8.

1 Introduction

Plastics are used on a daily basis throughout the world. The word plastic is a
common term that is used for many materials of a synthetic or semisynthetic nature. The term was derived from the Greek plastikos, which
means fit for molding. Plastics are a wide variety of combinations of
properties when viewed as a whole. They are used for shellac, cellulose,
rubber, and asphalt. We also synthetically manufacture items such as
clothing, packaging, automobiles, electronics, aircrafts, medical supplies, and
recreational items. The list could go on and on and it is obvious that much of
what we have today would not be possible without plastics.
One way plastics changed the world was in cost. It was so much cheaper to
manufacture than other materials and the various ways it could be used was
staggering. For instance, the use of polymers, which are substances with a
higher molecule mass and which have a large number of repeating units, is
common today. There are synthetic polymers, which are produced on a large
scale and have many properties and uses. And there are naturally occurring
polymers, which include starches, cellulose, proteins, and latex. Polymers are
molecules (monomers) that join together like a chain with one or more
monomers.
The discovery of ebonite by Charles Goodyear in 1839 and the development
of colloid by J.W Hyatt around 1869 marked the beginning of plastic industry.
One of the most important materials, phenol formaldehyde resin, was
developed by Dr. L.H. Baekeland and his associates in 1909. Since then
research continues and many more synthetic materials have been developed
with widely varying physical properties.
The term plastic is applied to all materials capable of being moulded. Modern
usage of this term has changed its meaning to include a large group of
synthetic materials that become plastic by the application of heat and can be

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formed to shape under pressure. Plastic replaces materials like glass, wood,
and meals in constructions and is used to make coatings and filaments for
weaving. Plastic is strong, light, highly dielectric, resistant to chemicals and
durable. It gives good dimensional tolerances, excellent surface finish,
absorbs vibrations and sound. Limitations include low strength, low heat
resistances, soft less ductile. Some plastic is flammable and deforms in
sunlight.

Plastics thus give us the possibility of manufacturing well-designed, beautiful

products from the
very many different types of plastics materials that are commonly available
today. Within manufacturing technology there is a very high degree of
technological understanding of plastics and a range of sophisticated
technological processes that enable us to make them and shape them in
numerous ways.

8.2 Sources of Plastic

Plastic has to be sourced and goes through several processes before it is
'workable' and can be made into the different stock forms ready to be
manufactured.
Key points and basics:

Plastics are either found naturally or are synthetic man-made

The majority of everyday plastics are synthetic
From crude oil compounds are formed called polymers - which is
plastic

Synthetic plastics

Most plastics used today are man-made, known as synthetic. The main
source of synthetic plastic is crude oil, although coal and natural gas are also
used.
The process from crude oil

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1) During the refining of crude oil petrol, paraffin, lubricating oil and petrol
are the bi-products.
2) These are then broken down into monomers. (Which is a chemical
substance consisting of one molecule)
3) When 1000's of monomers are linked together this is called
'Polymerisation' - the compounds formed are called Polymers - and plastic is
the common name for Polymers!
Most polymers (plastics) are made from combining the element carbon with
one or more other elements such as hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine or nitrogen.
Natural plastics

Plastic can be found naturally and occur in such things as:

Plants - from which cellulose can be extracted.

Trees - from which latex, amber and resin can be extracted.
Animals- from which horn and milk (used to make glues) are obtained.
Insects - from which shellac (used to make polish) is obtained.

8.3 Types of plastics

Plastics are natural/synthetic materials. They are produced by chemically modifying
natural substances or are synthesized from inorganic and organic raw materials. On
the basis of their physical characteristics, plastics are usually divided into
thermosets, elastomers and thermoplastics. These groups differ primarily with
regard to molecular structure, which is what determines their differing thermal
behavior.

I.

Thermoplastics

Thermoplastics have a linear or branched molecular structure which determines

their strength and thermal behavior; they are flexible at ordinary temperatures. At
approx. 120 - 180C, thermoplastics become a pasty/liquid mass. The service
temperature range for thermoplastics is considerably lower than that for
thermosets.

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Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, PVC, PE. Etc

II.

Thermosets

Thermosets are hard and have a very tight-meshed, branched molecular structure.
Curing proceeds during shaping, after which it is no longer possible to shape the
material by heating. Further shaping may then only be performed by machining.
Thermosets are used, for example, to make light switches.
Examples are Phenol formaldehyde, Melamine formaldehyde, Urea-formaldehyde
etc

III.

