h
a clearance angle 38
p wedge angle 50
y = rake angle * 2

b = Thickness of
saw blade
Fig. 3 . 1 7 1 Free cutting by setting

Ways of ensuring that t h e saw c u t s freely

In chip forming, both the material and the saw heat up as a result of
friction. This can result in cold welding between the minute metal
particle on the saw blade and the cut surface. This would result in the
saw sticking in the cutting seam. In order to ensure that the saw cuts
freely, the cutting seam (kerf) must be wider than the saw blade. This
is achieved by "setting", corrugating or hollow grinding the blade
below the edge of the cutting teeth.

a = Kerft

b - Thickness of saw blade

Fig. 3 . 1 7 2 Free cutting by corrugation

In setting (basically to cut softer material), individual teeth, or

even pairs of teeth, are bent alternately to left and right in an
absolutely uniform pattern.
In corrugating, several teeth at a time (about six or seven) are
bent to the left followed by the same number being bent to the right.
Corrugation is particularly suitable for fine teeth.
Hollow g r i n d i n g is a means by which thicker saw blades acquire
broad cutters to ensure that they can cut freely.

HAND SAWS FOR METALS

These cut by being pushed, therefore, the teeth point away from the
grip and the saw blade is generally corrugated. The blade is
clamped with a butterfly nut to prevent chattering.
In order to ensure that the teeth of the saw do not break off, it must
be applied to the cutting edge at the smallest angle possible. The
edge must be sawed with the fine toothed division at the beginning
of the blade. The saw then bites in immediately and the cut edges are
sharp and clean. The saw blade should be pressed down only in the
cutting stroke.
124

Fig. 3 . 1 7 3 Handsaw f o r metals

SAWING MACHINES FOR METALS

Cutting direction

Crank disc
Cam

The power hacksaw is used for many purposes. The saw blade is
driven by a crank disc, a saw blade of up to 650 mm length being
driven at 30 to 150 up-and-down strokes per minute. The power
hacksaw works by drawing. The saw blade is lifted up by an eccentric
cam on its return stroke.
The circular saw is used to cut thick or broad workpieces. It uses
segmental saw blades or solid steel saw blades.

Fig. 3 . 1 7 4 Power hacksaw

!
Solid steel saw blades are used to cut thin-walled steel pipes
and non-ferrous metals. The saw blade is set or hollow ground.
A segmental saw blade consists of a blade stem of tool steel
and tooth segments of super-speed steel. Such blades are used to
cut steel and casting materials. A narrow chip is first generated .by
the leader tooth. The follower tooth, which determines the width of
cut, then produces two more chips, one on the left and one on the
right.

i J ~ r ~ ^ - c r i
i

Fig. 3 . 1 7 5 Solid steal saw blade

(hollow ground)

The tooth division must match the length of cut and the material,
because the saw chip remains in the tooth gap for the entire cutting
length.
Important rule: fine tooth division for short cuts and hard
materials, coarser tooth divisions for long cuts and soft materials.
The feed can generally be regulated continuously. In larger saws,
the feed automatically adjusts to the cutting force used. A boring
emulsion (a mixture of oil and water) is generally used as a cooling
lubricant.
In the bandsaw m a c h i n e , an endless saw blade runs over
two rollers (generally driven from beneath). The thin saw blade
also permits curving cuts.
The c u t t i n g m a c h i n e (quick-cutting saw machine) has a
steel blade, with fine tooth-like recesses on the circumference,
which rotates at a high r.p.m. (circumferential velocity up to
80 m/s). The cutting disc exerts great force against the
workpiece being cut. The frictional heat thus generated heats
the material at the cutting point to such an extent, that it melts
and is flung out of the cutting groove.

Effective
force

f t o o t h division
I - length of cut

3 . 1 7 8 Circular saw machine

Accident prevention
The risk of a c c i d e n t s w i t h s a w i n g m a c h i n e s is very
great. Bandsaw blades must be e n c l o s e d a n d circular
saw blades must be covered. Injuries o f t e n o c c u r
w h e n sawing t h r o u g h a w o r k p i e c e . Blades w h i c h have
been c l a m p e d t o o t i g h t l y may break. E x a m i n e t h e saw
blade for cracks. C l a m p small w o r k p i e c e s for s a w i n g ,
or g u i d e t h e m w i t h a piece of w o o d . Do not raise t h e
c u t t i n g f o r c e more t h a n is necessary.

Variable feed

Fig. 3 . 1 7 g Feed motion In the circular saw

125

3.5.4 Filing
STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF FILES

File grip (wood)

Pre-drill, but do
not burn out

Files are t o o t h e d c h i p - f o r m i n g t o o l s .
Metal ring (ferrule)
Prevents the grip
from splitting

Files are forged from suitable pieces of raw steel and

annealed. Subsequently, they are ground and straightened.
When the upcut and overcut of a file have been cut or milled, it
is hardened and the tang tempered.

Tang
Tempered after finishing
the file; serves to attach
- the file to the grip

File body
Size, cut and
cross-section vary

Cut and m i l l e d files

When using a file, several cutting wedges always act at the
same time. The resistance of the material to cutting must be
overcome by the motive power of the hand. This is why only
small chips can be removed from hard materials and larger
ones from soft materials. Factory files for hard materials
therefore have teeth with negative rake angles. These files are
cut with file-cutting chisels, and they have scraping effect.

Fig. 3 . 1 8 0 Hand file

Milled files, generally used for softer materials, have a rake

angle of 0. These have a cutting effect and remove material
faster, the larger, rounded chip spaces facilitating chip
removal. Milled files are classified in tooth divisions 1 to 3, per
DIN 8349. Files of class 1 have 3.5 teeth per cm of the file
length and are used for quick removal of material, those of
class 2 have 4.7 teeth/cm and class 3 7.1 teeth/cm; these are
used for gradual removal of material.

Direction of cut

Material
pushed up
File-cutting
chisel
Fig. 3.181 Cut files
with negative rake angle and scraping
effect

Cuts of files

Cutting lace

Direction of cut

Single cut files are used for working soft materials such as
lead, aluminium, zinc, tin and copper, chips do not clog these
so easily.
If the single cuts are oblique and straight, the chips are
removed to one side; if they are curved, chips are removed to
both sides. Breaks in the cutting wedges (chip-breaking
grooves) break the chips, facilitating their removal.
Rasps have separate conical teeth and 7 to 28 notches per
cm2 of cut surface, depending upon the length and the cut
number. These are used for working wood, leather and hard
board (illustrations, see p. 127). Cross-cut files are used to
work with harder materials, such as steel, castings and nonferrous alloys. These files have an overcut (first ctaurse) and an
upcut (second course), cut at different angles and with
different spacings. Because the two courses intersect, offset
cutting wedges are produced, with negative rake angles. Each
individual tooth cuts grooves in the material. Because they are
staggered with respect to each other, however, marked groove
formation does not result. The overcut is generally coarser
than the upcut. The type and angle of the cut are determined by
the use of which the file will be put.

126

Milled teeth
Fig. 3 . 1 8 2 Overcut of the file teeth

Cutting wedge

Upcut

Upcut
Cutting
wedge

"-Overcut
Overcut 70

Upcut 51

Fig. 3 . 1 8 3 Crosscut file

Cut c o u n t a n d cut n u m b e r o f c r o s s c u t f i l e s
The number of cuts (notches) per cm of file length in the
direction of the axis is known as the c u t c o u n t . Norms cover
files with cut counts between 6 and 34, with reference to the
upcut in crosscut files. The higher the cut'count, the smaller
the cut spacing (distance between two notches) will be. A cut
file of any particular length will be available in four different cut
counts, designated by cut numbers 1 to 4.

Magni tying
glass

length 250
Cut number 1
Cut count 8

Example: File length (excluding tang) 250 mm

Cut number:

12

Cut count:

13

17

21

13 notches

8 notches

Cut number 2
Cut count 13

Fig. 3 . 1 8 4 Cut c o u n t and cut n u m b e r

Flat blunt

Flat

Triangular

Classification and nomenclature

One distinguishes between factory files, warding files and sharpening
files. The shapes of cross-sections are designated by alphabets from A
to H Codes indicate which side of the file has been cut. Characterisation for a factory file shape A, of 200 mm length and cut
number 3:
Factory file DIN 7 2 6 1 A 2 0 0 - 3
S p e c i a l f i l e s include circular files and rotating shank files
(also known as milling files or rotary files). When using the
circular life, the workpiece is pressed against the rotating disc.
Shank files are driven by an electric motor directly or over a
flexible crank. They are used to finish shapes and lubricating
grooves. In choosing the correct life, the following rule is
maintained: Hard materialfine tooth spacing and low r.p.m.
Soft materialcoarse tooth division and higher r.p.m.

Half-round

Round

Knife-edge
factory file

Square

/H /
Taper square
(,ie

Fig. 3 . 1 8 5 Cross-sectional shapes of files

Flat tactory file

Bom broad sides
crosscut, narrow
sides single cut

B
Knite-edge
tactory file

Both broad
sides crosscut,
back uncut

Fig. 3 . 1 8 6 N o m e n c l a t u r e and d e s c r i p t i o n of files

Crosscut

Single-cut

W O R K I N G W I T H FILES
C h o i c e of file

<i>

> <3> <$

*J>
<3> -O

The speed of work and surface finish depend upon the correct
choice of file for the work at hand.

Cut with
chip breakers

Rasp-cut'

Fig. 3.187 Files of different c u t s s n

Files with low cut counts remove more material and thus
reduce the working time, but produce marked filing grooves. If
a certain surface quality is necessary to make the finished
piece fit for use, this will be indicated in the technical drawings
by symbols. As per DIN ISO 1302, the mean roughness
is
specified in /xm (1 /nm = 0.001 mm) or by the relevant standard
roughness number N.
Peak-to-valley height is the distance between the highest
and lowest point of the surface profile (actual profile). The
mean roughness is the average duration of the actual profile
from a calculated middle profile.

File teeth
Fig. 3 . 1 8 8 Shank files

127

Example: Surface quality^ means and surface generated by chipping,

whose mean roughness is Ra ^ 6.3 fim.
Attainable mean roughness by filing is between Ra - 12.5 fim and
fla- 0.2 /imcorresponding roughness grade numbers N 10 to N 4.
The main types of filing operations are: overfiling, rough filing, smooth
filing and fine finishing (dead smooth filing).

laeai surface

Workpieces
profile

Unevenesses on hard castings are o v e r f i l e d . Used files

are often employed for this purpose.

Middle
profile

if the amount of material to be removed is more than

0.5 mm, the wQrkpiece is r o u g h f i l e d . Rough files have cut
counts between 6 and 10. The grooves caused by filing can be
felt and are visible to the naked eye. Surface designations 1
orN^.

profile

Base

If less than 0.2 mm of material has to be removed, the

workpiece is f i n e f i n i s h e d . Dead-smooth files with cut counts
between 40 and 70 are used for this purpose, Dead-smooth
files are no longer governed fey norms. The filing grooves are
no longer visible to the naked eye. Surface q u a l i t y ^ o r ^ .

roughness in /*m
Fig. 3 . 1 8 9 Diagrammatic representation of mean roughness

Mean roughness
R a in
Roughness
number

0,2 0,4 0,8

1,6 3,2 6,3 12,5

N4 N5 N6

N7 N8 N9 N10
Ronghed
Smoth filed

| .

F i n e finished

Fig. 3 . 1 9 0 Mean roughness and roughness number

Handling files
Files with low cut counts are cleaned with file brushes to
remove material stuck between the teeth, and files with higher
tooth counts are cleaned with file cards (CuZn 5 8 , 1 0 0 X 20 X
2, sheet). The tendency to clogging is reduced by rubbing the
file with chalk.

Protective jaws

Clamp rails

Filing block

Rules f o r w o r k
Use s u i t a b l e p r o t e c t i v e j a w s t o p r o t e c t t h e w o r k p i e c e .
Do not t o u c h t h e surface to be filed, because this
p r e v e n t s t h e f i l e f r o m b i t i n g i n p r o p e r l y . Grease f i l e
s u r f a c e s very l i g h t l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f i l e
stroke.
Better c o n t r o l c a n b e e x e r c i s e d over t h e r e m o v a l o f
m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e s u r f a c e i f t h e f i l e i s m o v e d crossw i s e a n d t h e m a t e r i a l r e m o v e d layer b y layer.

Chamfer

Pin visei

Vise clamps

Fig. 3.191 C l a m p i n g the w o r k p i e c e before f i l i n g

Accident prevention
CLAMPING WORKPIECES
Clamp all workpieces as close as possible to the centres of the
jaws of the vise. The finished surfaces are protected by jaw
liners of soft materials.
Long plates can be fixed in the vise with the help of clamp
rails. Pins can be filed on wooden filing blocks if they have
been clamped in a pin vise. If the edges of a workpiece have to
be chamfered, vise clamps are used to hold it in place.

128

Never w o r k w i t h a f i l e w h i c h d o e s n o t have a g r i p .
If t h e life m e e t s a n y resistance, t h e t a n g c a n
easily c u t i n t o t h e b a s e o f t h e p a l m . T h e file c a n
cause injuries to the foot in falling, if it does not
have a g r i p .
Ensure t h a t t h e g r i p is f i r m i y s e a t e d , t h a t it is of
t h e r i g h t d i m e n s i o n s a n d t h a t i t i s n o t split.
Ensure t h a t t h e l i g h t i n g i s c o r r e c t a n d
sufficient.

3.5.5 Scraping
SCRAPING AND INKING
Scraping and i n k i n g are p r o d u c t i o n processes for microfinishing w o r k p i e c e s manually, in order to improve t h e
surface quality and d i m e n s i o n a l accuracy.
Scraping and inking represent the final stage of many production
processes. Grooves always remain on a surface which has been
filed, planed or milled. When grooved workpiece surfaces slide
against each other, the friction between them is high. This causes the
surfaces to wear rapidly.
Groove peaks are removed by scraping. The carrying surface can
be increased to up to 80% in this way. Scraped surface can be sealed
perfectly.

Preworked surface with grooves

a *- clearance angle (30J
40")
P " wedge angle (85
100*)
P ~ r a k e a n 9 l e (negative)

Specification
in the drawing

Fig. 3 . 1 9 2 Angles on t h e flat scraper

Flat scraper

"

5
Scrapers are c h i p p i n g tools

Triangular solid scraper

The scraper removes extremely fine chips. In order to accomplish

this, the tool is inclined against the workpiece when shaving. This
results in a negative rake angle.
Scrapers governed by DIN 8350 norms are: the flat scraper
(shape A), used to scrape flat workpiece surfaces, the traingular solid
scraper (shape B) and the trian gular hollow scraper (shape C), for
dished surfaces. Other scrapers are the spoon scraper, used for dished surfaces, and the drawing scraper used for rescraping.

< 4 ' <

H p z r ~

Trlangular hollow scraper

Fig. 3 . 1 9 3 Shapes of scrapers

In rough s c a p i n g a flat surface, the prepared workpiece surface is

scraped with iong strokes and increasing force obliquely to the
direction of the grooves, so that the tool does not catch. The direction
of scraping is changed by 90 every time the entire surface has been
worked once, so that the surface does not become wavy.
The evenness of the scraped surface is tested by i n k i n g . A very
thin layer of India ink (Berlin blue) is spread on the surface plate with
a piece of leather, and the workpiece is rubbed back and forth
against it, without applying any force, and constantly changing
the direction.
\

A contact reflection appears on the workpiece surface, in which

the deeper points (cavities), not touched by the ink, remain blank (lustrous), the protruding points become bright blue and the intermediate zones blue from the ink deposited oh them.

Direction ol scrapi
Previously filed, planed or milled
Fig 3 . 1 9 4 Movement of the scraper

The protruding (bright blue) points are removed by f i n i s h i n g ,

with short, light, curving strokes of the scraper (point scraping). A
good bearing surface fortwo workpieces.sliding upon each other, is
achieved when five to ten points (bearing points) are visible and
uniformly distributed per cm 2 of the workpiece surface after
finishing.
In larger workpieces, a surface scale is drawn across the
workpiece.
Workpieces are not i n k e d before r o u g h scraping.
Always scrape with a sharpened t o o l .
Lift the scrape f r o m the w o r k p i e c e w h e n b r i n g i n g it back.
The w o r k p i e c e surface must be r o u g h scraped before
point scraping.
Use the surface plate only for t o u c h i n g .
Apply the ink in a very t h i n layer.
Clean the surfaces plate after use w i t h a clean c l o t h ; o i l ,
grease and cover.

Bearing points

Bearing points Cavdies Intermediate

zones

O ,
Workpiece

0>

Q -

1 ( ^ 0

Fig. 3.196 Inked surface of a w o r k p i e c e

129

3.5.6 Reaming
REAMING PROCESS
Cylindrical or c o n i c a l drill-holes are to improve their
inner surface quality and t h e accuracy of t h e i r shape
and size.

Drill-holes of great accuracy and high surface quality can be

produced with the help of reamers. Cylindrical and conical
pins can then be seated exactly and screws or bolts fitted
easily, with very little play.
The rake angle of the cutting wedge is nearly 0, which
results in a scraping effect. Because the process of chipping
is distributed over several cutting edges (6 to 14), each edge
produces only the minutest chips.The hole is drilled undersize
so that there is an allowance for fixed reamers and not more
than 0.1 mm for for adjustable reamers.
The chips produced break off, and slight furrows may be
produced on the wall atlhe breaking points. It the reamer were
to have an equal tooth spacing, these chips would always
break off at the same point. The teeth would catch in the
furrows, giving rise to "chatter marks." Chatter marks impair
the surface quality. Reamers therefore have even numbers of
teeth but unequal tooth divisions.

Rake an<je <0.5 l

Clearance angle
Fig. 3.197 Scraping effect of the reamer

DTI00
Left fixed, straight-fluted, righ!fluted. r ight-hand center: spiralfluted reamer with clockwise or
anti-clock wise fluting, angle of
twist *
25% Right
conical
reamer, finishing reamer with
taper 1:50

_Anti-ciock|
wise spiral 1

^Clockwise |
spiral

Fig. 3 . 1 9 8 Fixed reamersbahlen

REAMERS
In sprial-fluted reamers, the cutting force resolves into a vertical and a horizontal component. If the spiral is clockwise, the
vertical component exerts a "corkscrew effect", pulling the
reamer into the drill-hole. If the spiral is anticlockwise, then the
direction of the fluting as oppositie to the direction of rotation
of the reamer. These reamers are therefor not drawn into the
hole by a corks crew effect.
' Fixed reamers are made up from a single piece (tool steel
or high-speed steel). Hand reamers have a square crosssection at the end of the cylindrical shaft, to fix the tap
wrench.
Adjustable reamers are reset after sharpening. The slotted cutter body can be expanded by a conical pin to within 1 /
100 mm of the rated diameter. In other reamers, the cutters
inserted in slanting slots can be set at any intermediate value
within a given diameter rangesay between 60 and 65
mm.
Uses: Straight fluted reamers are used for through holes
and blind holes whose depth is upto 1 X d ( d = diameter of the
bore hole). Sprial-fluted reamers are used for holes of greater
depth. Reamers with clockwise fluting are used only for deep
blind holes.

130

Fig. 3 . 1 9 9 T o o t h c o u n t a n d t o o t h d i v i s i o n
in reamers
Reamers have even numbers of teeth and
unequal tooth divisions to avoid chatler
marks.

Fig. 3 . 2 0 0 A d j u s t a b l e hand reamers

The cutters are fixeo wiin shims or in slits with nuts
The cutters are movable in slanting slots

3.5.7 Threading
STRUCTURE O F T H E T H R E A D
Thread In comparison with an Inclined plane
The basic feature of every thread is notch cut in the form of an
inclined plane around a cylinder.
Experiment: The screw line of a thread can be obtained by rolling a
screw bolt or a sheet of paper with a carbon paper under it. A complete
revolution yields an inclined plane, whose slope is then equal to the
lead of the thread.

M a i n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of a t h r e a d

Fig. 3.201 Thread a n d Incllnad plana

Example of a metric ISO-thread as per DIN 13, designation

M 12:
Major diameter d - D - 12 mm, pitch P - 1.75 mm,
thread-pitch diameter d 2 - D 2 " 10.86 mm, minor diameter
d 3 - 9.8 mm, D, = 10.1 mm, depth of thread h 3 - 1.07 mm.
depth of thread H 0.95 mm, root rounding ft-0.25 mm,
included angle of thread 60.

Q : C5

D i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n (thread direction)
Right-hand thread (screwing in clockwise direction) and lefthand thread are distinguished in terms of their thread direction. Left-hand threads are designated by the alphabets "LH"
after their norm designation, i.g., M 20 LH. Left-hand threads
are required where right-hand threads would come loose, e.g.,
in bicycle pedals or on spindles for longitudinal movement
with a particular direction of rotation (turnbuckle).

Single threads and multiple threads

A multiple thread is a thread with more than one start, i.e., it
has the same form produced with two or more helical grooves,
such as a double, triple or quadruple thread (see Fig. 3.204). In
a single thread, the l e a d (the distance the thread moves along
its axis, with respect to a mating part, in one complete revolution) is equal to the pitch (the distance from a point on one
screw thread to a corresponding point on the adjacent thread,
measured parallel to the thread axis). In a multiple screw
thread, the lead is as many times greater than the pitch as the
number of thread starts. Thus the lead of a d o u b l e thread is
twice that of a single thread of the same pitch, so that a greater
axial movement is produced with less rotation (screw presses,
worm gears). Example for a designation: Tr 48 X P8.

Fig. 3 . 2 0 2 Main m e a s u r e m e n t s of a thread, metric ISO-thread'

Right-hand thread

Left hand thread

Fig. 3.203 Direction of. rotation of threeds

Fig. 3.204 Single thread and m u l t i p l e thread triple thread)

E3

Uses
F a s t e n i n g s c r e w t h r e a d s with selMocking characteristics,
which do not unscrew without external force, are used in joining with screws. T r a n s m i s s i o n s c r e w s are used to convertrotary movement into rectilinear movement. They do not perform the function of joining surfaces together. Work tables and
carriages are moved by spindles with transmission threads.

Nul-"

Bearing

Hand wheel"

Fig. 3.205 Fastening

screw threads

Fig. 3 . 2 0 6 Transmission thread

131

THREAD PROFILES

Metric ISO-thread DIN 13

These are vee-threads with included angles of 60. There are
two types m e d i u m screws and f i n e screws. The fine screw
has a smaller pitch. It can therefore be screwed tighter and
offers greater security against working loose. Because of its
lower thread depth, it needs less place and the core crosssection is therefore weakened less. It is well suited for screw
couplings on shouldered rods, hollow rods, and thin-walled
pipes.
Normal threads are designated by the alphabet M and the
nominal major diameter, e.g., M 10. The pitch is specified as
well in fine threads, e.g., M 10 X 1.5.

Fig. 3.207 Metric

ISO thread
Nominal diameter range
1 to 300 m
Designation, e.g.: M 10

Bolt
i i

Fig. 3.208 Metric ISO

flna thraad nde
Nominal diameter range
1 to 1000 m
Designation, e.g.. M 10 x 1

X / / /
'Nut

55

/ /

/ z
/A

Fig. 3.200 Whltworthde

thraad
Nominal diameter range
1/4" to 6";
Designation, e.g.: 1 Vi"

W h l t w o r t h thread
These have profile angles of 55; they are constructed according to the British measuring system (inches) and used for
spare parts and repairs. W h l t w o r t h pipe threads play an
important role in constructing pipe-lines.
A distinction is made between cylindrical internal (female)
threads and cylindrical (DIN ISO 228) or tapered (DIN 2999)
external (male) threads. The cone taper is 1:16. Nowadays, it is
threads as per DIN 2999 which are used almost exclusively in
pipe-lines because a metallic seal is achieved with them.
Pipes are designated by nominal bores (DN), characteristic
values which are used as symbols of matching parts in
pipeline systems. They have no unit, and correspond approximately to the clear diameters of the pipe-line parts in mm.
These nominal bores correspond to the Whitworth pipe
threads which are characterised by the symbol "R" when they
are tapered and "G" when they are cylindrical. In addition, the
inch measurement corresponding to the DN is also specified,
without however using the term inch, e.g., R 1/2, R 1, G 1/2,
G 1.
A c m e t h r e a d DIN 103. The root of the threadis broader
because of the trapezoidal form, and the thread can tolerate
high axial load in both directions. Uses: vise spindles,
transmission spindles in carriages for machine tools.
Buttress t h r e a d DIN 513. The load-bearing flank is nearly
perpendicular to the thread axis. The thread can therefore bear
greater loads on one side. The thread can be ground on the
flanks. Uses: screw presses, spindles on lifting jacks and on
tensile testing machines.
K n u c k l e t h r e a d DIN 405. The sounded profile protects
the thread from dirt and damage. Uses: clutch and brake spindles in railway wagons, spindles for large valves and gates.

132

Fig. 3.210 Pipe thread

for joints (cylindrical)
not sealed in the thraad.
DIN ISO 228.
Designation, e.g.: G 1

*
< ]

*
1 16

Fig. 3.211 Whltworth

pipe thraad, tapered
DIN 2999
Nominal size of thread
1/16 to 6
Designation e.g.: R 1

Fig. 3.212 Acme thraad

Nominal diameter range
8 to 300 mm
Designation, e.g.: Tr 40 X 7

i
i
i
i

V?

Bolt

Fig. 3.213 Buttress thraad

Nominal diameter range
22 to 300 mm
Designation, e.g.: S 48 x 8
Bolt

Fig. 3.214 Knuckle

thread
Nominal diameter range
8 to 200 mm
Designation e.g.: Rd 40 X 1/6

~K

Bolt

C U T T I N G I N T E R N A L T H R E A D S (TAPPING)
A set of h a n d t a p s (taper tap, plug tap, bottoming tap with different
thread profiles and starting taper lengths) is used to cut internal
threads in blind holes or open (through) holes (depth 1,5i times the
thread diameter).
The quantity of material to be chipped away is thus distributed
over 3 taps, which results in a clean thread and saves the individual
tool from being overworked. In order to save time and tool costs,
h a n d n u t t a p s (long lead taper) and s i n g l e c u t h a n d t a p s are used
for threaded through holes (depth less than 1.5 times the thread
diameter). Because the starting taper of a single cut hand tap is
spiral-fluted, better chip removal becomes possible, so that a shorter
starting taper suffices.
The diameter of the core hold must always be larger than the
minor diameter of the thread. A rule of thumb which applies here is:
Diameter of the thread core h o l e = major diameter of the thread
minus the pitch. The drill diameters to be chosen for thread core
holes are specified in DIN 336 norms.

Square
crossLead
angle

Taper tap
Bottom tap

Bottom tap
I P l u g tap
Proportion of
chipping

Taper tap
Fig. 3.21 5 Set of hand taps

Explanation: Material particles are pushed into the thread by the

cutting edges of the tap if the thread core hole is too small, the cutting
tool has to remove this material as well. This gives rise to the risk of
the tap lodging and breaking.
To ensure that the tap cuts well, the core hole is drilled from both
sides at 90 . Lubricants facilitate clean cutting of the thread flanks
and prevent the course of the thread from breaking. Cutting oils are
used for steel and copper alloys, and kerosine for aluminium alloys.
Cast iron is cut dry.

a - starting taper
(2}Piug tap

Starling taper

Fig. 3 . 2 1 6 Hand nut tap

Spiral fluting
Shori lead
'taper

Fig. 3.217 Single cut hand tap

/ / / /

Workpiece *

W / / / / / / / / A

Material
pushed up

C U T T I N G EXTERNAL T H R E A D S I THREADING)
Fig. 3 . 2 1 8 Material forced up

Bolt threads are cut with threading dies.

The bolt diameter should be smaller than the major diameter by
1 /5 of the thread pitch. The pressure generated by clamping friction
during cutting pushes up the material particles to the crest of the
thread. This results in an expanded thread diameter.
Example:
Die

Rules of use: Clamp the die firmly in the diestock, chamfer the end
of the bolt by about 45, place the threading die at right angles to the
axis of the bolt, and cut without using too much force.

Diestock

Fig 3 . 2 1 9 T h r e a d i n g die and stock

Metric ISO thread M 12. Maior diameter cf - 12 mm, pitch P - 1.75 mm

Bolt diameter:
d) = d Pt5 = 1 2 0.35 mm = 11.65 mm.
Die heads have radial or tangential (chaser) cutters, which can
be resharpened in the workshop. Simple diestocks have quickchange heads with fixed cutters. Threads can be cut even on short
pipe ends with these tools. Screw stocks have fine and coarse settings, so that the exact thread can be produced in several stages. The
bolt dies must be changed if the number of threads, i.e., the lead,
changes.

With chasers
Fig. Die heads

133

Exercises
Cutting by dividing
Wedge at cutting topi
1.
2.
3.
4.

Distinguish between dividing and chipping.

Name the angles and surfaces at the cutting wedge.
Describe the cutting effect of the wedge.
A force of F = 20 N acts perpendicularly on a wedge. Calculate the
flank forces for the wedge angles
30 and P * 60.
5. Specify the general relationship between wedge angle, force
applied and type of material.
Shear cutting
6. Describe the process of shearing.
7. Distinguish between the shearing and tensile strengths of a
material.
8. Why should the play between the blades of the shears not be
too great?
9. Under what circumstances does a drawing cut .result with
shears?
10. Why are shear blades pre-tensloned and why is there a clearance
angle between them?
11. Why does less force have to be applied when the workpiece (s
thrust further into the w see between the blades of the shears.
12. Why does the workple- iide out from between the blades of the
shears if the opening angle is too large?
13. What are the important rules to be observed in preventing injury
and in preventing damage to the tool and the workpiece when
working with shears?
14. Explain why very brittle materials should not be cut with shears.
15. Explain the function of the clamping device in lever shears.
16. Explain why the lever arms of shears should never by lengthened
by insertion into a pipe.

Sawing
33. Compare the cutting effects of chisels and saws.
34. Explain the choice of saws for cutting soft, hard and very hard
materials.
35. How wide should the kerf be when using a saw?
36. What are the forces which act during the working stroke and the
return stroke of a saw?
37. Why is the sawing machine more economical than the handsaw?
38. What are the inappropriate techniques of working which can cause
saw teeth to break off?
39. What are the sources of accident risk when using a sawing
machine?
Filing
40. Distinguish between the cutting effects of cut files and milted
files.
41. Distinguish between the terms cut count, cut number and tooth
'spacing.
42. Distinguish between the specifications 3 2 and 0 , 8 and specify the
types of filing work which correspond to them.
43. For which materials are files with a) curved cuts, b) oblique single
cuts, c) chip-breaking grooves suited?
44. Name six types of Was In terms of their cross-sections and
shapes.
45. Why are the upcut and the overcut at different angles to the file axis
in cross-cut flies?
46. Imperimlssible grooves still remain after smooth filing. How could
they have been avoided?
47. Give examples of uses for vise clamps, pin vises and clamp rails,
when filing workplaces.

Form cutting

Scraping

17.
18.
19.
20.

48.
49.
50.
51.

Distinguish between cutting and punching.

Describe the structure of a cutting machine.
How does a progressive die-cutting tool work?
What are the fucntions of the locator pin and the stop pin in a progressive die-cutting machine?
21. Describe a cutting tool with column guidance.
22. Describe the stages of operation of a combination cutting tool.

52.
53.

Cutting by hand chipping

Effect of the cutting wedge
23. How are the following terms related: rake angle, clearance angle,
wedge angle?
24. What is the relationship between rake angle, tear chip, flow chip,
type of material and quality of the cut surface?
25. Compare the chipping etfects of a positive and a negative rake
angle.
Chisels
26. Specify the correct type of chisel for the following jobs: deburring,
cutting out pieces from sheet metal, chiselling out grooves, cutting
sheets.
27. Draw the chisel as a chipping instrument.
28. Define the relationship between depth of cut and rake angle.
29. What is the* correct way of chiselling the edge of a workpiece.
30. Compare the favourable wedge angle for working a) cast steel, b)
copper.
31. What is the purpose of whetting a chisel?
*32. What are the sorts of accidents which can occur while chiselling,
due to: 9) faulty tools, b) wrong methods.of work.

134

54.
55.

Compare the cutting wedge of a scraper with that of a cut file.

What sort of surface changes can be achieved by scraping?
How are protruding points on a surface made visible?
Why must the direction of stroke be changed continuously while
scraping?
Describe the stages by which an evenly scraped surface is
obtained?
How does one ensure that a scraped surface is of the required
quality?
When a scraper is sharpened, a wedge angle below 90 is
obtained. What consequences can this have?
What are the precautions to be maintained in protecting surface
plates?

Reaming
56.
57.
58.
59.

What is the purpose of reaming?

Describe the chipping process involved in reaming.
Distinguish between different types of reamers.
Why do reamers have unequal tooth divisions?

Threading
60. Why must the bolt diameter be different from the major diameter
when cutting external threads?
61. What is the effect of a corehole diameter, which is too large or too
small, on the quality of the thread?
62. Draw up a plan of work for tapping an internal thread M 10.
63. Describe the use of a set of hand taps.
64. Compare the hand taps used for steel and for light metals.
65. The following materials have to be threaded: steel, cast iron,
aluminium alloy. What are the processes of lubrication involved?

3.6 Cutting by chipping with machines

in-feed motion

3.6.1 Chipping processes

Tooi

CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINES
Machines facilitate human work and increase the economy
of production.
Motors transform other forms of energy, e.g., electricl or thermal
energy, into mechanical energy. One distinguishes between heat
motors, hydraulic motors and electric motors.

Feed motion
Fig. 3.221 Planing and s l o t t i n g

Working machines are driven by motors and are used in production processes. Some working machines are used in the
transport of raw materials and workpieces. Working machines are
classified into:
1. General purpose working machines
Cranes, excavators, pumps, textile machines,
machines, packaging machines.
2 Machine tools for primary forming
Moulding machines, casting machines.
3 Machine tools for reforming
Forging hammers, presses, rollers.

Cutting motion

agricultural
in-feed
motion

h"ee:l
motion
lathe tool
Fig. 3 . 2 2 2 T u r n i n g

4 Machine tools for cutting

Punches, shears, lathes, borers, planers, shapers and slotters, milling machines, grinders, sawing machines, broaching machines, spark erosion machines.

Feed
motion

Tool:
Twist drill

5 Machine tools for joining

Welding machines, riveting machines.
6 Machine tools for changing the properties of materials
Hardening machines.
CHIPPING PROCESS IN MACHINE TOOLS
The chipping process Is determined by the nature of the tool
and the working motion.
The common mechanical production processes are planing, slotting and shaping, turning, drilling, milling and grinding. Workpieces
are shaped by machine tools with the help of cutters.
The workpiece and the cutter are moved against each other in different ways, so as to give rise to chip cutting. As per DIN 6580, one
distinguishes between the cutting motion, the feed motion, the tool
approach motion and the in-feed motion.
The cutting motion causes chip to be removed while the
workpiece and/ortool reciprocates rotates once. In planing and slotting, the workpiece and the tool undergo rectilinear motion. Chipping takes place with a rectilinear cutting motion. The cutting motion
is circular in turning, drilling, milling and grinding.
Chipping takes place over several revolutions or several strokes
a$ a result of the feed motion. This takes place continuously when
the cutting motion is circular (turning, drilling, milling) and stepwise
when the cutting motion is rectilinear (planing, sloting).
The tool approach motion brings the tool and the workpiece
into the working position, i.e., into contact before the chipping
process.
The in feed motion determines the depth of penetration of the tool
by pressing the tool and the workpiece together.
Effective motion. In turning, drilling milling and grinding, the
cutting motion and the feed motion are simultaneous. This results in
a combined Resultant) motion, which is known as the effective or
working motion.

Fig. 3.223 Drilling

Tool:
milling
cutter

Cutting motion

Workpiece

in-ieed
motion

Feed motion

Fig. 3.224 M i l l i n g

Tool: grinding wheel

Cutting motion J
in-feed motion
Longitudinal
feed motion
Workpiece

Fig. 3.225 G r i n d i n g

< r = ^

^=C>

Rotary teed
motion

STRUCTURE A N D W O R K I N G M O T I O N S OF
M A C H I N E TOOLS

All c h i p p i n g m a c h i n e t o o l s m u s t
1. hold the workpiece,
2. hold the tool, and
3 . carry o u t t h e w o r k i n g m o t i o n .

All the components which hold and move the workpiece and
the tool are mounted on the frame (bed, stand) of the machine.
Depending upon the method of work of the machine, the
workpiece or the tool undergoes rectilinear or rotary motion

Fig. 3 . 2 2 6 Shaping m a c h i n e
Cutting motion

Workpiece
rectilinear

or

Tool

Undergoes

or

rotary

motion

rectilineartool
Secondary m o t i o n s
rectilineartool and workpiece

Fig. 3.227 Planing machine

Cutting m o t i o n
rectilinearworkpiece
Secondary motions
rectilineartool

The workpiece or the tool is carried by:

Carriages
Slides
Tables
Rams

M a i n s p i n d l e s such as
Lathe s p i n d l e s
Milling spindles
Grinding spindles
Fig. 3.228 Lathe m a c h i n e

These machine parts are guided by;

S l i d e bars
Sliding tracks

Cutting m o t i o n s n rotaryworkpiece
Secondary m o t i o n s rectilineartool

Slide bearings
Roller b e a r i n g s

They are moved Dy.

Threaded spindles and nuts
T o o t h e d racks
and pinions
Crank drives
Hydraulic d r i v e s

Gear w h e e l d r i v e s
Belt d r i v e s
F r i c t i o n w h e e l drives
C h a i n drives

The velocity of the working motion be changed when

machining materials with different tools. C h a n g e - s p e e d
drives and s t e p l e s s c o n t r o l l a b l e d r i v e s are built into the
machines so as to be able to change the sroke speed in rectilinear motion and the peripheral velocity in rotary motion
Here, one distinguishes between the m a i n drive for changing
the cutting motion and the f e e d drive for changing the
feed motion.

I Machine
frame
L-. ] Workpiece
flH
Tool

136

Cutting motion
<---> Feed, tool approach and
in teed motions (secondary motions)
HG Headstock gearing
FT Feed tram

Fig. 3 . 2 2 9 M i l l i n g m a c h i n e
Cutting m o t i o n
rotarytool
Secondary m o t i o n s
rectilinearworkpiece

Fig. 3 . 2 3 0 Cylindrical g r i n d i n g m a c h i n e
Cutting m o t i o n
rotarytool
Secondary m o t i o n s
rotary and rectilinear

workpiece

Fig.3.231 Drilling m a c h i n e
Cutting m o t i o n
rotarytool
Secondary m o t i o n s
rectilineartool

CUTTING GEOMETRY
The terms forthe surfaces and angles on cutting tools
used in machine tools are specified in the norm sheets
DIN 6580 and DIN 6581.

tEtieeiive
motion

Cut surtace

Cut surtace
EffectiveRP

plane RP

plane CP

plane oi
the wedge WWP.

Fig. 3 . 2 3 2 Reference system

Tool-CP

EffectiveCP
Fig. 3 . 2 3 4 Reference system
for effective m o t i o n

Fig. 3. 2 3 3 T o o l reference system

Shank

Reference system
Cutting face

The cutting wedge of a tool is located in terms of a reference

system consisting of three planes.

Trail edge

Primary Cutting

Tool reference system

This relates only to the cutting tool, the cutting plane lying in
the direction of the cutting motion and the other two planes
being perpendicular to it. Using this system, if one takes the
tool and the workpiece to be in the working position and
further assumes that the tool and the workpiece describe the
feed and the cutting movement, then the oblique effective
motion portrayed in the illustration results.

edge
flank
Trail flank

Fig. 3.235

tip with
corner rounding

Designation of surfaces

Side rake angle y Gamma

Reference system for effective motion

When a workpiece is being machined, the cut surface on the
workpiece lies in the direction of the effective motion. This surface describes a helical path on the outer cylinder of the
workpiece, the feed corresponding to the helical pitch. The
tool clearance angle a is thus converted into the smaller effective clearance angle a'. The opposite applies to the rake
angle. The extent of the change depends upon the rate of feed.
In thread turning, this change of angle is very large, because
the feed is equal to the thread lead.

Negative
Positive

Wedge angle p beta

Side relief angle a alpha

Nose angle t epsilon

When the cutting and feed motion are simultaneous,

the t o o l angles are always transformed into effective
working angles.

Back rake angle

X Lambda
Fig. 3 . 2 3 6 Designations of a n g l e s

137

M A G N I T U D E S O F A N G L E S O N T H E LATHE T O O L
The following tables and ruels apply to the angles
measurable at the tool and not to the w o r k i n g
angles.
W e d g e a n g l e ( a n g l e of k e e n n e s s ) p (beta)
Cutting wedges with small wedge angles penetrate the
material more easily but also tend to break off more easily if the
material is hard.

Soft metals
Tenacious metals
Hard brittle metals

4
4
4

P P =
P -

40. ..50 e.g., Al

55. ..75 e.g., St 44
75. .85 e.g., G-CuSn

Side rake a n g l e y (gamma)

This influences chip formation and cutting force. Its magnitude ranges from +30' to - 5 and depends upon the material
of the workpiece and that of the tool.
4 r large: g o o d chip flow, low cutting force.
4 y small to negative: great cutting force, highly robust
cutter.
S i d e relief a n g l e a (alpha)

Fig. 3.237 Angle of Incidence and note-angle

This reduces the friction between the workpiece and the cutting edge of the tool: a 5... 12.
The softer and more extensible the material is, and the
larger the diameter and the feed are, the larger 4 a must
be.
The larger 4 a is. the rougher the cut surface will be.

Nose a n g l e t (epsilon)
Ife is large, more heat will be conducted away because the surface area of the tool material at the point of cut is greater. This
lengthens the life of the tool because less exposure to heat
ensures that the cutter is blunted less rapidly.
Low feed rate, up to 1 mm 4 e 90.
Higher feed rate, above 1 mm 4 c - 90

Fig. 3.238 Influence of the angle of incidence end the direction of the cutting forces end the shepe of the cut crosssection A small angto 61 incidence yields a favourable cut
cross-section bui a nigh radial force

A n g l e of i n c i d e n c e k (kappa)
This influences the distribution of the cutting force, the shape
of the chip a n d ' t h e life of the tool. The magnitude of k is
between 30 and 90 .
Favourable is K = 45
Back rake a n g l e A (lambda)
This improves the chip flow and lengthens the tool life Jf the
cutting edge slopes in towards the workpiece.
Large back rake angle for large load
a 0 " . . . 10.

138

Fig. 3.239 Beck reke angle

jrj, /. \ negative (J i chip 'Olis lowards I he workpiece
> A ^ positive i -H chip rolls away trom the workpiece

CUT CROSS-SECTION
The area of the cut cross-section in mm2 depends upon the
depth of cut a and the feed s and its shape upon the angle of
incidence K. The depth of cut depends upon the shape and
dimensions of the workpiece.

Feed s small: Clean workpiece surface, longer machining

time.
Depth of cut a large: good dissipation of heat during chip
formation. Optimal cut cross-section if a is 3 to 18 times
larger than s.

Rough surface
S - fe^c?
deptn of t,ui
r corner rounding
High feed rate: thick chip,
rapid cutting
Small corner r o u n d i n g
deep grooves in the surface

Low feed rate:

thin chip, slow cutting
Large c o r n e r r o u n d i n g
shallow grooves on the surface

Fig. 3 . 2 4 0 S i g n i f i c a n c e of feed, d e p t h of cut and corner r o u n d i n g

Type of chip

Characteristics

Causes

Sman parts oi the

chip break off the
material; chip not
coherent, torn work
piece surface

Effects

&

CHIP FORMATION

Several factors influence chip f o r m a t i o n

The chip is produced by the forcible separation and

deformation of material particles from the workpiece. Chip
formation is influenced by the strength and deformabilityofthe
workpiece material, the magnitudes-of the rake and clearance
angles, the speed at which the chipping process takes place
(cutting speed), and the surface quality of the cut face, among
other things. High temperatures up to 700C are attained at the
contact surface between the chip and the chip surface,
because of the deformation of the material. About 1/5 of this
great quantity of heat is absorbed by the cutting tool, and leads
to rapid wear. This heat generation is reduced by coolant
lubrication with water-oil emulsions which also carry away
such heat as is generated.

|i i

Parts of the chip

deformed in the
shearing zone
separate in flakes
They then weld together partially to
form a chip.

'6 r

co

<5 2
*
01

8<5 ofc
=

i/i o

0 a 32

Deformation of the
material (flow) in the
shearing zone, no
breaking: continuous chip.

i i

a>

H
E

Ii

Built-up c u t t i n g edge
When machining soft and malleable materials, undesirable
"built-up edges" may form which lead to rough and cracked
surfaces. Material particles deposit on the tool edge in
fractions of a second and form a build-up, which projects into
the leading crack. As soon as this breaks off, it leaves an
indentation on the surface of the workpiece. The formation of
built-up edges can be prevented by increased cutting speed,
lapped cutting faces and larger chip thickness.

Fig 3 . 2 4 1 Built-up edge

139

3.6.2 Turning
PARTS O F T H E LATHE M A C H I N E

Functions of the c o m p o n e n t s

Construction and drive

Frame and bed

Bears all the fixed and moving components: headstock, carriage and apron assembly, tailstock, feed components, etc.,
absorbs all the cutting forces.

Rigid box-type construction, ribbed cheek to reduce deformation and vibration. Special cast iron or welded construction,

Headstock
Carries the main work spindle and the headstock gearing.

Rigid, vibration-free, gear box of cast iron.

Headstock gearing
Transmits the drive motion to the main work spindle. Cutting
motion of the main work spindle has 8; 9; 12; 16; 18; or 24
speeds.
About 20 to 2000 r.p.m... \
Clockwise and anti-clockWise rotation of the work spindle.

Driven by a tool-mounted motor over a V-belt drive or by a

flange-mounted motor.
Generally sliding-mesh gear train, occasionally infinitely variable drive.
Double-multiple disc clutch with brake.