Elastomers

While elastomers also have a crosslinked structure, they have a looser mesh than
thermosets, giving rise to a degree of elasticity. Once shaped, elastomers also
cannot be reshaped by heating. Elastomers are used, for example, to produce
automobile tires.

8.4 Processing of Plastics

A variety of processes are used to transform raw plastics into the thousands of
everyday objects that we use. To mold or shape thermoplastics, they are basically
softened to allow the plastic to flow through a dye, to be injected into, or formed in
or over a mold. These processes usually allow scrap materials to be recycled as
well. The most important of these are as given below:

Injection moulding
Compression moulding
Blow moulding
Rotational moulding
Extruder

8.4.1 Injection Moulding Machine

For thermoplastics, the injection molding machine converts granular or

pelleted raw plastic into final molded parts via a melt, inject, pack, and cool

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cycle. A typical injection molding machine consists of the following major

components, as illustrated in Figure 2-1 below.

Injection system
Hydraulic system
Mold system
Clamping system
Control system

Figure 2-1: A single screw injection molding machine for thermoplastics

8.4.1.1 Machine components

1. Injection system
The injection system consists of a hopper, a reciprocating screw and barrel assembly, and an
injection nozzle, as shown in Figure 2-2. This system confines and transports the plastic as it
progresses through the feeding, compressing, degassing, melting, injection, and packing stages.

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FIGURE 2-1.

A single screw injection molding machine for thermoplastics, showing the

plasticizing screw, a barrel, band heaters to heat the barrel, a stationary platen, and a
movable platen.

The hopper

i.

Thermoplastic material is supplied to molders in the form of small pellets.

The hopper on the injection molding machine holds these pellets. The pellets
are gravity-fed from the hopper through the hopper throat into the barrel and
screw assembly.

The barrel

i.

As shown in Figure 2-2, the barrel of the injection molding machine supports
the reciprocating plasticizing screw. It is heated by the electric heater bands.

The reciprocating screw

ii.

The reciprocating screw is used to compress, melt, and convey the material.
The reciprocating screw consists of three zones (illustrated below):
o

the feeding zone

the compressing (or transition) zone

the metering zone

While the outside diameter of the screw remains constant, the depth of the
flights on the reciprocating screw decreases from the feed zone to the beginning
of the metering zone. These flights compress the material against the inside
diameter of the barrel, which creates viscous (shear) heat.
This shear heat is mainly responsible for melting the material. The heater bands
outside the barrel help maintain the material in the molten state. Typically, a
molding machine can have three or
more heater bands or zones with different temperature settings.

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FIGURE 2-2.

iii.

A reciprocating screw, showing the feeding zone, compressing (or transition) zone, and
metering zone.

The nozzle
The nozzle connects the barrel to the sprue bushing of the mold and forms a
seal between the barrel and the mold. The temperature of the nozzle should
be set to the material's melt temperature or just below it, depending on the
recommendation of the material supplier. When the barrel is in its full
forward processing position, the radius of the nozzle should nest and seal in
the concave radius in the sprue bushing with a locating ring. During purging
of the barrel, the barrel backs out from the sprue, so the purging compound
can free fall from the nozzle. These two barrel positions are illustrated below.

FIGURE 2-3. (a) Nozzle with barrel in processing position. (b) Nozzle with barrel backed out

for purging.

2. Mould system
The mold system consists of tie bars, stationary and moving platens, as well
as moulding plates (bases) that house the cavity, sprue and runner systems,
ejector pins, and cooling channels, as shown in Figure 2-4. The mould is
essentially a heat exchanger in which the molten thermo

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plastic solidifies to the desired shape and dimensional details defined by the
cavity.

Figure 2-4. A typical (three-plate) molding system.

An mold system is an assembly of platens and molding plates typically made of tool steel.
The mold system shapes the plastics inside the mold cavity (or matrix of cavities) and ejects
the molded part(s). The stationary platen is attached to the barrel side of the machine and is
connected to the moving platen by the tie bars. The cavity plate is generally mounted on the
stationary platen and houses the injection nozzle. The core plate moves with the moving
platen guided by the tie bars. Occasionally, the cavity plate is mounted to the moving platen
and the core plate and a hydraulic knock-out (ejector) system is mounted to the stationary
platen.
Cooling channels (circuits)
Cooling channels are passageways located within the body of a mold, through
which a cooling medium (typically water, steam, or oil) circulates. Their function
is the regulation of temperature on the mold surface. Cooling channels can also
be combined with other temperature control devices, like bafflers, bubblers, and
thermal pins or heat pipes.