Work spindle
Transmits the cutting motion to the workpiece. Absorbs the
cutting forces (radial and axial forces).

Control shaft
Switching on and off, clockwise and anti-clockwise rotation of
the work spindle.
Feed train
Transmission of the cutting motion to the feed mechanisms
(lead screw and feed rod) to generate from around 60 to 80 longitudinal feeds, cross-feeds and threading feeds.

Hollow shaft of alloyed quenched and tempered steel or

GGG; mounted on adjustable slide or roller bearings.
The spindle nose bears the clamping tool. Taper bore for
the centre.
Double multiple disc clutch activated by lever bar.

Driven from the work spindle over end gears and change
gears.
Quick-change gear drive, driving key-type transmission or
sliding gear transmission.

Feed mechanisms
Transmission of rotary motion from the feed train to the
apron.
Feed rod for longitudinal and cross-feed.
Lead screw for threading feed.

Lead screw: threaded spindle with acme screw thread (metric

or inch thread). Very exact pitch.

Carriage and apron assembly

Carries and moves the tool.

Made up of three carriages and the apron.

Apron
Houses the apron drive. Transforms the rotary movement of
the feed mechanisms into the longitudinal motion of the tool
carriage and the transverse motion of the cross-slide.

1. Saddle
Bears all the components of the carriage and apron assembly.
Longitudinal movement mechanically or by hand. '
2. Cross-slide
Cross or transverse motion of the tool by hand or mechanically.
'

"

2. Compound rest
Carries the toolpost. Longitudinal and angular movement
by hand.
Toolpost
Hold the tool by clamping.
Bed slideway
Bears, guides the carriage and apron assembly and the
tailstock.

Tailstock
Holds up the workpiece. Holds tools such as drills, reamers,
thread-cutting tools.

140

Feed rod: shaft with longitudinal groove for the sliding gear
*1

Transmission of power from the feed rod over a spur gear and
worm drive. The drive for longitudinal and cross-feed is
interrupted and the trip worm disengages during longitudinal
rotation. Power transmission, from the lead screw over a half
nut during threading operations.
H-shaped, longitudinal movement over toothed rack by hand
wheel or feed spindle. Longitudinal movement, imparted by
lead screw and half nut.
Moved by hand crank or feed rod over the left-handed thread
spindle. Distance of travel can be read on the micrometer
collar.
Moved over left-handed thread spindle by hand crank. Distance of travel can be read on the micrometer collar. Angular
setting by built-in rotary plate.
Tool holder for carrying one or more tool.
A part of the bed of special cast iron sliding surfaces: chilled
cast iron or flame hardened, planed, ground and scraped
steel.
Shapes: flat, prismatic or covered rails.
Can move longitudinally on its own slideway$. Cross adjustment about 15 mm. Tapered hole in the centre

Headstock

motor

Carriage and apron assembly

- Saddle

adstock gearing

Tailstock

Cross slide

\ Work spindle

Compound rest
Toolpost

ben drive
reed train

Frame and bed

Fig. 3 . 2 4 2 S l i d i n g and screw c u t t i n g lathe (tool room lathe)

Lead

Longitudinal
movement
the carriage by hand

Engaging
the drop worm
Longitudinal and cross-feed (selector lever)
nut
(1 scale division - 0.05 mm m-teed)
Fig. 3 . 2 4 4 Carriage and apron assembly
Worm wheel
Tailstock

Drop worm
Fig. 3.243 Apron and apron gear box
Cross f e e d from the feed rod Z 1 Z 2 worm-worm wheel
Z3 Z4 Z5 feed screw
L o n g i t u d i n a l feed 'rom the leed rod Z ? Z 4 as in
the cross-feed, then Z7 Zq rack.
L o n g i t u d i n a l f e e d from t h e lead screw: the giosed halt nul

Fig. 3.245 Bed ways

Separate slide ways tor saddle and tailstock

engages the lead screw with the tool carriages

Longitudinal m o v e m e n t by hand: hand wheelZgZyZgrack

The driveofthe longitudinal or cross-feed is disengaged when

the drop worm lever is shifted to position A. The worm then
comes down and is no longer engaged with the worm wheel.
The drive is also disengaged when the carriage and apron

assembly makes contact with a trip-dog and then halts. The

worm then rotates a little longer in the stationary worm wheel, is
thereby displaced in the axial direction, frees itself f rom the
groove and drops downwards a short distance. Hence the
term drop worm.

141

ERECTION AND M A I N T E N A N C E
Machine t o o l s are expensive and valuable p r e c i s i o n
m a c h i n e s f r o m w h i c h exact w o r k , high capacity and
long life are expected. Their accuracy d e m a n d s
appropriate e r e c t i o n and their durability careful
maintenance.

Wood

The manufacturing firm supplies o p e r a t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s

with every new machine. These should be Kept in the
foreman's room and be accessible to the machinist or the fitter
at all timus. The operating instructions contain the following
points:

Rod m transport h c ^ '

Fig 3.246 Securing a lathe m a c h i n e for tranaport
The Dlocks of wood protect the switch components from damage

Transportation
a) Protect the machine from shocks and vibrations.
b) Satisfy yourself that transport hooks or holes are available
for fastening the ropes.
c) Protect the projecting parts (switch levers, spindles) from
damage by ropes or chains with wood underlays.
d) Compare the weight of the machine with the carrying
capacity of the hoist, rope or chain.
Erection
a) Before erecting the machine, compare the foundation
plan, the foundation and the machine base.
b) The foundation must be dry.
c) Use the correct fastening elements (stone bolts, locking
screws). Depending upon the characteristics of the building, the machine must be placed upon a steel frame,
insulating slab or metal-rubber buffer.

Fig. 3.247 F o u n d a t i o n plan

Exact measuring
t i l l a g e guides

Tuie

Alignment
a) Use perfectly accurate levels.
b) Clean the resting surface for the level with grease solvents
fc) Check the level of the machine after tightening the screws
and carrying out the test job.
d) Check with the erection plan.

'

(> measuring pomis

t/

Fig, 3 . 2 4 8 A l i g n i n g a m a c h i n e t o o l w i t h the level

Putting into o p e r a t i o n
Lubricate one*! a week

a) Electrical connections are the job of electricians

b) Clean the machine thoroughly.
c) Check if the gear boxes are filled with oil, and lubricate
the machine.
d) Familiarise yourself with the operating instructions.
e) First run the machine without load at the lowest r.p.m. then
gradually switch to higher r.p.m.'s.
Maintenance

#,

a) Remove chips daily or after every change of material being

machined. Clean and service the machine thoroughly
once a week.
b) Lubricate punctually according to the lubrication
schedule and constantly monitor the oil level.
c) Use only the oils and greases specified in the lubrication
plan.
d) Adjust the bearings and guides punctually.
Familiarise yourself t h o r o u g h l y w i t h t h e possible
causes of a c c i d e n t s w h e n using your m a c h i n e .

142

Fig. 3.249 Lubrication plan for a lathe m a c h i n e

S*Mnk cross-section Qq quaci'aiic <squareiOh rectangular

I S 0 1 I B q 1012 1620 2532

O r round

202532 4050

I Q 1012 162025 31

Ih
I SO 4B Q 101216 202532
IS05
a 101216 202532
IS06
q 101216 202532
I SO 7
E S D I * q 610 12 16 20 2532
q 8101216202532

n f l f t r y u n d r h a r g s s a s ' Pn

1620 25 32 4050
20 2532 40

20 25 324050
EL
I h1216 20 25 3240 50

r 8 1Q1216 20 25
O r 8 101216 2025

ir

w-

r
P.irhmj
I ISO 7 I

D N 49B1

Straight

Onset co'ner
cutting loo'

Broan-edgeo
tool

shank fool

Br"'
tool

I ISO 11
OiN W*

LlSO 2

I ISO 3 I

fisoT]

OiN kV2

D'S <.973

D'N w97o

DIN 4977

DiN V98C

Fig. 3 . 2 5 0 Lathe t o o l t g o v e r n e d by ISO norms in w o r k i n g position, their shank shapes and shank m e a s u r e m e n t s

L A T H I TOOLS
The more oommonly used lathe t o o l t are Internationally standardised by an 180 recommendation.
In Germany, lathe tools with cemented carbide cutting tips
are governed by DIN 4971 to 4981 norms and tools with cutting tips of high-speed steel by DIN 4951 to 4965 norms.
The norms specify:

Fig. 3 . 2 5 2 Form-turning t o o l
prolile tools'

Fig. 3.251 Cut-off t o o l

The shape of the tool.

The cross-sectional forms and sizes as well as the lengtns of
the shanks.
The throat clearance of bent tools.
The magnitudes of rake and clearance angles and the cutting
tips to be used with different tools.
A cutting tip eultablft for machining the desired material
can be joined to any shank. The shapes ISO 1; 2; 3; 5; 6; 7 are
produced in left and right types (Fig. 3.250).
Example for a lathe tool designation
Lathe tool ISO 2 DIN 4 9 7 2
L 25 q K 1 0
Type of tool
'
L left (R = Right)
Square (quadratic) shank,.
25 mm length of side.
Cemented carbide type

Fig. 3.253 Formed disc-turning tools

W
=s

m m , i
Fig. 3.254 Boring
tool

^
Fig. 3.255 Inside
threading
tool

Fig. 3.256 Boring

bar

Cut-off tools have inclined cutting edges.

Formed tools should not change their shapes (profiles)
when reground. Hence they have no rake angles. They can
only be reground on the face.

F o r m e d d i s c t u r n i n g t o o l s are used for profile turning in

mass production. They can be reground several times without
losing their shapes.

143

85

82

55

75

insert
piale

__c

&nape

Relief angle

O0 0O 0
ooo
55

85<

15c

20 | 25 [ 3 0

Clamping block

11
N

Fig. 3.257 Throwaway inserts of c e m e n t e d c a r b i d e or c u t t i n g c e r a m i c as per DIN 4 9 8 7

Cutting ceramic insert

Fig. 3 . 2 5 8 C l a m p i n g device for
throwaway Inserts w i t h o u t
relief angles

T o o l bits (DIN 771, 4950) are made of hardened tool steel (highspeed steel) or cemented carbide. They are surface ground on the
side which is joint to the shank and then soldered on to high-strength
tool shanks governed by norms. The relief angle and step-type chip
breaker are then ground.
T h r o w a w a y inserts are cutting bits of cemented caroide or cutting cermaics which are ready for use. They are clamped to the tool
shank and, when one of the cutting edges is blunted, the insert can
be turned or rotated so that a new cutting edge comes into use. Bits
without relief angles are held at an angle, which results in a relief
angle of about 5 J and a negative rake angle of the same magnitude
(negative insert). Top and bottom edges are both usable. A bit of
square cross-section thus has eight cutting edges, some inserts are
supplied with a relief angle of 11 . They are then clamped obliquely
so as to obtain relief angles of 5 and rake angles of + 6 (positive
insert).
Cutting ceramic inserts are always negative and generally thicker
man cemented carbide inserts.

e = 50. .55
R& 0,5 mm
R>t(x2t)

R>t(x2
__ b2

Flow circle radius o

21
Tensile
strength ol the
workpiece

N/mm

750

1000

t
2
for feed s.

Depth t mm

<0.5

mm

>0,5

12

8 s

1 mm + 6 s

10

7 s

1 mm + 5 s

0.4

0,6

6 s

1 mm + 4 s

0.3.

0.4

>1000

mm

mm
00
o

<750

Breadth

t)

CO
o

C h i p b r e a k e r s t e p s (chip-forming shoulders) influence the formation and flow of chips. They are either ground into the cutting face
of thetool orformed by the chip-forming shoulder on theclamp.They
can also be cut into the throwaway insert in the form of a groove,
which also then provides a rake angle. The included angle tp (phi)
influences the direction of flow of the chip.

clamping device'for throwaway

inserts ol cutting ceramic

Fig. 3 . 2 5 9 Shapes and sizes of chip-breaking steps

Rake a n g l e = 10 p o s i t i v e
Standard chip-breaking shoulders for all finishing and roughing
operationsfavourable chip formation with feeds between 0.08 and
0.25 mm.

Included angle <p

Rake a n g l e = 5 p o s i t i v e
For roughing operations on long-chip-forming materials and thmwalled cast workpiecesfavourable chip formation with feeds between 0.25 and 0.6 mm.

Rake a n g l e = 5 n e g a t i v e
Particularly suitable for short-chip-forming material as well as tor
machining workpieces of long-chip-forming materials with interrupted cuts.
144

<p = positive

v - negative

For finishing
and boring

For roughing

(</> - 5

10 J)

v = 0"

For turning
external
diameters

Fig. 3 . 2 6 0 I n c l u d e d angle of c h i p - b r e a k i n g steps

The hot hardness of the cutting material is

decisive when high cutting capacity (quantity of
material cut per minute) is desired at high cutting
speeds. Hot hardness relates to the highest permissible temperature at which the cutting material
can be used. If this temperature is exceeded, the
tool loses its hardness and its ability to cut.

1. Unalloyed t o o l steel
(Carbon steel)
Hot hardness up to 2 5 0 C (523 K)

.o
<1>

Q
O)
c
03
w

e
o>
c
</)
0)
o

5
fo
*
O)
c
</>
re
0>
o

csi

These permit higher cutting speeds than carbon

steel.

4. C e m e n t e d carbides
Hot hardness up to 9 0 0 C (11 73 K)

Cutting
characteristics group

FM

Steel and cast steel

P 10

FM + F "

Steel and cast steel

P 15

F+R

Steel and cast steel

P 20

F + R

Steel, cast steel. GT

P 30

Steel, cast steel, GG. GT

P 40

M 10

i
o
Q>

CN

a
jE
V </>
c. a>
w
o E
c
0
1

p
.
E
2

CN

M 15

F+ R

Steel, cast sieei

Steel, cast steel, GT

F+ R

Steel, cast steel, GG, GT

High temperature steel.

Cast steel

M 20
M 30

Free-cutting mild steel.

NF metals

M 40

K 01

8
cc

Hardened steel, GG

S !

>

3. High alloyed t o o l steels

(High speed steel; SS; HSS)
Hot hardness up to 6 0 0 C (873 K)
These are alloyed with tungsten, molybdenum,
vanadium and cobalt, and are used for drills, milling cutters, reamers, lathe and planning tools.
One distinguishes between high speed steels for
normal duty, heavy duty and very heavy duty.

<0
2
<5
E
o>
c
I
o
a
E
6)
c
o

FM fine machining
F : finishing
R : roughing

P01.1
P01.2
P01 3
P01 4

P 50

For infrequently used tools such as formed turning tools, for machining light metals.

2. Low alloyed t o o l steels

Hot hardness up to 4 0 0 C (673 K)

Use
Mam group
for materials
cut

Wear
resistance and
malleability

The material of t h e workpiece, the desired

c u t t i n g speed and surface quality, the frequency of use and the price together determine
the selection of cutting material.

Blue

C u t t i n g t o o l s are m a d e of various materials

Characteristic
colour

CUTTING MATERIALS

FM -F F

K 05

CD
c
E
o
a.

Chilled cast iron. GG,

hardened steel,
NF metals, non-metals
GG, chilled cast iron.
NF metals, non-metals

K 10
K 20

JE

io -oa
c
c

K 30

GG, NF metals, non-metals

55
I
U. E

K 40

NF metals, non-metals

Fig. 3.261 Characterisation of c e m e n t e d carbides by alphabets (P; M; K), n u m b e r s

(01. 1 to 50) and colours (Blue; Yellow; Red)

These are moulded in the form of tool bits, which

are then soldered or clamped on to tool shanks.
See table in Fig. 3.261.
5. Catting c e r a m i c s
Hot hardness up to 1 3 0 0 C (1573 K)

6. Industrial d i a m o n d s
Hot hardness up to 9 0 0 C (11 73 K)

These bits made of sintered metal oxides are

clamped into holders. These cutting materials are
even more wear-resistant than cemented carbjdes, but very susceptible to impact and shock.
They are not suited to "intermittent" cutting.

These can be used only at the lowest teed rates

(0.02 to 0.06 mm) and the minimum cutting
depths, but at very high cutting speeds (above
1000 m per min). These are used for precision
drilling and precision turning.

145

CLAMPING THE LATHE TOOL

During m a c h i n i n g , forces act u p o n t h e lathe t o o l and

the w o r k p i e c e s , w h o s e m a g n i t u d e s a n d d i r e c t i o n s a r e
k n o w n . These must be adequately a b s o r b e d by clamping devices.

Counter-force

Forces a c t i n g on t h e lathe t o o l
The c u t t i n g force F c acts during chip removal. Its magnitude
depends upon the material of the workpiece and the angles at
the tool-bit. F c generates bending stress on the tool.
The f e e d force F t acts parallel to the axis of the workpiece
during longitudinal turning. The passive force F p acts perpendicular to it in the direction of the tool approach.
The m a c h i n i n g force F is the resultant of the forces Fc, F p
and F f . The force F gives rise to a counter-force of equal
magnitude, which must be absorbed by the clamping devices
for the workpiece
The following basic rules must therefore be observed when
clamping the tool.

1. The t o o l should not project out t o o far f r o m t h e

clamp.
If t h e t o o l projects t o o m u c h over t h e c u t t i n g face, t h i s
results in a long lever arm and t h e t o o l can vibrate, spring back, bend or break (rough m a c h i n e d surface,
c h a n g e in t o o l angles).
2. C l a m p the t o o l t i g h t l y
This is to prevent t h e t o o l f r o m s p r i n g i n g out of its
holder (risk of accident) and f r o m p e n e t r a t i n g into
the w o r k p i e c e .

Fig. 3 . 2 6 2 Forces a c t i n g on t h e t o o l and

the w o r k p i e c e
The lool is tixed with as little protrusion
as possible and as tightly as possible.

Short lever

Fig. 3.263 Clamp the t o o l

with the p r o j e c t i n g
end as short as possible

Fig. 3.264 Fix t h e t o o l

tightly

Tool holders
Apart from the c l a m p i n g claw and the four-way t o o l post,
the quick-change 1901 holder can also be used economically
in production.

Fig. 3.265 Drilling w i t h twist drill

146

Fig. 3 . 2 6 6 Setting t h e level of the

c u t t i n g edgeB

Fig. 3.267 Q u i c k - c h a n g e t o o l holder

Setting the height of the lathe tool

The height of the lathe tool relative to the centre ot the
workpiece (axis of rotation) influences the relief angle a and
the rake angle y, as weil as the chip formation.
Both these angles change by several degrees if the tool is
clamped a b o v e or b e l o w the axis of rotation, or oblique to it. In
heavy roughing, it is advantageous to set the tool above the
axis of rotation by up to 2% of the workpiece diameter.

I n all o p e r a t i o n s u s i n g f o r m e d t o o l s , i n t h r e a d t u r n i n g , t a p e r
t u r n i n g a n d f n r e c e s s i n g a n d c u t t i n g o f f , t h e t o o l m u s t b e set
exactly o n t h e c e n t r e .

: v: inside turning

Outside turning

.t-

Increase in relief angle

inciease in reiief angle

Fig. 3.268 When t h e external t u r n i n g t o o l ia set below centre (fig. on the left) a n d
the internal t u r n i n g t o o l above centre (fig. on tha right), t h e c h a n g e s in angle are
equal in both cases
The rake angle is decreased.
The relief angle is increased.

External turning

Fig. 3.269 W h e n the external t u r n i n g t o o l is set above centre (fig. on the left) and the internal t u r n i n g t o o l below centre (fig. on
the right), the changes in angle are o n c e again equal:
The rake angle is increased.
The relief angle Is decreased.

y, o = angles ground on the tool

y. a = changed angles (working angles)
147

CLAMPING WORKPIECES

The d i f f e r e n t shapes and sizes of w o r k p i e c e s

m a c h i n e d necessitate d i f f e r e n t types of c l a m p i n g
devices. These have to transfer t h e main rotary m o t i o n
t o t h e w o r k p i e c e a n d absorb t h e c o u n t e r - f o r c e s
generated d u r i n g c h i p f o r m a t i o n .

Three-jawed c h u c k s are used to hold around, triangular

and hexagonal workpieces. The rails of the three jaws are fixed
into a transverse thread which is in the form of a spiral. The
reverse side of the threaded plate is constructed in the form of
a crown wheel which is meshed with a bevel-gear pinion displaced by about 120, with internal teeth.

Fig. 3 . 2 7 0 Method of functioning of a three-Jawed chuck

(plane-spiral chuck)

The clamping movement of the jaws results from turning the

pinion with the chuck-key.This may be directed inwards (external clamping jaws for solid bodies) or outwards (internal
clamping jaws for hollow bodies). Steps on the clamping jaws
increase the clamping range. Rod-shaped workpieces are
introduced into the jaws through the hollow work spindle.
Four-jawed c h u c k s are used to hold square and octagonal workpieces.

Keep t h e c o n t a c t surfaces and t h r e a d of t h e w o r k spindle clean w h e n m o u n t i n g t h e c h u c k . Never leave t h e

key s t i c k i n g in t h e c h u c k or stop t h e rotating c h u c k
with the hand.

C l a m p i n g between centres
If the workpiece has to rotate exactly "true" and if it has to be
rechucked after, then it is mounted between the centres of the
working spindle and the tailstock. The driving plate and the
lathe d o g transfer the rotary motion to the workpiece. Centre
holes (taper angle 60) are drilled at both ends of the
workpiece. The cone angles of the holes must match those of
the tips of the lathe centres, so that the surface pressure
remains small and the solid tips of the centres are not
damaged. The centres in the main spindle and the tailstock
must be in exact alignment so that the workpiece does not
become tapered. Centres (dead or live) are inserted with their
tapered stocks (Morse taper or metric taper) set into the
tapered bores of the main spindle and the tailstock sleeve.
They hold the workpiece up and conduct away a part of the
machinery force.

148

Fig. 3.271 Mounting between c t n t r a i

bearing (thrust bearing)

noner bearing with
conical inner ring
Fig. 3 . 2 7 2 Live centra
Used at high r.p.m. and with heavy workpieces

Shape A

Shape-B

Uneven vurf&ce

Fig. 3 . 2 7 3 Cantra boring at per DIN 332, centre borer

Steady rest
This is used to support long thin workpieces so that they do not bend
during machining. It is also used when a long workpiece has to be
machined on the end face, e.g., in drilling or thread cutting with the
thread borer. The rest is mounted on the slide rails of the lathe
machine. The workpiece must rotate exactly "true" when the support
jaws are tightened. To avoid wear between the jaws and the
workpiece, the jaws are made of hardened steel or plated with a layer
of copper-tin alloy (bronze), cemented carbide or plastic. Steel rollers
are often also used.

Steady
rollers

Setting
screw

Follower rest (back rest)

Because the lathe tool must be guided along the entire length when
machining long thin workpieces, the rest must travel. The follower
rest is open in part and has only two steadying jaws. These prevent
the workpiece from moving away from the tool. The rest is screwed on
to the saddle of the lathe. The jaws are fixed behind the point of
machining on the part of the workpiece which has already been
turned. When finishing a workpiece which is already nearly exactly
dimensioned, the rest can also run before the tool.

Fig. 3 . 2 7 4 Steady rest

Mandrels
These are used when the drill hole and outer cylindrical surface of a
workpiece have to be exactly centred.
Fixed mandrel. The diameter of this mandrel corresponds to the
diameter of the drill hole. The mandrel is hardened and lightly taperground in the ratio 1.400. This results in great clamping forces. One
end of the mandrel has a driving tongue. The front sides are centred
for clamping between the tips of the lathe centres. The mandrel is
inserted with a press or a lead hammer (wood)).
Expansion mandrel. A bush which is cylindrical from outside,
tapered from inside, with three slots running from outer to inner surface, is screwed on to atapered threaded mandrel with a ring nut
(fine pitch thread). This causes the bush to expand and press against
the inner surface of the workpiece drill hole. The expanding mandrel
is clamped between the tips of the centres.

Fig. 3 . 2 7 5 Follower rest

Driving tongue

pansion bush

Forcing nul

Fig. 3 . 2 7 6 Expansion mandrel

Collect c h u c k
These are used to carry cylindrical workpieces of small diameter
Such workpieces can be fixed rapidly, exactly and firmly with collect
chucks. Collect chucks have an external cone in front and slots displayed by about 120. The external cone can be pressed into the
taper hole of the work spindle with a screw cap or pulled into it, with a
draw bar passed through the hollow working spindle. In order to
ensure that the collect rotates "true", only polished cylindrical and
deburred workpieces within the nominal diameter range are clamped with it.

Draw bar
Fig. 3.277 Collect c h u c k

149

Faceplates
These are used to clamp workpieces of large diameter or sym
metrical form. The faceplate has four independently movable
clamping jaws. These can be rotated by 180 and can
therefore be used as internal and external jaws.
The workpiece is first clamped by sight judgement and
then centred with a surface gauge or, when accuracy
demands, with a dial gauge.
Since the faceplate has several slits running radially,
workpieces can also be fixed with screws and clamps or on an
angle plate, e.g., pillow block. Compensate for imbalance by
counterweights.
Angle plate

Fig. 3 . 2 7 8 Faceplate
Workpiece clamped
between jaws

Fig. 3 . 2 7 9 Faceplate
Workpiece clamped with
angle plate and balanced
with counterweight

CUTTING SPEED AND ROTATIONAL SPEED (r.p.m.)

Cutting speed w h i l e t u r n i n g
The m a g n i t u d e of c u t t i n g speed is d e t e r m i n e d by:

This is the speed at w h i c h t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e

w o r k p i e c e moves a l o n g t h e c u t t e r .

1. Material of the w o r k p i e c e .
2. Material of t h e cutter (high-speed steel, cemented
carbide).

. Its unit is m/min. In single piece production it is estimated

by the experienced turner. In serial (mass) production, the
optimal cutting speed is specified by the production planning
department on the job chart used by the turner.

Material

St 33

44

St 60

Alloyed
steel 850
1000 N/mm'

St 85

Cutter

ss
60
240
480

0.1

0,2
6
E

60
240

E 480
r
0)
60

P01

SS

315
280
250

P10 SS

P10 SS

M20

280
236
212

212
170
150

190
150
132

60
43
36

280
236
212

40
38
24

250
200
180

25
18
15

180
140
125

24
17
14

150
118
106

45

250

53

300

34

180

85

710

60 34
240 24
480 20

212
170
150

22
16
13

180
140
125

14
112
10
90
8.5 80

60 25
240 18
480 14

125
100
90

17
12
10

90
71
63

3. Rate of f e e d (surface quality, roughing, finishing).

4

Tool

SS

M20

GG-20
GG- 30

SS

63
50
45
9
6.3
5.3

Life of the t o o l .

M10

GTS
GTW

SS

150
106
90

K10

Copper

CuZn

SS

SS

150
106
90

K20

1120
500
335

G-CuSn

K20

SS

1320
600
400

Al pure

K20 SS

K20

630
355
265

400
224
170

2360
1320
1000

125
90
75

43
30
25

125
90
75

63
53
48

1000
450
300

125
95
80

1180
530
355

63
48
40

500
280
212

300
170
125

2000
1120
850

13
9.5
8

90
63
53

34
14
12

90
63
53

34
28
25

750
335
224

56
43
36

900
400
265

43
32
27

355
200
150

118
67
50

1500
850
630

9.5
6,7
5,6

75
53
45

13
9.5
19

75
53
45

25
21
9

670
300
200

36
27
22

800
355
236

36
27
22

315
180
132

75
43
32

1250
710
530

50
40
36

32
22
19

34
27
24
16
13
11

0)

0.8

1.6

11
1.5
6,3

53
43
38

12
8.5
7.1
8.5
6
5

95
75
67

Fig. 3.280 Standard v a l u e s f o r c u t t i n g s p e e d w h i l e t u r n i n g , in m / m i n (as per AWF 58) w h e n k = 45

150

Apart from the back rake angle k, the nature of coolant lubrication as well as the quality of the machine tool must be considered when fixing the Gutting speed exactly.

The correct mean between the shortest possible production time for the workpiece and a sufficiently long service life for
the tool has been determined in the course of many trials and
put together in the form of tables.

High cutting speed

A d v a n t a g e : Short production time, low costs
D i s a d v a n t a g e : The tool is blunted rapidly and has to be
reground frequently; loss of time and expensive materials, e.g., cemented carbides; high
wage costs.

Low c u t t i n g s p e e d
A d v a n t a g e : Long service life of the tool

Rotational speed
The correct rotational s p e e d for the workpiece has to be set on
the main drive once the cutting speed has been chosen. This is
specified in r.p.m. The r.p.m. depends upon the size of the
workpiece diameter and the cutting speed selected. It can be
determined by calculations or with the help of a net chart.

At a given cutting speed:

Large diameter: low rotational speed in r.p.m.
Small diameter: high rotational speed in r.p.m.

D i s a d v a n t a g e s : Long production times for the workpiece

151

LATHE WORK
Important types of lathe work are facing, c y l i n d r i c a l t u r n i n g ,
profile t u r n i n g and t h r e a d t u r n i n g . In t e r m s of c h i p p i n g , a
d i s t i n c t i o n is made b e t w e e n heavy cuts and f i n i s h i n g
cuts.
Roughing. Machining with the object of achieving the maximum
possible rate of chip removal with favourable cutting conditions (cut
ting speed, cutting cross-section, cutting angles), without paying
heed to accuracy of size and shape.

Fig. 3.281 Transverse

facing

Fig. 3 . 2 8 2 L o n g i t u d i n a l
facing

Fig-. 3 . 2 8 3 L o n g i t u d i n a l
t u r n i n g (cylindrical)

Fig. 3 . 2 8 4 Transverse
t u r n i n g (cylindrical)

Finishing. Machining with the object of achieving the desired

accuracy of shape and size, without considering the rate of chip
removal.
Facing is turning in order to obtain an even surface perpen
dicular to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
In transverse facing, the feed is perpendicular to the rotational
axis of the workpiece (Fig. 3.281). In l o n g i t u d i n a l facing, the feed is
parallel to the rotational axis of the workpiece (Fig. 3.282).
In finishing, and when the workpiece diameter is small, the tool
travels outwards from the centre (cross-feed). In roughing, and when
the diameter is large, it is better to move the tool from the outside
inwards. If the lathe tool is not exactly centred, a peak will be produced at the centre of the workpiece. Transverse cut-off t u r n i n g is
transverse facing with the object of dividing the workpiece into
two.

Fig. 3 . 2 8 5 Form t u r n i n g
with manual feed

The objective of cylindrical t u r n i n g is to produce a circular cylindrical surface.

Fig. 3.286 Profile t u r n i n g
with profile fool

In l o n g i t u d i n a l cylinder t u r n i n g , the feed is parallel to the

rotational axis of the workpiece (Fig. 3.283), and in transverse cylinder turning, it is perpendicular to it (Fig. 3.284).
In f o r m t u r n i n g , the shape of the workpiece is produced by
manually controlling the feed movement or with templates (master
plates) or with the help of programmes (Fig. 3.285).
In profile t u r n i n g , the shape of the workpiece is generated with
the help of a profile tool (Fig. 3.286).
In screw t u r n i n g , a profile tool is used to produce a thread surtace. The feed per revolution is equal to the pitch of the thread.
Thread t u r n i n g is screw turning with the feed parallel to the axis
of rotation of the workpiece, using a thread turning tool to cut a
thread (Fig. 3.287).
Thread c h a s i n g is screw turning with the feed parallel to the axis
of rotation of the workpiece, using a thread chaser to produce a
thread.

Fig. 3.287 Thread t u r n i n g

RAA

RBL

RBR

Fig. 3 . 2 8 8 Types of k n u r l i n g

Thread c u t t i n g is screw turning with the feed parallel to the axis

of rotation of the workpiece, using a threading die or die head to produce a thread.
Knurling. The gripping surfaces on nuts and collars are knurled so
that they can be gripped effectively. The knurling tool must be advanced with force in the very first revolution of the workpiece. so that the
teeth of the tool can bite into the notches thus produced in subsequent revolutions.
. RAA knurling with furrows parallel to the axis, RBLIeft-hand knurling, RBR righ-hand knurling, RG left-right knurling, Rk crossknurling.

152

Stop edge

Fig. 3 . 2 8 9 K n u r l i n g t o o l in w o r k i n g
position

R6

EXAMPLES OF JOBS

J o b : A cylindrical fit has to be achieved w i t h a lathe

machine. The fit H 7 / g 6 allows a narrow clearance, s u c h
as is usual in s p i n d l e bearings or s l i d i n g gears. The outer
part must slide over the entire l e n g t h of t h e pin. The
shape of t h e exterior surface is not i m p o r t a n t . If t h e fitting partsshaft and boreare to f u l f i l these specifications, the d i m e n s i o n a l accuracy, t h e accuracy of shape
and the surface roughness must remain w i t h i n certain
limits.

As desired

Maximum play: P m a x = 59 urn

Minimum play :P

Accuracy of shape
The permissible deviation from the geometrical form ot the cylinder
(circularity fault, curvature of the cylinder jacket lines) must lie within
the measurement tolerances, provided a higher accuracy is not
specified in the drawing. The state of the machine tool significantly
affects shape accuracy.
Roundness of the cylinder thus depends upon the bearings of
the work spindle. When turning between centres, the guidance of the
workpiece on the tailstock centre is also important.

1.
2.

The work s p i n d l e bearing s h o u l d not be w o r n . The

bearing play s h o u l d be readjusted if necessary.
The w o r k p i e c e must be r o u n d and exactly centred. The surface of t h e centre t i p s h o u l d be
smooth.

The straightness of the cylinder depends upon the state of

the slide rails of the carriage and apron assembly.

1.
2.

Maximum
dimension ^
Mm, dimension }>=

jn

- 10 urn

FtaO- Ab
mafl maH

H7 V)0
g6 -1C
29

Surface roughness

Shape
Siraighiness
fault
Fig. 3 . 2 9 0 Relationship b e t w e e n d i m e n s i o n a l accuracy,
shape accuracy i and surface roughness in a w o r k p i e c e
p r o d u c e d by t u r n i n g
Roundness

Surface appearance
Gauged peak-to-valley
height

The bed slideways s h o u l d not be w o r n o u t at any

point.
The a d j u s t i n g planes of t h e carriage g u i d e s s h o u l d
be reset.

Surface roughness
Also see Section 5.2 "technical surfaces'. The surface roughness
should be only a fraction of the permissible dimensional tolerances.
This is specified in the drawing (Fig. 3.290), with an arithmetic mean
roughness of
= 0.4 ^m for the fitting surfaces, and Ra = 1.6 /xm for
all other surfaces.
The table in the margin shows the peak-to-valley heights roughly
attainable with ordinary lathe machines and ordinary tools, in relation to cutting speed, feed and edge roundings.

Fig. 3.291 Relationship of peak-to-valley h e i g h t to

c u t t i n g s p e e d v. feed s and edge rounding r

The table shows a computed peak-to-valley height Rz. The ratk> of

Rz to Ra is about 10:1. In order to achieve a peak-to-valley height of
R a = 1.6. it is necessary to work with the values in rows (running number) 3 or 6. For the fitting surfaces with Ra = 0.4, it is necessary to
work with the values in rows 5 or 9. It should be remembered,
however, that these values do not always lead to the same measure
of success, because the p'eak-to-valley height also depends upon
the state of the machine, the coolant lubrication, the chip
formation, etc.
1.
2.

3.

Always use a c o r r e c t l y g r o u n d t o o l .
The w o r k p i e c e and the t o o l s h o u l d not vibrate at high
c u t t i n g s p e e d s . Poor s p i n d l e b e a r i n g s , w r o n g l y f i x e d
tools and natural vibrations can lead to this.
Good coolant lubrication at the machining points
improves the surface.

Bending force Fq

Workpiece

F m measuring force or testing force, e.g.

here it is
25 X F M

Fig, 3 . 2 9 2 In this p o s i t i o n , the t e s t i n g force generates a

b e n d i n g f o r c e w h i c h is several t i m e s greater at the
caliper gauge. This can cause t h e caliper g a u g e to bend

Toierance markers - 1 0

Dimensional accuracy
Pointer

The two parts will fit serviceably only it the prescribed tolerances are
maintained. The machinist should continually observe the changes
in dimesion of the workpiece during the process of machining. In
roughing, this is indicated by the cross-feed, and can be read at the
measuring collar of the corss-slide spindle (radius measurement).
Gauges should be used to test whether the finished size lies within
the tolerance limits.

anvil

Adjustable
measuring pin

Parallel
end block

Fig. 3 . 2 9 3 Setting an i n d i c a t i n g m i c r o m e t e r w i t h parallel

end b l o c k s

End-measuring block with

Parallel end block 60 mm

Gauging
Gauges used are. external limit gauge 60 g6, internal limit gauge 60
H7. The "go" side of the gauges must pass above/into the
workpieces. The "not go" side should just fail to do so.
1.
2.

insiae measuring

Workpiece surfaces and measuring surfaces should be

thoroughly cleaned off chips.
Gauges should not be pressed with force on the
workpiece. If the testing force is too high, the gauge
and the workpiece surfaces will be deformed.

indicator

Pointer
Pedestal

Tolerance markers

Fig. 3 . 2 9 4 (H) Setting an internal m e a s u r i n g instrument w i t h

parallel e n d b l o c k s in an e n d - m e a s u r i n g block
(Tolerance markers in the illustration at 0 and +30)

M e a s u r i n g w i t h lever-type i n d i c a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s
If appropriate gauges are not available, the bolt can be tested with an
indicating micrometer. The measuring instrument should be set with
parallel end blocks, measuring discs or plug guages. The tolerance
markers are set at - 1 0 and - 2 9 . An internal measuring instrument
with a precision indicator can be used for the hole. The tolerance
markers should be set at 0 and + 3 0 .

1.
2.

154

Work carefully when setting the measuring instruments

and when measuring.
Take into a c c o u n t all sources of error such as temperature, parallax, measuring force, lighting, etc.

Fig. 3.295 Measuring w i t h t h e internal m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t

a)

Determining the greatest

measurement g", perpen
dicu|ar to the axis

b)

Deierminmg the smallest

measurement "s". parallel to
the axis

TAPER TURNING

There are three m e t h o d s for p r o d u c i n g

tapered w o r k p i e c e s on t h e lathe m a c h i n e :

Angular scale

1. By t i l t i n g t h e c o m p o u n d rest (tool slide)

For short tapers with taper angles between 0U and
180'.

T u r n i n g . The tool feed is imparted manually by

means of a crank. If the cranking is not uniform, the surface will be rough. Hence the crank must be held with
both hands, hand over hand. Maximum taper length =
traverse length of the tool slide. Long tapers can be produced by combining several taper sections, provided
the shoulders thus produced on the surface do not
affect the functioning of the workpiece, or can be
removed by further machining, e.g., by grinding.
Setting. Tilt the compound rest to half of the
specified or calculated taper angle. Set the angle exactly with the dial gauge, in accordance with the template,
taper plug gauge or angular end blocks.

Fig. 3 . 2 9 6 Taper t u r n i n g by t i l t i n g the c o m p o u n d rest (tool slide)

Spindle
Spmdie
bearing g V

Nut

Cross-head
Saddle Telescope
shoe
Spindle bearing
Clamping holder (fixed)

2. By using a taper a t t a c h m e n t
For long taper up to 20 taper angle.
Setting. Set the taper bar at half the taper angle.
Pass the saddle under the taper and fasten the clamps.
Turning. The longitudinal feed to the saddle is
transmitted over the feed rod. The cross-head shoe
follows the tilted taper bar and displaces the cross-slide.
The tool is advanced by cranking the cross-slide spindle. Maximum taper length = length of the taper bar. It is
possible to combine taper sections as in 1.

Cross-slide
(fixed)
Taper bar (fixed) can be
swivelled up to 10
Cross-head shoe
on both sides
(mobile)

(Mobile)

Fig. 3.297 Taper t u r n i n g w i t h the taper a t t a c h m e n t

The clamping holder must hold the cross-slide and the taper bar fast, wniie the saddle carries out the feed movement along with the foot and the cross-head shoe

Safety follower

3. By tailstock s h i f t i n g
For long shallow tapers.
Setting. The upper part of the tailstock is shifted
sideways by a distance s. Measure the extent of shift
with a dial gauge or depth gauge, or else read it on the
nonius of the tailstock.
T u r n i n g . The saddle is advanced uniformly by the
feed rod.

Fig. 3 . 2 9 8 Taper t u r n i n g by t a i l s t o c k setover

155

THREAD TURNING
Reverse years

Work spiridle

Scale drum

I n t h r e a d t u r n i n g , t h e f e e d o f t h e t o o l per r e v o l u t i o n i s
e q u a l t o t h e lead o f t h e t h r e a d b e i n g t u r n e d .

The ratio between the r.p.m. of the work spindle (workpiece)

and the r.p.m. of the lead screw required for a given thread
pitch is obtained by interposing gears.
Scale drum

F e e d t r a i n . The positions of the change levers corresponding to the desired thread lead can be ascertained from a
switching plan.
C h a n g e gears. In older machines, the required gears are
set individually from the change-gear box after calculating the
correct tooth count. It must be ensured that the teeth are
fully meshed.

Z i. Z 2 . z 3 and Z 4 change gears

Halt-nut

Pitch oi the thread

Pitch of the lead screw

Zi * 7*
Z, - Z .

Fig. 3 . 2 9 9 C o m b i n e d a c t i o n of lathe m e c h a n i s m s in thread

cutting

P r e p a r i n g t h e w o r k p i e c e . The bolt is turned to the

required external diameter before cutting the thread. For internal threads, the hole is turned to the core diameter.

P r e p a r i n g a n d s e t t i n g t h e t h r e a d - c u t t i n g t o o l . The
shape of the cutting edge must conform to the standard profile
of the thread being cut (V-threads, acme threads, knuckle
threads). The tool is ground in accordance with a grinding
gauge and then whetted smooth on an oilstone. In order not to
distort the profile, the tool is not given a rake angle; it must be
set exactly at the centre and be perpendicular to the axis of
the workpiece.

C u t t i n g t h e t h r e a d . The thread profile is brought to its

finished dimensions in eight to twelve cuts. The first cut is very
shallow (setting with the micrometer collar). The pitch is tested
after the first cut. The thread-turning tool is brought back to the
initial position for every subsequent passage.

Open
(disengaged)
Fig. 3 . 3 0 0 Operation of the half-nut

Fig. 3 . 3 0 1 Shapes of t h r e a d - c u t t i n g t o o l s (a) Vthread,

(b) Acme thread, (c) Buttress thread, (d) Knuckle thread

a) If the thread pitch is contained in the lead screw pilch without a

remainder, the half-nut can be disengaged and the cross-slide can
be cranked back to its initial position.
b) If the thread pitch and#the lead screw pitch are derived from the
same system of units (inch, metric), bul if the thread pitch is not contained in the lead screw pitch without a remainder, it is still possible
to proceed as under a); only the half-nut must always be closed
(engaged) at the same point
c) If the thread pitch and the lead screw pitch are derived from dif
ferent systems of units, and if the lead screw pitch does not contain
the thread pitch without a remainder, the half-nut must remain
engaged and the cross slide must be brought back to the start of
the thread by reversing the machine. If the half-nut were to be
disengaged, the exact position for re-engaging would be lost
Modern machines have rapid power traverse for return travel.
The thread-cutting tool is advanced before every cut. It
must then be moved a little to the left for right-hand threads
and a little to the right for left-hand threads, so that only one
cutting edge bites in. The final finishing cut is carried out with
both cutting edges simultaneously. In order to obtain a clean
thread, it is necessary to employ ample coolant lubrication.

156

Outside Ihread-cutling tool Setting gauge

Inside thread cutting

tool

Fig. 3 . 3 0 2 Setting t h e thread-cutting t o o l to cut external and

internal threads, with the helo of a centre gauge The tip of Ihe
lool must be exactly perpendicular to the axis of the workpiece

2nd and subsequent

Last cut
1st cut
cuts
Fig. 3 . 3 0 3 A d v a n c i n g t h e t h r e a d - c u t t i n g t o o l when cutting a
right-handed thread

H1 CrifV
Ground
Ground

EXAMPLE OF A J O B
J o b : Worm shaft w i t h double-thread w o r m as
per m o d u l e 8 and 40 c i n c l u d e d a n g l e . The
cylindrical surfaces for carrying t h e roller
bearings must be f i n i s h e d and g r o u n d
a c c o r d i n g to t h e fit. Recesses are m a c h i n e d
to allow free passage for the g r i n d i n g w h e e l .
The recess a t t h e right e n d of t h e shaft bears a
snap ring w h i c h axially fixes t h e roller bearing. The inner rings to t w o t a p e r e d roller
bearings are axially arrested by t h e thread. M
1 8 X 1 and t w o ring nuts. The taper i s t o b e
ground in t h e ratio 1:10. It carries a c l u t c h
disc w h i c h is pressed on to t h e t h r e a d M 12
with a nut.
Length unspecified

Sequence of operations
Steps of the Operation

Possible w o r k i n g values

m/min
Steel bar of 41 Cr 4V 0 50 lo be
sawn off to a length of 240 mm
Fix the workpiece in a three-jawed
chuck. Centre with a centre drill or
twist drill and counter-sink
Insert half centre in the
tailstock
Face the front end with the cutting
tool ISO 3
Change the centre
Rough-turn the short side
of the workpiece with ISO 1
tool in four cuts
Cut I
Cut II
Cut III
Cut IV
Reverse the workpiece and
rechuck.
Centre
Insert half-centre
Turn front end to 238 mm
length with ISO 3 tool
Change centre
Rough turn long side of the
workpiece with ISO 1 tool
in 4 cuts
Cut I
Cut II
Cut III
Cut IV

mm

r.p.m.

Depending upon the saw

used

Cut II, a - 6.0 mm

Cut I, a - 1.5 mm

75

0.2

r 60

0.4

450

238

350
? 450

4
ISO 3

75

0.2

60

0.4

450

355

450

Cut IV, a - 4.0 mm

L- Cut III, a - 3.0 mm
~~ Cut II, a - 6.0 mm
~~ Cut I, a - 5.0 mm

157

Steps of t h e o p e r a t i o n
fContd.)

W o r k i n g values

m/min

mm

n
r.p.m,

150

0.1

900

Pull out workpiece and rechuck

.Turn the worm section cylindrically
along the outside with ISO 2 tool.
Calculate the change gears lor the
double-thread nodule worm (spiral
ieadP a - 8tt)
and engage them.
Machine the worm prolile with
a lorm tool (thread-cutting tool)
by alternate leltward and rightward
advance.
Move the c o m p o u n d rest by half
the lead (use parallel end blocks)
alter completing the first thread
and then machine the second thread
Important:
Because of the large lead the left
flank of the form tool F must be
reground to a large clearance
angle a'.

4.5

2.8
$17.2
- J (0.2 allowance
lor grinding)

Harden and temper the rough-turned

worm shaft to 1000 N / m m 2
Mount the workpiece between centres
Turn the short side to the exact
dimensions with the ISO 3 tool
and turn out the radius R2.
Chamfer the right side with ISO
2 tool, and turn the worm
section to the exact dimensions
Cut the groove for the snap ring
with ISO 7 tool.
Cut the recess for the grinding
wheel with form tool F
Important:
in recessing the tool should
be set at the workpiece centre.
Rechuck workpiece. Set lathe driving
carrier on inset of Al or Cu. sheet
metal.
Finish the long side of the workpiece with ISO 3 tool and turn out
radii
Turn bevels with ISO 2 tool.
Cut recess with form tool F.
Finish the flanks of the worm
profile with form tool F (included
angle 40), leaving an allowance of
0.1 mm for grinding.
Important:
Use cutting oil as cooling
lubricant
Tilt tool slide by 250 and turn
taper with 0.2 mm allowance for
grinding
Important:
Unilorm cranking results in a
unilorm feed and a clean surface
with less grooves
Cut thread M 18 X 1 with the
threading tool (nose angle 60)
Cut thread M 12 with the thread
cutting tool (nose angle 60)
Important:
Cut out the thread profile by
alternately changing the
tool advance from rightward
to leftward.
In the last cut, finish the
entire profile with little
in-feed.

158

150

0.1

1400

150

0.1

1400

By hand

90

By hand

90

150

0.1

1400

150
5

0.1
By hand

1400
90

4.5

150

By hand

28

1400

56
56

(0.2 allowancJ
lor grinding)

Exercises
Cutting by chipping with machines

Chipping processes
1. Distinguish between motors, woifcing machines and machine
tools.
2. Name the machine tools for cutting.
3. Distinguish between cutting motion, feed motion, setting motion
and tool advance motion (in-feed motion).
4. In which machine tools does the tool carry out the cutting motion
and in which machines does the workpiece carry it out?
5. Describe the types of motion on a lathe, a planer and a milling
machine.
6. What are three functions of machine tools?
7. In which machine tools is the cutting motion rotary and in which
ones is it rectilinear?
8. What are the functions of the main gearbox and the feed train?
9. What is the purpose of a reference system?
10. Distinguish between the tool reference system and the working
reference system.
11. Name the surfaces on the cutting wedge.
12. Describe the locations of the five important angles on the
.. cutting wedge.
13. Explain the location of the angle of incidence "kappa".
14. What influence does the angle of incidence have on the directions
of the cutting forces?
15. Describe the location and effect of the back-rake angle.
16. Of which values is the cut cross-section the product?
17. What is the effect of a low feed rate and a high depth of cut?
18. Distinguish between tear chips, shear chips and flow chips.
19. What is a "built-up edge" and how can it be avoided?
20. What effect does excessive heat generation at the point of cut have
on the tool?

34. Three forces act upon a lathe tool. What are they called and in
which directions do they act?
35. What happens when a lathe tool protrudes too far forward from
the clamp?
36. What are the adavantages of quick-change tool holders?
37. Which tool angle changes when the tool, is set above centre?
38. What change of angle takes place when the tool is set below
centre?
39. Name the clamping devices for holding workpieces.
40. Describe how a tool is mounted between centres.
41. Explain the mode of operation and mounting of a steady rest.
42. Explain the mounting and mode of operations of a follower rest.
43. For what purposes are mandrels used?
44. How does a collect chuck work?
45. What are the advantages of collect chucks?
46. What is the function of a counterweight when using a faceplate to
hold a workpiece?
47. What does the term "cutting speed" mean?
48. What are the factors involved in choosing the cutting speed.
49. Determine the cutting speeds from the AWF-table (Fig. 3.280) for
the following specifications:
Feed
0.4
0.1

0.2
1.6

Material
GG-30
Alloyed steel
Al
St 85

Tool
M 10
M 20
SS
P10

50. What are the advantages and disadvantages of low and high cutting speeds?
51. Determine the r.p.m.'s for the following workpiece diameters and
cutting speeds from the diagram on p. 151:
65
300
23
600
115

Turning
21. Describe the basic construction of the toolroom lathe (sliding
screw-cutting iathe).
22. Distinguish between single-purpose and multipurpose lathe
machines.
23. Of what parts is a carriage and apron assembly made up?
24. What is the function of the apron?
25. What are the feed mechanisms of a lathe?
26. What is the function of the headstock gearing?
27. List the important points to be observed when transporting, erecting, aligning, putting into operation and maintaining machine
tools.
28. Where should the operating manuals of machine tools be kept?
29. What is the meaning of the lathe tool designation:
"Lathe tool ISO 3 DIN 4978 R h25 K10"?
30. Name some types of lathe tools.
31. What are the main advantages of throwaway cutters?
32. Name some cutting materials.
33. Explain the characterisation of cemented carbides with the characteristic colours.

Service life
480
60
240
60

52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
-60.
61.
62.

mm
mm
mm
mm
mm

35 m/min
50 m/min
200 m/min
10 m/njin
50 m/min

Name and describe the different sorts of lathe operations.

What are the different forms of knurling?
What is the meaning of shape accuracy?
Which components of the lathe machine affect the roundness and
the straightness of the workpiece? .
Describe the process of taper turning.
Describe the process of thread turning on a lathe machine.
What is the functional relationship between the lead screw and the
workpiece in thread cutting?
How is the thread-cutting tool set at the right position?
How is the thread-cutting tool advanced after every passage? '
Why should the cutting tool be exactly on the workpiece centre in
thread turning and form turning?
Why must the clearance angle of th6 flank be carefully watched and
increased if necessary when cutting very steep threads (large
lead)?

159

3.6.3 Milling
CHIP FORMATION
In m i l l i n g , It is t h e t o o l w h i c h d e s c r i b e s t h e rotary c u t t i n g
m o t i o n . The secondary m o t i o n s d e p e n d u p o n t h e n a t u r e
of t h e w o r k p i e c e or the type of t o o l used.

Chip f o r m a t i o n and angles on t h e m i l l i n g c u t t e r . The milling

cutter is a multitoothed tool, whose teeth remove chips one after the
other. Each tooth of the cutter has the basic angles (a, p and y) of any
cutting edge. The magnitude of the wedge angle depends, above all,
upon the material of the cutter and that of the workpiece. There are
three types of milling cutters:
H
N
W*

Fig. 3 . 3 0 4 Chip f o r m a t i o n
in m i l l i n g

Fig. 3.305 Angles on the

m i l l i n g cutter

Fig. 3.309 H o r i z o n t a l face m i l l i n g

Fig. 3 . 3 1 0 Vertical face m i l l i n g

for hard and tough materials.

for normal steels, soft grey cast iron, NF metals.
for soft and malleable materials.

Profile cutters or f l u t e d cutters. They have straight cutters and

are used to machine even surfaces. Blunted cutters are reground on
the flanks. This results in a progressive reduction of the diameter,
which, however, does not affect their serviceability.
Form-relieved cutters. The flanks of these cutters are produced
by spiral relieving on a special lathe machine. The curved cutting
edges have the shape of the workpiece, e.g., tooth flanks. In order to
ensure that the shape of the cutting edge remains unchanged, the
cutter can only be reground on the flank with y = 0.
Horizontal face m i l l i n g . The axis of rotation of the cutter is
parallel to the work surface. The chips are comma shaped. Because
the chip thickness is non-uniform and because sometimes only one
tooth bites in when the depth of cut is low, the machine and the cutter
are subject to pulsating stress. The milled surface is wavy. Cutters
with helical teeth reduce the pulsating load.
Vertical face m i l l i n g . The axis of rotation of the cutter is perpendicular to the work surface. The chips are uniformally thick and the
machine works silently because of the uniform load. The axis of the
cutter must be exactly perpendicular to the workpiece or else the
work surface will become concave.
Conventional (upcut) m i l l i n g . The feed is directed against the
cutting motion of the tooth. This process can be carried out on every
typeof milling machine. The disadvantage of this is that the tooth first
slides a little on the lightly ascending cut surface, at the beginning of
the cut. This results in the cutter being blunted more rapidly. The
amount of chip removal is low.
C l i m b m i l l i n g ( d o w n c u t milling). The directions of the feed and
the cutting motion are the same. The advantage is a better first cut
and longer service life of the cutter, greater depth of cut and rate of
chip removal. Workpieces with cast or rolled surfaces should not be
machined by down milling. This process can only be carried out on
milling machines with down-milling attachments. The feed spindle
should have no play.
W weich

160

(English Soft)

M I L L I N G CUTTERS A N D W O R K I N G V A L U E S
M i l l s are m u l t i t o o t h e d t o o l s m a d e o f t o o l s t e e l . E a c h
t o o t h may b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a n i n d e p e n d e n t c u t t i n g
tool.

Mill f o r m s
The shapes and sizes of the most important mills are governed
by norms. Apart from cutters covered by norms, it is also possible to order mills of any desired form by providing drawings.

Fig. 3.313 Cylindrical plain

m i l l i n g cutter

Fig. 3 . 3 1 4 Shell e n d m i l l

E x e r c i s e care w h e n s e t t i n g t h e w o r k i n g v a l u e s !
Many of the factors affecting machining significantly can
only be estimated by feel. It is therefore necessary to proceed
as follows:
1. C h o o s i n g t h e c u t t i n g s p e e d as per the table for HSS
and HM. When using the table below, the following points
must be kept in mind.
Up-milling

Roughing
Finishing
Finishing

Down-milling.

Fig. 3.315 Side m i l l i n g

cutter

Fig. 3.316 Single-angle

m i l l i n g cutter

= t a b l e value
= t a b l e value x 1.25
- t a b l e value X 1.5

Example:

Finishing steel ol b50 N/mm2 strength Table value 18 m/min X 1.25 ~

22 m/min.
2. S e t t i n g t h e r . p . m . This depends upon the cutting speed
chosen and upon the mill diameter.

Fig. 3 . 3 1 8 End m i l l

Fig. 3 .317 Face m i l l i n g

cutter with inserted t e e t h

Example:

Cylindrical piain-millmg cutter of 50 mm

1000Xv

1000 X 22 m/min = 146/min

3X 50 m

3. S e t t i n g t h e f e e d . The rate of teed must be

set on the milling machine in mm/min. There
are tables containing values derived from
experience for suitable feeds per mill tooth
s 2 *.
The feed s z depends upon the material of
the workpiece and upon the type of mill. If, for
example, an s 2 of 0.1 mm is estimated for one
tooth when machining a given material, and if
the mill has 10 teeth, the feed can be
s = 0.1 X 10 = 1 mm for one revolution. If the
mill is rotating at, say, 100 r.p.m., the rate of feed
u = s Xn = 1 mm X 100 r.p.m. = 100 mm/
min.
Example:
sz as per taoie = 0.15 mm/z; z - 8.
u s2 X z X n = 0.15 X 8 X 140 - 168 mm/min.
Set to the nearest lower value.
4. Depth of cut,a. In cylindrical plain milling
cutters a can be up to 5 mm, in cylindrical side
milling cutters, a = mill breadth, in strong end
mills a mill diameter, in down-mill cutters a
can be up to tooth height.
When the depth of cut is large, either the
cutting speed or the feed must be reduced.
z = Zahn (tooth).

Fig. 3 . 3 1 9 Concave form

relieved m i l l i n g cutter

Material

Fig. 3 . 3 2 0 Cutter g a n g

Hard metal HM

Mill ol high-speed steel HSSHSS

v in
m/min

j ^ m m / toolh

sz - mm/
tooth

v in
m/min

Types of mill (see illustration)

GG 15
GG-25
GTW-40
St 50 60
St 60 70
St 70 85
St 80 110
St 100 120
GS-45
CuSn
CuZn
Al
G-AI
Plastics

18
16
16
20
18
12
12
10.
16
40
50
250
250
55

22
20
20
24
20
16
16
14
20
50
60
350
350
70

0.2
0.2
0.2
0,2
0.15
0.1
0.15
0,1
0.15
0,15
0,2
0,1
0.1
0,15

0,15
0,15
0.2
0.15
0,1
0,1
0,1
0.1
0,15
0,15
0,2
0,1
0.1
0.15

0,07
0.07
0.07
0,07
0.06
0,06
0,1
0.07
0,07
0,07
0.07
0,07
0.07
0.1

0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0,05
0.07
0.07
0.07
0,07
0.07
0,07

0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0,06
0.06
0 06
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0,07
0,07

0.3
0.3
0.3
0,3
0,2
0.2
0,15
0.1
0.2
0,2
0,3
0,15
0.15
0,15

55
45
45
80
70
60
60..
60
50
80..
100
400
400
160

65
60
60
120
100
100
90
90
80
100
120
800
600
200

0.2
0.2
0,15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.1
0.1
0,15
0.15
0.2
0.1
0,15
0,2

0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.3

Fig. 3 . 3 2 1 S u g g e s t e d values for c u t t i n g speed and feed in milling.

161

STRUCTURE OF THE MILLING M A C H I N E

N e x t t o m i l l i n g m a c h i n e s used in mass p r o d u c t i o n (horizontal m i l l i n g m a c h i n e s ) a n d m a c h i n e s for special j o b s (keyway
m i l l i n g m a c h i n e s , a m o n g others), c o l u m n - a n d - k n e e m i l l i n g
machines are t h e c o m m o n e s t in use. Here we will be dealing w i t h only this type of m a c h i n e .

Column-and-knee m i l l i n g m a c h i n e s
These machines are suitable for the single-piece production ot smaii
workpieces (or for small or medium series production of up to 2000
pieces, using program devices). The main movement is carried out
by the tool, and all the secondary movements by the workpiece The
basic construction of all column and knee-type milling machines
is identical.

Basic c o n s t r u c t i o n
The frame carries all the components, such as the knee with the
cross-slide and table, the main motor with the main drive and milling
spindle, the overarm with end supports. The main drive normally has
18 speeds (20 r.p.m. to 400 r.p.m.) and is constructed in the form a
sliding-mesh gear train.

Fig. 3 . 3 2 2 Head of a vertical milling m a c h i n e

The knee can move up and down on the frame. It carries the
cross-slide. In all new machines, the feed train with the feed motor is
mounted in the knee. The feed train has 24 speeds with feeds bet
ween 10 and 1000 mm/min.
The cross-slide is between the knee and the table and makes the
cross-adjustment of the table possible.
The table has longitudinal grooves to clamp the workpiece, i*
carries out the longitudinal feed motion.
The overarm holds the milling spindle between its two e n d
supports

Overarm
E n d Support

Ditferent types of knee-and-column

milling machines
a) Horizontal m i l l i n g m a c h i n e s w i t h horizon
tal milling spindles.
b) Vertical m i l l i n g
milling spindles.

machines

with vertical

Cross-slide

c) Universal m i l l i n g m a c h i n e s differ from

horizontal milling machines in two ways.

Knee

The table can be tilted by 45" in both directions

round the vertical axis.
Frame

The dividing head can be connected to the

elongated table spindle by means of change
gears, so that the workpiece too is caused to
rotate.
It is therefore also possible to' mill helices,
helical-toothed reamers, milling cutters, gears
and worm gears with this machine.

162

Fig. 3 . 3 2 3 Universal m i l l i n g m a c h i n e

Secondary m o v e m e n t s
In the knee-and-column milling machine, all secondary motion is
carried out by the workpiece. The table imparts the longitudinal
motion, the cross-slide the transverse motion and the knee the vertical motion. The rate of vertical feed is usually 1 /3 that of the feed set.
All three motions can also be carried out in rapid traverse in order to
save time in adjustments. The main drive and the feed trains
generally have separate motors, because the spindle r.p.m. can be
low while the feed rate is fast, or vice versa, when using large,
sturdy mills.-

Longitudinal feed = s
and rapid traver:
Cross-feed - s
and rapid 'raverse

vertical feed * S/3

and rapid traverse

Fig. 3 . 3 2 4 Secondary m o v e m e n t s

Climb-milling attachment
The nuts are held apart
by a fixture so that no
backlash takes place

When the table carries the workpiece past the cutters, trie left nanus
of the spindle thread are pressed against the right flanks of the spindle nut thread by the feed force. When the cutter bites into the
workpiece which is moving in the direction of the cutting motion, it
abruptly pulls the workpiece, table and spindle to the right, until the
right flanks of the spindle thread strike the flanks of the nut (backlash). This undesired "feed" can cause the cutter to break. The
dangerous backlash can be compensated for by another nut, which,
being pushed leftwards by a fixture, presses against the right flanks
of the spindle thread.

ipindte

Tnrust on spindle
caused by climb milling

Feed force when

spindle rotates

Fig. 3 . 3 2 5 C l i m b m i l l i n g a t t a c h m e n t

Reciprocal m i l l i n g
Workpiece

When machining small or medium workpiece series, manoeuvring

cams are inserted in the ends of the table at the side. These cams
change the table movements by means of contacts, e.g., from feed to
rapid traverse, from left run to right run or to stop. With this cam control, the workpieces can be continuously machined if one uses two
quick-change clamps, one for each workpiece. While milling is carried out on one side, the workpiece can be changed on the other.
This reciprocative work sequence significantly shortens the total
production time.

Table -

Control dogs
Control box
with contacts
Fig. 3 . 3 2 6 Reciprocal m i l l i n g

Feed

Reciprocal m i l l i n g with p r o g r a m m e c o n t r o l
This further development of reciprocal milling also includes trie
transverse motion of the cross-slide and the vertical movement of the
knee in the system of automatic control. Depending upon the control
system, the impulses for changing over from feed to rapid traverse,
for cross-adjustment and height adjustment or for stopping, are
issued by means of cams, punch cards or punched tape. Such a system for combining the required impulses for a given workpiece is
known as a programme. When such a programme is given to a
machine, it produces the workpieces automatically.

Rapid traverse

Start

"Stop

Fig. 3.327 Reciprocal m i l l i n g w i t h p r o g r a m m e c o n t r o l

163

CLAMPING THE TOOL AND THE WORKPIECE

The m a c h i n i n g f o r c e is t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e p o i n t of machining (cutting the material) over t h e drive, t h e m i l l i n g s p i n d l e ,

the t o o l c l a m p , t h e t o o l and t h e c u t t i n g edge o f t h e t o o l . T h e
counter-force for t h i s c u t t i n g process is t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m
t h e frame to the w o r k p i e c e over t h e knee, t h e table a n d t h e
w o r k p i e c e - h o l d i n g device, e.g., vise.

Forces on the workpiece

Forces on the
cutter

Downmilling

Forces acting on t h e cutter

The cutting force F c is generated when removing tne chip its
magnitude is essentially determined by the material, the angles on
the tool, the rate of feed and the breadth of the milling cutter. As the
cutting force increases, the other forces increase as well. The cutting
or circumferential force is applied by the motor of the milling spindle.
It acts as a rotary force (torque) in the spindle and in the arbor. The
centre force F M is generated by the pressure of the workpiece upon
the mill. It is directed towards the centre of the mill. This force
generates a bending stress in the spindle. The machining force F 2
results from the forces Fc and FM. It changes its direction as the cutter rotates.

Fig. 3 . 3 2 8 Forces acting on the cutter

and on tha workpiece

Unfavourable

Mill with right-hand spiral ^

(left-hand cutting)

H o l d i n g the t o o l
A torque and a bending force act upon the tool holder. The torque is
generally very high in plain milling cutters, form-relieved milling cutters and face milling cutters with inserted teeth. These miils are
therefore held by positive locking with feather keys, form-locking surfaces or carrier blocks. The torque at a given cutting speed can be
reduced by using a mill of smaller diameter.

Favourable
Fig. 3 . 3 2 9 S m a l l cutter d i a m e t e r s require
small torques on the
spindle.

Fig. 3 . 3 3 0 Fix helicalt o o t h e d mills in such a way

that the axial thrust force
is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s the
machine.

With end mills, the torque is small because of their small

diameters. They are therefore held by frictional locking-in chucks,
collets or taper adapters.
The arm brackets should be seated closely against the mill to
absorb the bending force. When end mills are clamped in overhung
position, the rate of feed is kept low, so that the bending force
remains small.

Forces a c t i n g on t h e w o r k p i e c e
In up-milling, the cutter tends to push the workpiece horizontally along the table (F}), and to lift it off the table when the tooth
is lifting (F2). The forces are somewhat more favourable in
down-milling, because there is no lifting force. This is one of
the reasons why heavy cuts can be carried out in down-milling.
The workpiece holder .has only to absorb the horizontal force
F h because F 2 pushes the workpiece down against the
table.

Positive locking

Frictional locking

Fig. 3.331 Examples for clamping the workpiece

1. Frictional locking: Adjacent surfaces pressed
against each other are locked by static friction. This can
transmit only limited forces.
2. Positive locking: Material surfaces opposite to each
other are forced to transmit forces of any magnitude.

Feather key

Key
Short

Milling spindle

Taper MK4

Holding the workpiece

Small workpieces are generally held with machine vises
There are plain vises, swivel vises, universal vises quicchange vises and vises with prismatic insets for cylindrical
workpieces. These are used for various different workpiece
shapes and machining operations. Large workpieces are
clamped directly on the table, as is the case with the planer or
the slotter.

164

Arbor bracket

Narrow
h*
-\

CZ

Arbor

Fig. 3 . 3 3 2 Transmitting the cutting force from the main drive

to the cutter tooth by positive locking

I N D E X I N G PROCEDURE
W h e n producing squares, hexagons, gear wheels,
r a t c h e t w h e e l s , m i l l s , r e a m e r s , e t c . , t h e p r e - t u r n e d cylind r i c a l b l a n k has t o b e r o t a t e d b y o n e i n d e x i n g d i v i s i o n
after e a c h p a s s a g e a n d t h e n s e c u r e d t i g h t l y .

Shell end mill .

Plunger
pin

v"
Tailstock

Direct i n d e x i n g w i t h t h e i n d e x i n g h e a d

The workpiece is mounted between the centres of the indexing

mechanism and the tailstock. It is connected to the indexing plate
through the carrier block and the indexing spindle. The direct indexing plate generally has 24 slots or holes, so that it can be held fast
with a plunger pin at these points. All divisions of which 24 is a multiple, can be produced with this plate: 2 4 , 1 2 , 8 , 6 , 4 , 3 , 2 . After one surface, one tooth or one slot has been cut on the blank, the indexing
plate is rotated further by the required number of intervals between
holes, and then arrested.

\ Workpiece
Carrier
' block
s Indexing
spindle
s Indexing
plate

Fig. 3 . 3 3 3 I n d e x i n g m e c h a n i s m for direct

Indexing
The indexing plate can be changed for other
discs with a different number of notches

1/3 revolution 5
on
or 6
on

hole intervals
the circle with 1 hoies
hole intervals
the circle with 18 holes

Indirect indexing with the universal indexing head

Here too, the workpiece is mounted between the centres of the
tailstock and the indexing head, or else it is held in a three-jawed
chuck. The workpiece and the indexing spindle are connected by
the carrier block. The indexing spindle is rotated by the index crank,
over a worm gear set with a single thread worm shaft and a worm gear
wheel with 40 teeth. Forty revolutions of the crank result in one
revolution of the indexing spindle, i.e., the workpiece. When machining a workpiece, e.g., a gear wheel, the number of divisions p is
known, as well as the number of threads of the worm (single thread)
and the number of teeth of the worm gear (z = 40). Older dividing
heads have worm gears with 60 or 80 teeth. The number of
revolutions of the crank is then calculated as follows:
Crank revolution s

number of teeth of the worm gears

Fig. 3 . 3 3 4 Indexing circle on which

1/3 of a revolution has been marked
' indexing circle I 1 5161 71819iU hoies
Indexing circle II 212327293133 holes
Indexing circle III 373941434749 holes

division

n.
When the number of divisions is greater than 40, the
crank is turned through only a fraction of a full
revolution.
Example:
120 teeth have to be cut on a gear, p - 120 z 40;
nc 40/120 ** 1/3 revolution of the crank.
Punched discs with 18 different punch counts (hole circles)
are used so that the crank can be turned through 1/3 or some
other fraction of a revolution. One-third of a revolution can be
carried out exactly on the circles 15,18,21,27,33 and 39 holes,
i.e., on all punched circles whose number of holes is exactly
divisible by 3. For 1/3 of a revolution the crank must be turned
through 5 hole intervals on the circle with 15 holes, 6 holes on
the circle with 18 holes, 7 holes on the circle with 21 holes, etc.
Always choose the largest possible circle, it yields the most
exact division.
Calculation:

'

Expand the fraction 1/3 for the available punched circles:

nc - zip 40/120 - 1 /3 - 5/15, e.g., 5 spaces between holes
on the circle with 15 holes, or better, 11 holes in the circle with 33
holes, or 13/39.

Fig. 3 . 3 3 5 Universal Indexing head (simplified representation)

1 Housing 2 Indexing spindle 3 Worm gear with 40 teeth
4 Worm shaft (single threaded) 5 Indexing plate (changeable)
6 Crank 7 Indexing pin 8 Quadrant 9 Plunger pin for arresting
the indexing plate 10 Indexing pin for direct indexing 11 Indexing plate
for direct indexing 12 Carrier block 13 Workpiece 14 Mill

165

Different indexing

Example:

Indirect indexing can De used to produce only those divisions,

in whose case the fraction 40/p can be simplified so as to yield
a denominator equal to the number of holes in one of the available indexing circles.

Calculate the indexing crank revolutions Nc for the indexing numbers p

from 70 to 80.
40 ^
40 cannot be
" c 70
7
21
73 simplified
P
40 cannot be
40 ^ 20

ft

Indexing
spindle

Cutter
arbor
Workpiece

Worm gear

71

simplified

74 ^37_

40
72

10
18

40 __8_ etc.
75 15

The divisions 71,73,77 and 79 can thus not be produced by indirect

indexing; differential indexing has to be used in such cases.

Indexing
crank
Rigidly mounted
gears

Change gears
Intermediate gear

Fig. 3.336 Construction of a differential indexing attachment

The spur gear connected rigidly to the indexing plate is

mounted so that it can rotate on the worm shaft.
Rotary motion is imparted to the indexing plate by the index
crank via the worm shaft, the worm gear, the change gears and
the bevel and spur gears. Depending upon the change gears
used, the index olate rotates in the direction of the indexing
crank or contrary to it. If the intermediate gearz is taken out, the
indexing plate rotates anti-clockwise when the crank is turned
clockwise. The distance of the change gears can be set with a
quadrant.
Every indexing head has a standard set of change gears
with the following numbers of teeth:
24
48

24
56

28
64

32
72

36
86

40
100

44

In differential indexing, the crank revolution Nc is calculated for a

chosen larger or smaller number of divisions. This auxiliary indexing
number p' is so chosen, that it can be accommodated easily by one of
the available indexing plates. In order to obtain the desired division p,
the indexing plate must rotate with the crank or counter to it by an
amount corresponding to the difference between the auxiliary division
and the desired division. This compensatory or differential rotation of
the plate is imparted by change gears whose transmission ratio must
be calculated. In other words, two calculations have to be carried
out:
1. Calculating the number of holes and the indexing circle for the auxiliar division p'.
2. Calculating the change gears for the compensatory rotation of the
indexing plate.
Example:
A gear with 71 teeth has to be milled.
p - 71; selected auxiliary division p' = 70.
1st calculation:
The number of holes and the indexing circle must be calculated as
though 70 teeth were being milled.
40
P

40
70

12
21

12 intervals between holes or an

indexing circle with 21 holes

2nd calculation:
Calculating the change gears for the compensatory rotation of the
indexing plate.
40. .
.
' - r(P - P )
P

$70-71)

1 = 2

32_ driving gear

56 driven gear

The sign is important. If it is negative, the indexing, plate must rotate

counter to the crank and vice versa if it is positive. The direction of rotation of the indexing plate can be changed by introducing or leaving out
one intermediate gear.
As many as four change gears may be necessary for large indexing
numbers.
Example:
p - 293; p' - 300 selected.
1st calculation: .
n

__ 40 = 40 = 2
p' 300 15

2 spaces between holes on the

circle with 15 holes.

2nd calculation:
Fig. 3.337 Counter-rotation or ilka-rotation of the indexing
plate In differential indexing
When p Is smaller than p , the plate rotates cqunter to the indexing crank
When p is larger than p , the plate rotates along with the indexing crank

166

' v " ' - ^ S

1 3 0 0

2 9 3

=Z-7

280 __ 28 __ 4*7 __ 32*28 driving gears

300 30 6*6 24*40 driven gears

Helical Milling
Helical grooves have lo De milled in the production of twist drills,
spiral reamers or spiral-toothed cylindrical milling cutters. In this
process, the workpiece must carry out two movements:

Angle ot helix ft

Workpiece

1. Rectilinear feed (imparted by the table).

2. Rotary movement (imparted by the indexing head).
Both movements are simultaneous, so that the tool describes a
helical line on the mantle of the cylindrical workpiecesimilar to the
process of thread turning on a lathe. Here too, it is necessary to
calculate the change gears which will transmit the rotary motion of
the table spindle to the indexing head spindle connected to the
workpiece.
The pitches of the table spindle and the workpiece must be
known in order to calculate the change gears. When the two pitches
are related to each other, it becomes possible to calculate the number of teeth of the change gears, because the ratio between the
pitches is the same as the transmission ratio between the change
gears. The transmission ratio of the indexing head40:1 must be
included as a factor in the calculation:
pitch of the table spindle X 40
Ratio between tooth c o u n t s =
:-
-:

pitch of the workpiece X 1

P T X 40
P X 1
Example:

Angle of helix ft
Fig. 3.338 Milling helical grooves with the universal
indexing head
The feed frain of the milling machine drives the fable spindle. The
rotary movement is transmitted from the table spindle to the
workpiece via change gears, bevel and spur.gears, theindexing
plate, the plunger pin of the indexing crank, the worm shaft and the
worm gear. The indexing head and the workpiece move at an angle
to the arboraxis along with the spindle of the upper table, which has
been swivelled through the pitch angle.

Spiral grooves with 1500 mm pitch have to be cut on a workpiece with 200 mm
Table spindle pitch 6 mm.
Px -40 6*40 _ 240
4*6
PI = 1 500 1500 6*25
32-24 driving gear
"48-100 driven gear
Reiief angle

T h e t a b l e m u s t be s w i v e l l e d by t h e a n g l e of t h e h e l i x p.

Calculating the angle of helix p:

tan p =

circumference of the workpiece

pitch of the helix

Continuing the example:

Support
fingers
Fig. 3.33g Grinding a profile-toothed cylindrical mill and
the inserted teeth of a face milling cutter
The exacl magnitude of the relief angle is maintained by the
support finger

. . U 200 -3 14
.
628
tab P-

=0.418
1
P
1500
1500

S H A R P E N I N G T H E CUTTER
The cutting edges of the mill become blunt during machining This
mars the cleanness and accuracy of the machined surface. The mill
should therefore be sharpened regularly. The specified angles can
be maintained exactly only on a tool-grinding machine. Profile mills
are ground on their flanks. Form-relieved mills can only be ground on
the cutting faces, so that the shape of the cutting edge is not
changed and the mill profile remains the same.

Support
fingers

Fia. 3.340 Grinding form-r.n.,.d ct.r.

The rake angle is <r

167

EXAMPLE OF A J O B

T h e u n d e r p a r t of a w e d g e - c l a m p i n g d e v i c e of St 37 has to be
m i l l e d . T h e u p p e r part c a n t h e n b e p r o d u c e d t o f i t .

Working values: v =
n =
sz =
u =

cutting speed
r.p.m.
feed mm/tooth
rate of feed mm/min

Sequence of operations
1. F a c e - m i l l t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e of t h e b l a n k ( 5 5 X 55 x 115) w i t h
a shell end mill to the final d i m e n s i o n s .
The parallel and angular settings of the workpiece are carried out
with end blocks and angle gauges, with the tool stationary.

T-groove screw
DIN 787

Shell end mill*

DIN 1880

Sheli end mill DIN 1 8 8 0 , 0 60 X 30, 8 teeth.

Possible working values
Roughing cut a 1 mm
Finishing cut a = 1 mm

20
25

112
125

0.15
0.15

u
Clamping bar DIN 6314

120
0.50

The workpiece is fixed with a sturdy clamping bar. If the bar is not
strong enough, two should be used. The clamping block should be 1
or 2 mm higher than the workpiece, so that the bar continues to grip
the workpiece in the centre even if it begins to sag or bend due to
shearing stress.

Parallel, setting with

an end block and solid steel
square

Clamping block
DIN 6326

Set 45 position
with a metre square 135

2. Reshaping the workpiece from 33 mm to 20 mm height

and 65 mm breadth with shell end mill DIN 1880,
0 75 X 7 5 , 10 t e e t h .
Possible working values
a) Up-milling
3 roughing cuts a = 4.5 mm
1 finishing cut a = 1.5 mm
or
b) Climb-milling, only with
an anti-backlash device
2 roughing cuts a = 7 mm
1 finishing cut a = 1 mm

Sneii end mill

DIN 1880

17
90

0.15
0.15

100

20

90

25

112

0 15
0.15

135
170

16

20

135

Smaller working values because of the larger cutter breadth.

Fix the tool so that the axial force is directed towards the machine.
Place the end supports close to the cutter. Clamp the workpiece in a
sturdy vise.

3. Cutting out the groove with a convex milling cutter DIN 856,
radius 1 0 m m . 0 9 0 , 1 4 t e e t h
Possible working values
/? c u t s a 7.5 mm

168

Set angular position

with a steel square

16

56

0.07

50

Climb-milling
3 cuts

Up-milling
4 cuts

Semi-circular lorm tool (convex) DIN 856

4. M i l l i n g o u t t h e g r o o v e w i t h a key c u t t e r DIN 3 2 6
Key cutter with tapered shaft 0 1 4
Key culler DiN 326
.a-6

Possible working values

1 cut a = 6 mm

s7

23

560

0.07

80

The milling cutter can be set to the workpiece centre with an end
block set of 18 mm height. When raising the table, it is advisable to
hold a thin sheet of paper between the cutter and the end block, so
that contact between them can be felt and the precision tools are
not damaged.

4
T
7" PZ3

Height setting with an

end block

Morse taper
'collect

Set the workpiece at 45 to the longitudinal axis of the table with a

mitre square.
Dovetail mill 60u OIN 1833

5 . M i l l i n g o u t t h e d o v e t a i l e d g r o o v e w i t h a d o v e t a i l m i l l i n g cutter DIN 1 8 3 3 , 60", 12 t e e t h .

Possible working values

sz

10

125

0.07

80

Milling
depth

Collect chuck

1 cut a = 5 mm

The feed and tne cutting speed should be kept low for this sensitive tool. The exact milling depth can be set as follows: Advance the
workpiece carefully (paper probe) on to the mill. Move the workpiece
to the side and set to the milling depth with the cross-slide spindle.
Read the milling depth on the measuring collar of the cross-slide
spindle.

Setting the milling depth

Key cutter OIN 326

6. M i l l o u t t h e s l o t w i t h t h e key c u t t e r DIN 2 6 3 , 0 14
Possible working values
4 cuts a = 5 mm

23

n
* 560

0.07

80

Do not change the height setting of the table. Scribe out the
length of the slot and punch-mark with a centre punch. Place clamping bars at both ends of the slot to be milled. Set the switch dogs for
halting the table feed, by trial and error, in such a way that the mill
cuts halfway into the punch-marks when the feed is automatic. After
each cut, advance the workpiece manually towards the cutter by the
cutting depth a = 5 mm, and switch on the feed again.

Scribe the length

ot the slot

Remark
The r.p.m. values calculated trom the selected cutting speeds and
mill diameters are rounded off upwards or downwards to standard
r.p.m. values for machine tools. The rates of feed u (mm/min) must be
calculated from the r.p.m. setting actually used.
Table values have been used here for choosing the cutting speed
v and the feed per tooth s z . These are valid only when high-capacity
milling machines are used. The working values must be reduced by
40 to 50% when using older machines.

Set switch dogs at 60 - 14 46 mm

3.6.4 Drilling, sinking, reaming

PRODUCTION PROCESSES
Boring is a process of m a c h i n i n g w i t h a rotary c u t t i n g m o t i o n ,
in w h i c h t h e t o o l only a l l o w s a f e e d m o v e m e n t in t h e d i r e c t i o n
of t h e axis of rotation. B o r i n g i n c l u d e s various p r o d u c t i o n processes s u c h as c o u n t e r - b o r i n g a n d r e a m i n g .

Machining
process

Purpose

Tools

Machines

Drilling

Holes from the solid

Twist drill

Upright drilling
machine

Predrilling

Holes to be subsequently
bored out. enlarged by
counter-boring, spot
faced, counter-sunk, etc.

Twist drill

Radial drilling
machine
Jig-boring
machine

Reboring

Enlarging (improving the

surface a n d position) pre
drilled or pre-cast holes

Twist drill,
spiral-fluted
counter-bore,
shell drill

Machining the top

faces of hubs and
bosses
Recesses lor screw
heads etc.

Flat counterbore. pilot

counter-bore
Pilot countersink. conical
counter-sink

Enlarging (improving
surface and position)
pre-drilled or pre-cast
ho!es

Boring bar,
boring head onesided or two*
?-ded

Boring mill and

jig-boring
machine, turning,
boring a n d milling machine

Oeep
drilling

Deep holes from

the solid

Deep hole drill

simple D-bit

Deep-hole drilling
machine

Hollow
drilling

Deep holes of large

Hollow drill

0 from the solid

Deep-hole
drilling machine

Spot
facing
Counter
sinking
Reboring

Multiple spinoie
drilling
machine

Drilling

Pre-drilling

Reboring

W///97777z
Spot facing

Counter-sinking

Enlarging

Lathe m a c h i n e
Deep drilling

Hollow drilling

Fig. 3 . 3 4 1 P r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s c l a s s e d u n d e r " d r i l l i n g
and counter-boring"

rang

BORING TOOLS
Boring t o o l s are t w o - e d g e d t o o l s m a d e of t o o l steel, w h i c h
are used to drill holes f r o m t h e s o l i d or to enlarge a n d
improve existing holes.
C u t t i n g edges a n d angles on t h e t w i s t drill
Twist drills have two helical c h i p flutes. These facilitate chip flow
and the flow of the lubricant to the cutting edges.
The lands (ramnants of the original cylindrical outer surface
before the flutes were cut) guide the drill in the hole-They are narrow
so that the friction between the drill and the hole walls remains low.
The edges of the lands are the secondary c u t t i n g e d g e s of the drill.
The chip-bearing surfaces of the flutes and the flanks intersect to
form the lips (main cutting edges). When properly ground, each lip
forms a straight line. This is accomplished by relief-grinding the
flanks in a curve from the cutting edge.
At the tip of the drill, the line of intersection between both flanks
forms the chisel edge. This is the bent part of the main cutting edge,
and it has a shaving effect. This requires about 2/3 of the feed force.
The loss of force is minimum at an angle of about 55 . The feed force
can be further reduced by symmetrical thinning (pointing), which,
however, reduces the strength of the drill tip.
The c u t t i n g rake angle (y) is determined by the helix angle, and
becomes progressively smaller towards the core of the drill. As with
all chipping tools, it must be large for soft materials and as small as
possible for hard ones.

170

Flank
- Chisel e d g e
View of Ihe drill tip
Fig. 3 . 3 4 2 T e r m s u s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t w i s t d r i l l

Land
Cutting rake
Point
Up angle

Flute

surface
Secondary cutting
(trail) edge
Outer edge

Mam flank
Chisel

Point-thinned
Drill diameter
Fig. 3 . 3 4 3 C u t t i n g e d g e s a n d a n g l e s o n t h e t w i s t Grill

Twltt drill-type N y = 16 ... 30

For normal chipping materials
Steel and cast steel up to 700 N/mm2a 118W
Cu alloys from CuZn 40 onwards, nickel, <r 140d
Stainless steel
Twist drill-type H y - 10... 13
For hard and brittle materials
Cu alloys up to CuZn 40 a - 118
High-strength steels <r= 140
Moulted plastics, stone a - 80
Twist drill-type W y - 35". 40
For soft materials
Aluminium, copper a - 140
Zinc alloys a - 118

16 .30/
TypN

Typ H

10#

x
\ai
Typ W

3S.

13

Fig. 3 . 3 4 4 Twist d r i l l s are available in three types

T h e l i p relief a n g l e (a) is produced by grinding away the surtace

back of the cutting lip. It increases from the circumference towards
the centre.
The wedge-shaped cutting edge of the twist drill can be
visualized by means of an experiment.

10,

Typ N

Typ H

Experiment: A drill for steel and one for laminated plastic are rolled on a
sheet of paper with a blueprint backing. The lip angle, lip clearance angle and
cutting rake angles show up.
T h e p o i n t a n g l e (<r = sigma) is the total included angle of the drill
point (formed by the lips). The correct magnitudes for these angles
have been determined by experience, and are specified in Dl N 1414,
in relation to the material being drilled. The point angle should be
small when drilling materials which c ffer great cutting resistance and
are poor conductors of heat (plastics).
Five specially ground drills as per DIN 1412:
A. Point-thinned chisel edge drill
Low feed force; better cutting
characteristics
B. As in A, but w i t h m o d i f i e d lip
As in A, increased lip angle for hard materials

C. Spiral p o i n t drill
The chisel edge is converted into two secondary
edges which cut together

A. Point-thinned chisel edge drill

D. Double cone mantle drill

B. Point-thinned chisel edge

drill with modified lip

E. Spotting drill

C. Spiral point drill

Shell drill

Steel up to 700 N/mm 2

Steels above 900 N/mm 2

spring steel, Mn-steel, chilled
cast iron, Mg alloys

Steel above 900 N/mm 2

D. Double c o n e mantle drill

The two sensitive edges of the lip are
ground away

Grey cast iron, chilled

iron, malleable cast iron

E. Spotting drill
Good centring, no burr formation
in through drilling

Al alloys, copper, zinc.

hard tissue

Shell drills
Pre-bored or cast bore holes are rebored with shell drills before
reaming. These are also known as four-lipped drills. Because of its
rigid, sturdy construction, the shell drill produces straight holes.

Boring spindle

>r<r;J
I

Boring head
Short holes are rebored to final dimensions with boring heads. The
boring bit can be adjusted radially to the dimerisions of the hole. The
boring head is generally used on coordinate boring machines. When
used at high cutting speeds, low feeds and with accurate spindle
guidance, these tools can be used to machine extremely accurate
holes of g o o d surface quality.

r i

workpiece

i
Fig. 3 . 3 4 5 Boring (internal boring tool).

171

Single-lipped drill for d e e p d r i l l i n g

This tool is used to drill deep holes (up to 0 8 0 ) It can drill from the
solid and has two cutting edges with an included angle of 120. The
point must be exactly centred or the drill will w a l k to one side or the
other. The three lands guide the tool accurately along its entire
length. The cooling lubricant is forced to the cutting edge through
the oil hole under pressure.

Oil noie

[/ 2

16 Bit

Drill head

Hollow drill

Fig. 3 . 3 4 6 S l n g l llp d r i l l

This consists of a tube and a boring head Depending upon the

diameter, 2 to 16 bits are inserted at the front end of the boring head.
To reduce the load on the bits, their cutting edges are of differing
breadthso that each bit only machines a part of the entire cutting
breadth. A high-pressure lubricant stream washes the chips out.

Fig. 3.347 Hollow d r i l l

Flank

Chtp-beanng
surface
Secondary
culling edge
Outer edge
Cutting

Working
motion

Fig. 3 . 3 4 8 M a c h i n i n g process

MACHINING PROCESS

The twist drill acts as a m u l t i t o o t h e d t o o l w h i l e d r i l l i n g .

Since t h e chisel e d g e t o o acts in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f e e d ,
the drill has t h r e e main c u t t i n g edges. As per DIN 6 5 8 1 , o n e
also d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t w o secondary c u t t i n g e d g e s
and t w o o u t e r edges.

The axial feed of the drill drives the lips into the
material, causing to be removed. The c u t t i n g
m o t i o n and the f e e d m o t i o n are distinguished
from each other. The working motion of the drill is
the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by these
two motions. The cutting plane also lies in the
direction of the working motion. One result of this
is that the effective cutting rake angle and the lip
clearance angle change while drilling. As can be
seen from the diagram, the cutting rake is
increased. The working clearance angle is
smaller than the original relief angle.
When working with soft materials and large
drill diameters, a large lip clearance angle must
be relief-ground on the drill (about 7), so that the
working clearance angle still remains large.

172

Working relief
angle

Feed motion
Drill chip

Fig. 3 . 3 4 9 F o r m a t i o n of t h e w o r k i n g c l e a r a n c e a n g l e

Cutting plane

ECONOMICAL BORING
Feeo motion

T h e c u t t i n g s p e e d a n d t h e f e e d d e t e r m i n e t h e rate o f c u t o f
the drill.
Cutting motion
Cutting speed

Cutting speed and feed

A high rate of cut is desirable from the standpoint of economy. This
refers to the volume of chips removed per minute.
The cutting speed v, specified in m/min, is the distance in meters
travelled by the land of the drill in one minute.
The feed s, specified in mm, is a measure of the distance by which
the drill penetrates the material of the workpiece in one revolution.
For a given drill, raising the cutting speed is tantamount to raising
the rate of revolution (r.p.m.) n, which results in increasing the penetration and cutting rate per unit time.
Increasing the feed force results in increasing the rate of feed and
therefore also the depth of penetration and rate of cut. Higher feed
force and cutting speed, however, are accompanied by greater heat
generation and wear of thetool cutting edge. The economical cutting
speed depends upon the material of the workpiece, the efficiency of
coolant lubrication and the heat stability of the tool.

Fig. 3 . 3 5 0 C u t t i n g speed

Cutting wedge

10
Chip volume
D
P
=

20 30
40 _m_50
mm
Cutting speed v

ds ,
n s = ^ dnn

r s

Fig. 3 . 3 5 1 Rate of cut

R e c o m m e n d e d v a l u e s for c u t t i n g s p e e d v a n d f e e d i>, f o r h i g h s p e e d steel d r i l l s

CT>

100...150
o

0.1 . . . 0.6

Light
metals

12 . . . 3 0
b>

30 . . . 40
0.1 . . . 0.4

Copper

o
CO

Grey cast
iron

o
CO

v in m/min
s in mm

Steel up to
st 60

Material

The value for v is halved when using tool-steel drills and four to
five times as high when using drills with cemented carbide tips. The
rate of feed remains about the same.
The r . p . m . , drill diameter and cutting speed are related to
each other:
Circumferential distance travelled by the drill cutting edge in one
revolution sy=dXiT.
The circumferential distance travelled in n
revolutions s = dXirn.
The r.p.m. specifies the number of revolutions in one minute, so that the formula for cutting speed when
t = 1 is:
s

dnn

~t~

v - d n n

v in

m
min

Lips ot unequal,
length but at equal
angles,
chisel
edge not on the
drill axis .
Consequences ,
1. Unequal stress
2. Drill will "walk"
3. Drill hole will be
oversize

Lips
ol
equal
length but at unequal angles
Consequences:
/

1. Cutting edges
are of unequal
length
2. Drill is stressed
more on one
side
3 Drill will "walk"
4, Drill hole will be
oversize

Lips
of
unequd'
length and at unequal angles chisel
edge outside the
drill axis
Consequences
1 The drill is sires
sed more on one
side.
2 The drill "walks"
3. The drill hole is
oversize.

Fig. 3 . 3 5 2 C o n s e q u e n c e s of w r o n g g r i n d i n g

Testing the
point angle

Testing the
chisel edge
angle

Testing
the lip
angle

Example:
Given: v - 24 m/min, d - 10 mm - 0.01 m. find n.

v = dXnXn;n

=
DX

24 m/min
=
0.01 m X 3.14

;n =

IT

765/min

Fig. 3 . 3 5 3 T e s t i n g t h e g r o u n d angles w i t h a g r i n d i n g g a u g e

173

DRILLING OPERATIONS
Fixing the drill
The drill chuck is fixed on the spindle. The cylindrical shanks of small
drills are clamped in a three-jawed chuck orif the drill is to be
changed frequently while the machine is in operationin a quickchange chuck.Tapersleeves can also be used for small drills. Larger
drills are mounted in the drjll spindle, together with their taper
shanks, by tapping them lightly with a lead hammer. They are
removed with drill drifts.

Bevel gear

Key with
bevel gear

Fig. 3 . 3 5 4 Three-Jawed c h u c k

Fixing the w o r k p i e c e
Workpieces must be secured against the tendency to be propelled
around. When through holes have to be bored, the lips of the drill
hook into the material remaining at the end to the hole, generating
large turning forces at the workpiece.

Drill drift

Long workpieces are laid on drill bases of wood or steel and held
by hand. Short workpieces are clamped firmly in machine vises with
clamps or in hand vises or drilling fixtures. Cylindrical workpieces
are held firmly in V-blocks.

Fig. 3 . 3 5 5 Fixing w i t h taper shank

Step *tand DIN 6318

Clamp DIN 6314

Drilling d e f e c t s and causes of d r i l l breakage

W o r k p i e c e : Grain faults prevent the drill tip from being guided properly. Not clamped firmly, so that the drill bit catches.
Tool: Drill squeaks because the lands are worn away Drill spin
die has too much axial play. Wrong type of drill selected. Drill wrongly
ground. Wrongly ground drills become blunt rapidly and produce
inexact drill holes.
Drilling o p e r a t i o n : The drill becomes too hot because the feed
and cutting speed are too high. The drill hole is deeper than the flutes
of the twist drill. No drill bush used when drilling angled workpieces.
Change in cutting force caused by cavitations and inclusions not
taken into account. Insufficient coolant lubrication.
Cooling reduces the temperature of the cutting edge, and lubrica
tion the friction between drill and workpiece. Cooling lubricants are
drilling emulsions. They are necessary when drilling steel, CuZn
alloys and Al alloys. Mg alloys, cast iron and plastics are drilled
dry.

Clamping screw

IT
v ' / / / / /

, , / / i / /
' / / / / / / /

Drill base

Drill table

Workpiece
Fig. 3 . 3 5 6 C l a m p i n g o n t h e d r i l l table

Drill
bush

Soap water can be used as cooling lubricant, or drilling

emulsions for steel, aluminium and Cu alloys. Grey cast iron, hard
rubber, electron metal and plastics are drilled dry.
Drilling without drill bushes: Drills slide on inclined surfaces and
the guidance is not satisfactory in interrupted holes.
Drilling cast pieces: Cutter catches in cavities (air holes),
increased cutting load with hard casting and hard material
inclusions.

174

Hard material
inclusion

Fig. 3 . 3 5 7

COUNTER-BORING A N D COUNTER-SINKING
These are drilling processes using t o o l s w i t h t w o or m o r e
c u t t i n g edgescounter-bores (cylindrical) a n d countersinks (conical).
They are used to deburr sharp-edged holes, to drill p r o f i l e
recesses at t h e tops of holes (Fig. 3 . 3 5 8 ) , to enlarge precast or pre-bored holes to t h e desired size (Fig. 3 . 3 5 9 ) , to
produce cylindrical recesses above h o l e s (Fig. 3.360) a n d
to spot-face even surfaces above h o l e s (Fig. 3 . 3 6 1 ) .

Choice of t o o l
Many different types are available:
Counter-sinks are manufactured in diameters from 8 to 80 mm.
Point angles vary for different purposes60 for deburring, 75 when
recessing for rivet heads, 90 for counter-sunk screw head recesses
and 120 for driving some types of rivets.

Fig. 3 . 3 5 8 Charterless
c o u n t e r - s i n k (Profile
counter-sinking)

Fig. 3.35S Spiral-fluted

counter-bore
(reboring)

The cutting wedges are ground without cutting rakes. 10 to 12

teeth on the circumference prevent chattering or catching in the
hole.
Counter-bores w i t h spiral f l u t e s are used for reboring. They are
similar to twist drills in appearance; they have, however, three or four
flutes insteadof only two.Guidance insidethe drill hole is betterthan
is the case with the twist drill. The drill hole :s made smooth.

Fig. 3 . 3 6 0 Counter-bore
w i t h pilot (recess counterboring)

Fig. 3.361 Flat c o u n t e r - b o r e

(spot facing)

Counter-bores are made in f u l l size for holes to be rebored to

final a.mensions and u n d e r s i z e d for holes which will be reamed
subsequently.
Flat counter-bores (spot-facing cutters) are used to spot-face
raised uneven surfaces on castings. They are used to produce even
resting surfaces for fillister head screws and nuts.

Shank

Pilot counter-bores with fixed or interchangeable guides are

used to produce even, recessed surfaces for fitting fillister head
screw.
The pilot ensures that the recess is exactly centred on the drill
hole.

REAMING
Fig. 3 . 3 6 2 M a c h i n e reamers

Machine reamers are used to f i n i s h c y l i n d r i c a l d r i l l holes.

The surface quality of t h e hole w a l l is i m p r o v e d greatly,
while b r i n g i n g it to f i n a l d i m e n s i o n s . A r e a m e d hole
generally c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e fit q u a l i t y H 7.

Machine reamers are distinguished from hand reamers in that

they have:
1. Two shank formscylindrical or tapered,
2. Short cutting bodies with long collars, and
3. Short chamber lengths.
The body and the chamber length can be small because the
reamer is well guided by the drill spindle. The shell reamer with
arbor has been developed to save expensive tool steel. It is used for
reaming large diameters (18 to 100 mm).
All reamers are available in straight-fluted and helical-fluted
types, and with straight or taper shanks.

Uiaw-off
nur

Tang
\ S i

Tapered hole
1:30
Fig. 3 . 3 6 3 Shell reamer

Tape i 3U
Arbor
(shown smaller)

175

DRILLING MACHINES

drilled simultaneously, which significantly reduces production time, e.g., in machining gear boxes, engine blocks, etc.

Round c o l u m n u p r i g h t d r i l l i n g m a c h i n e
This consists of a base, a column, a table and a head with a drill
spindle. The main motion of the spindle is rotary, and it also
performs the rectilinear, axial feed motion. The position of the
spindle cannot be changed, so the workpiece must be shifted
under the tool. These machines are used for drilling, counterboring, reaming andwith suitable equipmentthreading.
Depending upon the machine, it can be used to produce holes
of 30,50,80 and 100 mm diameter.

Gang d r i l l i n g m a c h i n e s
Two to four drilling heads with drill spindles are mounted on a
rectangular machine table. These are used for small workpieces when a number of drilling operations have to be carried
out in sequence, e.g., the first spindle may hold a twist drill, the
second a reamer and the third a counter-bore. The workpiece
is then shifted from spindle to spindle and machined
accordingly.

Multiple s p i n d l e d r i l l i n g m a c h i n e s
The drill spindle in the head transmits its rotary motion to
several (up to 32) universal joint spindles. Each of these spindles can machine a workpiece, so that several holes can be

P r o d u c i n g t h e c u t t i n g m o t i o n . The electric motor drives

the PIV-drive over a safety coupling which switches off when
overloaded. The rate of revolution can thus be regualted
steplessly. The drill spindle receives its rotary motion through
a sliding gear drive.
P r o d u c i n g t h e f e e d m o t i o n . This motion is always
transmitted by the drill spindle. In this way, the feed can be
specified in mm/revolution. The driving-key transmission
gears-up or gears-down the rate of revolution. The feed shaft
and the feed pinion are driven over a worm gear set. This
engages the teeth of the drill spindle bush and moves it
downwards with the spindle. Once the interlock between the
worm gear and the feed shaft is broken with the star wheel, the
feed can be carried out manually.

Radial d r i l l i n g m a c h i n e
This is used to machine large workpieces which cannot be
shifted on the drill table under the drill. The special construction of the machine makes it possible to slide the drill head
with the tool over the point of machining. In order that a large
number of different operations can be carried out with the
workpiece clamped to the base of the machine, the drill spindle has 24 rates of revolution, e.g., from 20 to 2000 r.p.m. and
just as many feed rates from 0.05 to 2 mm.

Manual

Fig. 3 . 3 6 4 Drlva of a r o u n d c o l u m n u p r i g h t d r i l l i n g m a c h l n a

176

Fig. 3 . 3 6 5 Radial d r i l l i n g m a c h i n e

COORDINATE BORING M A C H I N E

Coordinate boring machines are mainly used In toolrooms

to drill and rebore gauges, fixtures, measuring Instruments
and other precise workpieces, but also for measuring and
marking operations.

Example ol a (oo
Column

Their special features are

1

Specially rigid construction, so that the machine can drill

accurately even from the solid.
2 Specially high accuracy of all guidance mechanisms and
bearings.
3 High spindle r.p.m.'s3000 r.p.m. and more for fine-hole drilling,
depending upon the size of the machine.
4 Small feeds (0.02 mm) for fine-hole drilling.
5. Table moving crosswise and endwise with the distance ot
adjustment in either direction indicated in reading values down
to 1 /xm.
Fig. 3 . 3 6 6 Coordinate drilling m a c h i n e

Coordinate measuring system

Zero point

Screw with error

compensation

The position of a point can be located exactly by a longitudinal and a

transverse measurement relative to a zero point.

Exampl*:

Longitudinal measurement - longitudinal movement ot the taDie 37.650 mm

Transverse measurement

- crosswise movement of the table 27.500 mm.

Reading
Mam scale i mm
Collar 0.01 mm
Vernier 0 001 mm

Thus, every further point on the workpiece can be located and set
Dy one longitudinal and one transverse coordinate.
The dimensioning of the workpiece on the drawing is then
likewise carried out according to the coordinate system. Different
measuring systems have been developed by manufacturers for the
adjustment distances of the table. In the machine shown here, the
micrometer screw principle has been used; in other machines, precision glass scales which can be observed and read with optical
instruments (magnifying lenses) are mounted in air- and dust-tight
housings. It must be noted, however, that the observed length does
not always correspond to the actual distance of adjustment with a
reading accuracy of 1 /xm. Temperature variations in4he machine,
frictional resistances of the slideways and other factors cause
additional deviations, so that the acutal positional accuracy (of the
workpiece under the spindle) which can be expected is around

Fig. 3 . 3 S 7 Coordinate measuring syetem by the mlrcometer screw

principle (longitudinal adjustment)

3 fim.

Zero setting
The zero point ot the workpiece must be set exactly under the axis of
the drill spindle if the coordinate measuring system is to be used. If
the zero point is represented by the intersection of two marking lines,
by a counter-punch mark, or by a small drill hole (up t o 0 5 mm), the
axis of the drill spindle can then be set with the help of a
microscope.

Fig. 3 . 3 6 8 S i g h t i n g M l c r o a c o p e
for zero point setting

Fig. 3 . 3 6 g HD-edge feeler

The workpiece edge can
be approached exactly
with this device. The
edge is then used as a
zero line lor lurther
measurements

177

Column-^

faiistocK

Spindle head

Longitudinal
saddle
Cross-feed slide

^sCuttmg movement

Feed movement

< v / S e t t i n g movement'

Fig. 3 . 3 7 0 Horizontal boring a n d m i l l i n g m a c h l n a w i t h

tabla moving endwise and cronswise and tailstock

HORIZONTAL BORING A N D MILLING MACHINE

The horizontal b o r i n g a n d m i l l i n g m a c h i n e is a multipurpose m a c h i n e for small series a n d s i n g l e piece p r o d u c t i o n .
This machine is mainly used in machining large gear housings
and machine frames. Once the workpiece has been fixed, it can be
machined on all vertical sides by rotating the table.

Workpiece
Diai gauge

To accomplish this purpose, the machine is capable of a large

number of movements. The spindle head can be adjusted vertically
and the table crosswise, to reach the drilling point. The distances of
adjustment (distance of the drilling point in the vertical and horizontal directions) can be read on scales with verniers with a minimum
reading value of 1/10 mm.
Dial gauges or parallel end blocks may be added to the scales to
increase the accuracy of adjusting distances. Modern machines
have precision scales with optical reading instruments which permit
a reading accuracy of up to 1/100 mm. This coordinate measuring
system often makes marking redundant.

178

Table

Vertical
scale

Horizontal
sca'e

Dia< gauge

Fig. 3.371 Aligning the drill spindle to the drilling point

EXAMPLE OF A JOB
The w o r k p l a c e , e.g., a gearbox, la t u r n e d r o u n d Its vertical axis
to positions I to IV. One side of t h e w o r k p i e c e is m a c h i n e d In
each position.

Machining point 2
Positions I

IV

Enlarging a hole. Short holes located near the

spindle head can be bored out with a boring head
mounted in overhung position on the spindle
head. Movements as in I/2.
Machining point 3
Thread tapping with a tap. The tap (generally a
heavy-duty single cut tap) is fixed on the drill spindle with a taper socket. The tap should be fixed so
that it cannot slip either radially or axially, as the
tool might otherwise break off, or the thread
become crooked, as a result of forced feed motion
from the drill spindle.

Position III:
Mschining point 1
Tailstock
Fig. 3.372 Machining s gear box

Spot-facing the top surface of a hub which has

been cast on. The boring bar is of the same
diameter as the drill hole and is thus guided there.
The cutter inserted in the boring bar is fixed by a
taper key.

Position I:
Machining point 1

Machining points 2, 3 and 4

Facing one outer surtace. The tool is clamped to the cross-slide of

the face plate with a tool holder. The cross-slide is automatically
moved in towards the centre, at the set feed rate, while the face
plate rotates.

Drilling from the solid, reboring and reaming a

drill hole. The tools (twist drill for pre-drilling,
spiral-fluted counter-bore for reboring io reaming
size, and reamer) are fitted on the drill spindle one
after the other.

Machining point 2
Reboring with boring bar and bit. The boring bar is inserted on the
drill spindle, which imparts to it its rotary motion and axial feed
motion. The boring bar is guided into the tailstock.
Machining point 3
Reboring a large hole. For the large drilling diameter, the tool is fixed
on the boring rod with a drill head. Movements are as in 2.

Position II:

Position IV:

Machining point 1

Mschining points 1 snd 2

Cutting an outside thread. A face-plate carriage with a hook-shaped

tool is clamped on to the face plate which rotates. The tool feed for
the depth of thread is imparted by the handwheel on the face plate
carriage. In this case, the workpiece carries out the main feed movement (equivalent to the thread pitch).

Spot-facing and conically recessing a nave with

shell drills. The shell drill are fixed with an arbor
and pilot rod on the drill spindle. The pilot rod is of
the same diameter as the hole and provides the
necessary guidance to the tool.
179

3.6.5 Planing, slotting.

METHOD OF WORK A N D TOOLS
Flat a n d curved surfaces are m a c h i n e d on
planing, s h a p i n g and s l o t t i n g m a c h i n e s .

Fig. 3 . 3 7 3 M o v e m e n t s In p l a n i n g , s h a p i n g and s l o t t i n g

Planing

The workpiece carries out the cutting (reciprocating) motion, the tool
the feed and in-feed motion. This process is suited to machining
long, narrow surfaces. If possible, several workpieces should be
clamped in a row one after another on the machine table (series
production).
Advantages over milling: less heating up of the workpiece (workpiece, high accuracy (0.02 to 0.04 mm) and cheap tools. Disadvantages: long production time (non-cutting stroke) and higher power
consumption (heavy workpieces and the machine table have to be
moved).

y / Z v / A / / / / / ,
Fig. 3 . 3 7 3 Angles o n p l a n i n g a n d s l o t t i n g t o o l s

Slotting and shaping*

The tool carries out the cutting (reciprocating) motion and the
workpiece the feed and in-feed motions. This process is suited to
machining short workpieces and for single-piece production.
Horizontal slotting (shaping) is employed for inside shapes.

v / / / / / / / / a

Horizontal - shaping; Vertical - slotting

Feed s and c u t t i n g d e p t h a. The feed takes place in steps when
the machine changes over from return stroke to cutting stroke. Here
too the rule applies: small feed, large cutting depth. The angle of
incidence K should be 45. In vertical slotting, K is generally 90,
since the table movements are parallel or at right angles to the tool
cutting edge.

Square shaping tool

Fig. 3 . 3 7 5 Feeds
Fe
a n d c u t t i n g d e p t h a In p l a n i n g ,
shaping and slotting .

Planer and shaper tools. The same terms are used for these as
for standardised lathe tools. They may have cemented carbide bits.
Special tools are required for vertical slotting.
Lifting t h e t o o l d u r i n g t h e return stroke. The tool must be lifted
during the return stroke, so that the cutting edge does get prematurely blunted by rubbing against the workpiece surface. The
machine lifts the tool automatically.
Fig. 3 . 3 7 6 U f t l n g t h e t o o l d u r i n g t h e r e t u r n stroke

Before b e g i n n i n g t h e j o b , test If t h e t o o l swings back to t h e

w o r k i n g p o s i t i o n properly, o t h e r w i s e there is a risk of t o o l
breakage, d a m a g e to t h e w o r k p i e c e a n d a c c i d e n t s . Set
e n o u g h acceleration for t h e t o o l .

Material

Feed

in mm/str oke

0.16 0.25

C u t t i n g speed. This depends upon the type of material of the

workpiece and the tool, and upon the rate of feed as well as the surface roughness. Cutting speed and rate of stroke are generally
estimated in shaping and slotting, whereas they are exactly calculated as part of the job preparation when planing long workpieces,
because the production time is longer.
The stroke cycle rate must be calculated from the selected cutting
speed and the stroke length and then set on the machine.
In many cases, the following rule of t h u m b suffices:
cycles/min

180

cutting speed in m/min

2 X stroke length in m

St 37 to
St 44
C 22
St 70
C60
Alloyed
steels
Cast steel
up to GS-52
Grey cast
iron GG-26
Al-cast

25
16
8.5

36
200

16
32
12
180
40

Tool

0.4

0.6

1.6

75
22
42
12
25
6.5
26
12
28
9
160
32

67
18
36
10
20
5
24
10
26
7
140
25

60
14
30
8
17
4
21
8
25
5.6
125
20

53
12
25
6
15
3
19
7
22
5
112
18

25

10

16
6

14
4.5

4
100
16

90

P30
SS
P30
SS
P30
SS
P30
SS
K 10
SS
S 20
SS

Fig. 3.377 R e c o m m e n d e d values for c u t t i n g s p e e d In planing, shaping

and slotting.

STRUCTURE OF THE PLANING MACHINE

The cutting motion is rectilinear and is carried out by the
table with the workpiece clamped on to it. The tool carries
out all other motion.
Bed. This carries the table on its slideways. The columns are built
on the sides. The table drive is in the bed.
Columns. Ribbed boxes are connected on top by the crossbeam, resulting in a rigid bridge.
Table. This carries the workpiece and is driven by the table drive
(gears and rack) or hydraulically (cylinder and piston).

Feed control shaft

Cross-rail
Column
Tool slide
Tool head
Clapper
Table

Cross-rail. This can be moved up and down on the vertical

slideway of the column. It is locked when the machine is working. The
cross-rail tool head slides on the horizontal track of the cross-rail.
Tool heads. The machine can carry up to four toolheads, two on
the cross-rail and one on each column. The cross-rail heads can
move horizontally and the column heads vertically in normal (feed) or
rapid traverse.
Tool slldes.These are mounted on the heads so that they can
swivel. They carry out the feed and rapid traverse in the longitudinal direction.

I
Bed

Reverse

Table trip

Feed
Connection for
Fig. 3 . 3 7 8 Two-column planing machine

Table

Clapper box. The tool post 1s attached to a clapper box which lifts
the tool from the workpiece on the return stroke.
Gear rack

Three types of main drive

Infinitely variable d.c. motor
The cutting speed can be changed steplessly. The direction of rota
tion of the motor is changed by the table trip.

Control switch
jLow-voitageci cuiTj

Gear drive in
the bed '
Sliding contact

Return stroke (2 s p e e d s )

Electromagnetic
reversing clutch
Working stroke <4 speeds)

A three-phase motor with constant r.p.m. and direction of rotation provides the drive to the main gearbox
The gears in the main gearbox can be changed to set the working
and return stroke speeds, e.g., four working stroke speeds and two
return stroke speeds. Table trips control the electromagnetic
reverse clutch.
A hydraulic drive which moves the table with high-pressure oil
The adjustable pumps supply variable quantities ofroil, so that the
cutting speed can be steplessly .regulated. The different cylinder,
chamber capacities in front of and behind the piston ensure a slow
working stroke and a rapid return stroke of the table, if the oil feed is
uniform. The table trips initiate the process of reversing. In all three
types of drive, the stroke length and stroke position are set by adjusting the table trips.

Slide gears
Fig. 3.370 Mechanical table drive with control
The moving table trip closes a high-voltage current circuit by
means of a control switch and a low-voltage relay and thereby
switches on an electromagnetic reversing clutch

Feed drive
All tools can move in reverse feed or rapid traverse. A feed motor provides rotary motion to the feed system. Every time the table changes
over from return stroke to working stroke, the table trips cause a part
of this rotary motion to be transmitted by change-over gears, to move
the head spindles, the tool heads and the tool slides.

Pressure oil from regulalable pumps

Fig. 3 . 3 8 0 Hydraulic table drive w i t h c o n t r o l l

161

STRUCTURE OF SHAPERS AND SLOTTERS

These m a c h i n e s are suited to m a c h i n i n g flat or curved inner

surfaces even on large w o r k p i e c e s .
Frame
Setting the stroke
position

Slotting m a c h i n e (vertical)
The t o o l carries o u t t h e rectilinear m a i n m o t i o n in the vertical d i r e c t i o n .
Frame and bed. They are either cast as one piece or bolted
together. The frame carries the ram and contains the main drive. The
bed carried the rotary table, which can move crosswise and endwise,
and the feed mechanism.

Rotary taole
Cross-slii

slide

Ram. The ram moves in vertical slide rails and can be swivelled to
the side or forward. The stroke length and stroke position can be
adjusted.
Table. This consists
a cross-feed slide, a longitudinal slide
and rotary table. Long : . jinal, transverse and rotary movements
function as the feed movement.
Ram drive. In small machines, this takes place through a crank
assembly, crank and rocker, or by a rocker arm. Large machines
have hydraulically driven rams.

Feea spindle

Indexing head

Feed gearbox

Fig. 3.381 Slotter

Feed m e c h a n i s m . In mechanical drives the intermittent feed is

generated by a Maltese cross and in hydraulic drives by a feed cylinder and piston.'

Shaping m a c h i n e s (horizontal)
The t o o l carries o u t t h e rectilinear main m o t i o n in t h e
horizontal d i r e c t i o n .

This process is suited to machining flatorcurved outer surfaces of

workpieces up to 800 mm length (single-piece production).
Frame. The frame is box-shaped and carries the ram and table
outside, and the gearbox and ram drive (mechanical or hydraulic)
inside.
Ram. The ram moves in adjustable slide rails. The stroke length
and position can be adjusted.

stroke length
Fig. 3 . 3 8 2 Rem drive of the alotter

Cross-rail. It is itself adjustable on vertical slide rails and carries

the table on horizontal slide rails.
Table. The table is box-shaped and has T-slots and holes to
clamp workpieces.

The setting motion is vertical and the feed motion horizontal.

Main gearbox. The rotary movement of the motor (polechanging) is transmitted to the crank gear by a change-over gearbox
(3 to 8 r.p.m.). The direction of motion is changed by a crank an'd
rocker.
Feed m e c h a n i s m : The table receives its horizontal intermittent
feed (0.2 to 5 mm/stroke) through a crank assembly, connecting rod,
pawl, ratchet wheel and table spindle.

182

Fig. 3 . 3 8 3 C h a n g i n g the s t r o k e l e n g t h of a alotter

METHOD OF OPERATION OF THE SHAPER

The ram of t h e s h a p e r i s m e c h a n i c a l l y driven ( c r a n k a n d rocker) or hydraulicaliy driven (cylinder a n d piston).
Sliding

Mechanical ram drive (crank and rocker)

The motor drives the crank wheel (driving wheel) over the main gearbox. The crank pin is seated in the driving wheel and can be shifted
radially. This carries with it the sliding block (bronze), which glides in
the rocker arm and sets it in reciprocating motion.
High return stroke velocity ( n o n - c u t t i n g stroke) saves prod u c t i o n t i m e . The crank pin runs in its circular path at uniform
speed. It must travel a longer distance in its working stroke a (longer
time), and a shorter distance in the return stroke p (less time). Since
the distance travelled by the ram is the same in both strokes, but the
time taken is different, the speed is alternately higher and lower. The
longer the stroke the greater is this difference in speeds
C h a n g i n g the stroke length. If the crank pin is drawn away from
the centre of the driving wheel, it describes a crank circle of greater
radius, and the rocker arm swings through a greater distance; the
stroke becomes longer.
Analogously, if it is drawn towards the centre of the wheel, a
shorter stroke results.
Changing t h e stroke p o s i t i o n . The stroke position must be set
to match the position of the workpiece. To do this, the lock nut on the
ram positioning shaft is loosened, and the ram shifted with the
adjusting spindle.
Setting the rate of feed. The rotating driving wheel sets the pawl
into reciprocating motion by means of the connecting rod and crank
pin. The pawl carries the ratchet with it in one direction, and moves
the table.

Table

Cross-rail

'
Crank
circle

| I
Crank wheel
I R 0 C ker arm
Spindle lor

Spindle lor
changing the
crank circle
radius

heigh! adjustment
Fig. 3 . 3 8 4 M e c h a n i c a l ram drive In t h e chaper

Spindle

Crank

greater stroke length

pSmaller stroke lengtft

Change in
Stroke position

Rocker arm
Fig. 3 . 3 8 5 C h a n g i n g

Fig. 3 . 3 8 8 Ch

Itlon

the stroke length

Lengthening the
crank geai Shalt

Crank pin moved outwards: Greater distance travelled by the

pawl and ratchet results in a higher feed rate
Crank pin drawn inwards: Smaller distance travelled by the
pawl and ratchet results in lower f e e d rate.

Fig. 3.387 Feed m e c h a n i s m

The pawl is turned through 180' to reverse the direction ot teed.

Hydraulic ram drive

The electric motor drives the oil pumps The quantity ot oil, and
therefore the speed of the ram, is changed by swivelling the pump.
The trip dogs, mounted adjustably on the ram, initiate the reversal of
its direction of movement. The stroke length and position can be
changed by adjusting the trip dogs.

j|

Working stroke
--Return stroke
Piston
(non-culting stroKei

^
Piston rod

Control

Motor

W o r k i n g stroke: The oil flows into the cylinder chamber v. The

ram speed is low, because a large cylinder volume has to be filled;
t h e thrust force is high, because the oil presses against the large
piston surface.
Return stroke. The oil flows into the cylinder chamber V2. The
ram speed is high, because a smaller cylinder volume has to be
filled; the thrust force is low because the oil pushes against a
smaller piston surface.

Steplessly
adjustabie'oil pump
Suction tube
^

, iantity 0
T 7^
Oil quantity large

Fig. 3 . 3 8 8 Hydraulic ram drive

FIXING THE WORKPIECE

The resistance presented by the material to cutting
generates strong forces at the workpiece. The magnitude of
these depends upon the strength of the material and upon
the machining cross-section.

Cutting force
Passive force

Forces on the workpiece

The greatest of these is the cutting force, acting in the direction of the
cutting movement. Its magnitude can be calculated and may amount
to 200 kN or more in planing.
These forces tend to pull or push the workpiece out of its mounting. The clamping devices used to prevent this from happening must
be correctly selected and set up.

Fig. 3 . 3 8 9 Forces e c t l n g on t h e w o r k p i e c e
Front block correctly placed

Planning tool

Front block
wrongly placffCT

(Suiting force
Fig. 3 . 3 9 0 T h p f r o n t block absorbs t h e c u t t i n g f o r c e

Consider what forces vil be acting in the various directions

before employing set-up tools.

A high cutting force must basically be absorbed by a front block.

This should be of the breadth of the workpiece, so as to prevent a
rotary effect at the beginning and end of a cut.

Clamps work on the laws of leverage. The screw must therefore

be placed as near as possibletothe workpiece,to absorbthegreater
forces acting there. Step blocks, clamp dogs, V-blocks or other
devices whose height can be changed are used as resting
supports.

Clamping force

CleWping force

Fig. 3.391 Fixing w i t h a c l a m p strap

T-slot clamps of half-moon shape adjust themselves to the

height of the workpiece. The clamping screw must be vertical or the
claw will fly off.
Wedge-clamping devices are suited to clamping workpieces
without projections or other surfaces for other set-up tools to get a
purchase on. The workpiece must, however, be sufficiently high.
Four pairs are used in each case.

' /

Fig. 3 . 3 9 2 T-slot c l a m p
Stop bar

/ / / / / / / / /

Fig. 3 . 3 g 3 W e d g e - c l a m p i n g device
Toe dog
Clamping f o r c e \

Clamp piston

Flat workpiece can be held with toe dogs, provided the cutting
forces are kept low by maintaining a shallow cutting depth and a
small feed.

Small workpieces can be held securely in machine vises if

parallels are used and the workpiece is securely seated by hammer
blows when closing the vise. The cutting forces should be absorbed,
as far as possible, by the fixed jaw of the vise.

Cylindrical workpieces can be supported and clamped securely

Dy using V-blocks.

184

Fig. 3 . 3 9 4 c l a m p i n g flat w o r k p i e c e s
Workpiece I I

V * -

F'aralleis
Fig. 3 . 3 9 5 C l a m p i n g in the vise

V-blocks
Workpiece

EXAMPLE OF A JOB
Job: The base body of a drill Jig h a t to be produced on a
shaper.

20*

=1=3

Work sequence
1. Scribing the blank 70 X 70 X 105 on one end face, and p u n c h
marking (30). The hole 0 20 H 8 is drilled on a drilling machine and
reamed by hand.

J00_

2. Setting up in a vise.
a) Take into account the magnitude and direction of the cutting forces and choose a sufficiently large vise.
b) Set the outer surfaces parallel to the hole with an auxiliary mandrel (drawn steel round) and parallel blocks.
c) The parallel not only help in alignment, but they also prevent the
workpiece from tilting.
d) Clamp in such a way that as little reclamping as possible is
necessary.
e) The workpiece should also be measured after it is clamped.
3. Possible working values for external roughing and finishing
[DS - double stroke (cycle)].
Working sequence
Roughing with ISO 1 cuts 1 ... 2
Finishing with ISO 3
Finishing with ISO 5

m/min

mm/DS

DS/min

18
25
22

0.6
0.25
0.25

90
125
110

IS01

4. Reclamping (reversing) the workpiece and machining the

opposite face as in 3.
5. Cutting the groove. It is assumed here that no milling machine is
available, with which the groove could be machined more economically. A cut-off tool is used in a spring tool holder, which lifts the
cutting edge from the workpiece when it catches in the material, and
thus prevents it from breaking. The groove is recessed in three cuts.
The holder is swivelled by about 1 to the right during cuts 1 and 2,
and by the same angle to the left during cut 3, in order to ensure a
lateral free cut for the tool.
WorKing sequence

v
m/min

8
mm/DS

n
DS/mln

Roughing cut
Finishing cut

10
25

Manually
0.25

50
125

6. Cutting the groove above the hole

Reclamp the workpiece and work with the extension shaper tool
(boring bar mounted in a toolholder) pointing upwards.

Parallel base

Spring loot
holder
Clamp

^ / S p r i n g back
Lifting

Caution! The automatic tool lift must be disengaged in this

operation and the swivelling clapper block must be fixed with an
arresting pin.
Cutting speed about 10 m/min.
Feed by hand judgement.
The extension tool which replaces the tool post must be clamped
with the groove nut in the clapper block.
7. Planing the end faces
V

Working sequence

One finishing cut each with ISO

m/min
25

s
mm/DS

n
DS/min

0.25

125

185

3 . 6 . 6 Broaching
TOOLS, CHIP FORMATION, WORKING VALUES

Change in cross-section ot the tool

In b r o a c h i n g , a rod-shaped t o o l (broach) Is d r a w n t h r o u g h a
hole In t h e w o r k p i e c e (internal broaching) or across t h e surface of the w o r k p i e c e (external broaching).

Since an expensive tool has to be made to suit every individual

shape being broached, this process is used only for mass production.

Fig. 3.300 Broach for the Innar ahapa of a aquara hola

Terms used for broaches

ot
the broach

The shank serves to fix the broach in the slide block of the
machine.
The pilot must fit in the pre-machined slot of the workpiece with a
tight ISO clearance fit, e.g., H 7/g 6, and guide the broach when
cutting.

Broached shape of
the workpiece

The c u t t i n g body contains rows of roughing and finishing edges,

the depth of cut being lower for the finishing row.
The sizing row has no stepped teeth, and does not cut. Its four to
six teeth go over to the cutting body when the broach is sharpened.
The end of the workpiece has another pilot, so that the broach
remains steady in the finished opening at the end of the
broaching operation.

Workpiece
Fig. 3 . 3 0 7 Extarnal broach

Feed
(cutting depth)

Chip f o r m a t i o n
The tool is moved only longitudinally (cutting motion). Because the
teeth are stepped, cutting is progressive and no feed movement is
necessary. This stepping (depth of cut) is matched to the type of
material being machined. It must be maintained precisely when
sharpening blunted tools. The chip spaces are also often reground
when the tool is sharpened, so that there is sufficient space for
the chips.

Broaching process
In order to maintain an optimal rate of chip removal, the following
aspects must be considered:
1. Correct t o o t h stepping. If this is too high, the tool will be
overloaded and may break. If it is too small, the tool has to be very
long, or else two or more tools have to be used for one shape.
2. Correct c u t t i n g speed. Too high: shortened service life of the
tool. Too low: loss of time, uneconomical.
3. Adequate coolantlubrication increases tool life, reduces tensile
force and improves the surface.
4. Timely r e s h a r p e n i n g is a precondition for good surface quality
and low pulling force. Tool blunting must be detected in time/It
begins when the cutting edges show signs of rounding and
chamfering, the pulling force becomes too high, the workpiece
becomes oversize or the broached surfaces are rough.

186

Workpeice

Broach

Chip space

Fig. 3.308 Chip formation whan broaching

Material
Si 70
Steel, alloyed
Steel, tough
Steel, soft
Cast iron
Light metal
alloys

Coolant

Cutting speed
in m/min
3

4,5

Lower
values

4,5

5.5

I
1...2 I
I
6. , 8 [
v 7,5... 10 '
Maximum speed
of machine

4,5.

Upper
values

Cutting oil
Cutting oil
Cutting oil
Cutting emulsion
Dry/cutting oil,
Al: emulsion
Mg: dry

Fig. 3.S00 Recommended valuaa for cutting apaad whan broaching.

BROACHING M A C H I N E S

T h e production of a broaching tool It e c o n o m i c a l only

if the number of workpieces to be produced with it Is
very large. Broaching machines are therefore used for
mass production.

Manometer
Workpiece

Front block

Slide block

Contact

Broach

When necessary and possible, they are equipped with

automatic workpiece-handling devices, or built into transfer
lines. Modern broaching machines generally have hydraulic
drives.

Table-

Advantages of the hydraulic drive:

1. Uniform, shock-free, chatterless C u t t i n g
movement
(pulling movement).
2. Steplessly variable pulling speed.
3. The pulling force can be checked and set on a manometer

pig. 3 . 4 0 1 S c h e m a t i c representation o f a h o r i z o n t a l b r o a c h i n g m a c h i n e

Contact
Manometer
Slide block

Basic construction of the hydraulic drive

An electric motor powers a pump whose delivery rate is
steplessly variable. The pressure oil is delivered by the pump
to the working cylinder over a control system (control valves,
non-return valves, excess pressure valves, etc). The piston
speed is changed by changing the pump delivery rate. A
manometer is connected to the working cylinder or the pressure line, and this indicates the overpressure of the oil jn bars
during the pulling process. Since the piston area pushed by
the oil remains constant, the manometer can directly indicate
t h e p u l l i n g f o r c e o f t h e p i s t o n . F o r t h i s purpose,the manometer
has a scale converted into newtons. The manometer can also
be equipped with an adjustable contact which switches the
machine off if it is overloaded.

Screw

txternai broacn
Clamping
fixture

Tabie

V 7 / / / / / / / / / / / / A
Setting up the workpiece

Fig. 3 . 4 0 2 Schematic representation

of the vertical b r o a c h i n g m a c h i n e

Fig. 3.403 External broach

For internal broaching, it is generally sufficient to place the

workpiece in a simple front block clamped on the machine
table. This fornt block should steady the workpiece against'the cutting movement and prevent laterai shifting
In e x t e r n a l b r o a c h i n g , it is always necessary to mount the workpiece in a fixture and to brace it against one-side cutting
forces.

Holding the tool

Internal broaches are inserted through the workpiece and fixed in tne slide block with wedges. In fully automatic machines, the tool is
clamped hydraulically. Longe broaches are also fixed into a guide sleeve at the end. These return the broach to the initial position at the
end of the broaching operation.

187

Exercises
Cutting by chipping with machines
Milling
1.
2.
3.
4.

Describe the processes of movement involved in milling.

Distinguish between profile mills and form-relieved mills.
What is the difference between type H, N and W cutters?
Distinguish between horizontal face milling and vertical face milling In terms of the position of the mill and the movements
involved.
5. Describe chip formation in horizontal face milling and in vertical
face milling.
6. Distinguish between the tool and workpiece motions involved in
down-milling and in up-milling.
7. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of downmilling and up-milling?
8. Name and describe some typical shapes of mills.
9. Why is the feed value specified as sz in tables?
10. Describe the basic construction of the column-and-knee milling
machine.
11. Describe the movements which take place when using a columnand-knee milling machine.
12. What are the distinguishing characteristics of a universal milling
machine?
13. Explain the functioning of a climb milling attachment.
14. How is reciprocal milling carried out?
15. What Is the advantage of reciprocal milling with program
control?
16. Describe the forces acting on the workpiece in up-milling and in
down-milling.
17. What point has to be kept in mind when mounting helicaltoothed mills?
18. What is the advantage offered by mills of small diameter with respect to forces?
19. Distinguish between positive locking and frictional locking in
tool holding.
20. Describe the process of direct indexing with an indexing head.
21. Describe the construction of a universal indexing head.
22. Explain how indirect indexing is carried out with the universal
indexing head.
23. Calculate the number of revolutions of the crank, the hole intervals
and the indexing circles for the examples given below, when the
worm gear of the universal indexing head has 40 teeth and the
following indexing circles are available on the indexing discs:
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33, 37, 39, 41, 43, 47,
49.
Examples:
a) gear with 160 teeth
b) polygon with 14 surfaces
c) serration with 36 notches
d) spline shaft with 9 splines
e) worm gear with 76 teeth
0 flange pulley with 45 holes
g) hole circle with 136 holes
24. In which special cases does differential indexing have to be
used?
25. Describe the basic functioning of the process of differential
indexing.
26. Describe the movements taking place In helical milling.
27. Why must form-relieved mills only be ground on the cutting
faces?
28. On which tooth surfaces are profile mills ground during
sharpening?
29. With what aids can a mill be brought into the correct position relative to a mounted workpiece?

188

Drilling, counter-boring and countersinking, reaming

30. Name and distinguish between the various production processes
which fall under the category "drilling and counter-boring
(sinking)".
31. What is the difference between pre-drilling and reboring?
32. Distinguish between deep drilling and hollow drilling.
33. Describe the movements in drilling and counter-sinking.
34. What is the function of the drill land?
35. Compare the cutting effects of the lips and the chisel edge.
36. Sketch a cutting tool (cutting edge of a drill) and mark the various
angles on it.
37. In what way do twist drills of type N, H and W differ from each
other?
38. Choose the suitable type of twist drill for drilling a) CuZn 40,
b) laminated plastics, c) aluminium.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.

Describe specially ground types of twist drills.

What is the purpose for which shell drills are used?
For which jobs are boring heads used?
Describe the uses of the "deep-hole drill" and the "hollow drill".
Why should the lip clearance angle on a drill be Increased when the
feed rate is high?
Explain the term "chip removal rate".
Distinguish between cutting speed and rate of revolution.
Relate cutting speed, rate of feed and feed force to chip
removal.
Why is it that the chip removal cannot be increased without
limit?

48. Identify the possible causes of the following defects and malfunctions: a) hole too large, b) drill cutting edges do not blunt
uniformly, c) drill walks.
49. How are drills with a) straight shanks and b) taper shanks held?
50. Select the correct tool (counter-bore or counter-sink) for the following jobs: deburring holes, counter-sinking recesses, enlarging
holes.
51. Why do counter-sinks have different point angles?
52. Why do counter-sinks generally not have rake angles?
53. Why are twist drills not suitable for counter-boring and countersinking?
54. What faults can result from blunt cutting edges and erroneous
positioning of the workpiece?
55. Explain why it is necessary to maintain efficient chip removal and
coolant lubrication.
56. In what respects do machine reamers differ from hand reamers?
57. Why is it that the cutting bodies can be short in machine
reamers?
58. What is the cost advantage of shell reamers?
59. Describe the construction of the round1 column upright drilling
machine.
60. What are the advantages of gang drilling machines and multiplespindle drilling machines?
61. Explain the relationship between cutting movement and feed
movement in a drilling machine.
62. For what jobs is a radial drilling machine used?
63. What are the special advantages of coordinate boring machines?
64. How is a system of coordinates organised?
65. Describe how the drill spindle of the coordinate boring machine is
set to the zero point.
66. Describe how the drill spindle of a coordinate boring machine is set
to a new drilling point.

67. Describe the construction of a horizontal boring, and milling

machine.
68. For what jobs is a horizontal boring and milling machine particularly well suited?
69. By what movements can the drill spindle of a horizontal boring and
milling machine be set to a new drilling point?
70. Why do many horizontal boring and milling machines have rotary
tables?
Planing, slotting and shaping
71. Explain the difference between planing and slotting or shaping.
72. Why must the tool be relieved (lifted up) during the return stroke
when planing, slotting or shaping?
73. What is the rule of thumb for determining the double-stroke rate in
planing, slotting or shaping?
74. How is the table movement checked and reversed in a planing
machine?
75. Describe the hydraulic drive of a planing machine on the basis of a
simplified drawing.
76. Name some jobs for a slotting machine.
77. How are the stroke length and stroke position adjusted on a slotting
machine with mechanical ram drive?
78. How are the stroke length and stroke position adjusted on a shaping machine with mechanical ram drive?
79. Describe the rocker arm drive of a shaping machine.
80. How does the feed mechanism of a shaping machine function?

81. Describe the hydraulic ram drive of a shaping machine.

82. What is the advantage of slow cutting strokes and rapid return or
non-cutting strokes on planing, shaping and slotting machines?
83. What are the forces acting on the tool and the workpiece in planing,
shaping or slotting?
84. Upon what does the magnitude of machining forces in planing,
shaping or slotting depend?
85. Describe the effect of the lever principle when using clamp straps
and T-slot clamps.
86. Why does a spring tool holder have to be used when using a cut-off
tool to cut a groove?

Broaching
87. What are the advantages of broaching as a production process?
88. Describe the construction of a broaching machine with the help of
a sketch.
89. Distinguish some internal shapes which can be produced by internal broaching.
90. Sketch some external shapes of workpieces which can be produced
by external broaching.
91. Why is no feed movement necessary in broaching?
92. What are the advantages of a hydraulic drive for broaching?
93. Describe the construction of a hydraulic broaching machine.
94. Why must the workpiece be clamped on the table in external
broaching?

189