3. Hydraulic system
The hydraulic system on the injection molding machine provides
the power to open and close the mold, build and hold the clamping
tonnage, turn the reciprocating screw, drive the reciprocating

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screw, and energize ejector pins and moving mold cores. A number
of hydraulic components are required to provide this power, which
include pumps, valves, hydraulic motors, hydraulic fittings,
hydraulic tubing, and hydraulic reservoirs.

4. Control system
The control system provides consistency and repeatability in
machine operation. It monitors and controls the processing
parameters, including the temperature, pressure, injection speed,
screw speed and position, and hydraulic position. The process
control has a direct impact on the final part quality and the
economics of the process. Process control systems can range from
a simple relay on/off control to an extremely sophisticated
microprocessor-based, closed-loop control.

5. Clamping system
The clamping system opens and closes the mold, supports and
carries the constituent parts of the mold, and generates sufficient
force to prevent the mold from opening. Clamping force can be
generated by a mechanical (toggle) lock, hydraulic lock, or a
combination of the two basic types.

8.4.1.2 Machine operating sequence

Injection molding is a cyclic process. During the injection molding
process, the machine undertakes a sequence of operations in a cyclic
fashion. A process cycle is one complete operation of an injection molding
machine.
Process cycle
The basic injection molding machine operations are shown in the series of
diagrams below.

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1. The mold closes and the screw begins moving forward for injection.
2. The cavity fills as the reciprocating screw moves forward, as a
plunger.
3. The cavity is packed as the screw continuously moves forward.
4. The cavity cools as the gate freezes off and the screw begins to
retract to plasticize material for the next shot.
5. The mold opens for part ejection.
6. The mold closes and the next cycle begins
Cycle time
Typical process cycle time varies from several seconds to tens of seconds,
depending on the part weight, part thickness, material properties, and
the machine settings specific to a given process.

8.4.1.3

Screw operation

The reciprocating screw is used to plasticize the plastic pellets using

various RPMs, inject the molten plastics as a plunger at various speeds
and shot volumes, and control the pressure level in the molten plastic
charge in front of the screw. Several of its operations are discussed in this
document.
Back pressure
Back pressure is the amount of pressure exerted on the material volume
ahead of the screw, as the screw is pushed back in preparation for the
next shot.
Injection speed
The injection speed (or ram speed) is the forward speed of the screw

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during its injection operation.

Screw rotation speed
The screw rotation speed (RPM) is the rate at which the plasticizing screw
rotates. The faster the screw rotates, the faster the material is
compressed by the screw flights, increasing the amount of shear heating.

Figure 2-5: Hydraulic Injection Moulding Machine

8.4.1.4

Advantages and Disadvantages of Injecting Molding

Advantages

Low costs in mass production

High precision
Complex parts. Geometries only limited by mold manufacturability.

Disadvantages

High initial setup costs

8.4.1.5 Applications

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Injection molding is used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging,
bottle caps, automotive dashboards, pocket combs, some musical instruments (and
parts of them), one-piece chairs and small tables, storage containers, mechanical
parts (including gears), and most other plastic products available today. Injection
molding is the most common modern method of part manufacturing; it is ideal for
producing high volumes of the same object.

Figure Parts manufactured by Injection moulding machine

8.4.1.6 Quality Issues

The process requires strict control of the mould temperature, speed and pressure of
injection, condition of the molten plastic and dwelling/cooling times to ensure high
quality. It is necessary to have a sufficient clamping force proportional to the
projected area of the mould to prevent creation of excess flash.

8.4.2 Compression Moulding

Compression molding is a method of molding in which the molding material,
generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mold cavity. The mold
is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the
material into contact with all mold areas, while heat and pressure are
maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs
thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules,
putty-like masses, or preforms. Compression molding is a high-volume, highpressure method suitable for molding complex, high-strength fiberglass
reinforcements. Advanced composite thermoplastics can also be

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compression molded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly

oriented fiber mat or chopped strand.
8.4.2.1 The process
For compression molding, the appropriate amounts of thoroughly mixed
polymer and necessary additives are placed between male and female mold
members, as illustrated in Figure 2-1. Both mold pieces are heated; however,
only one is movable. The mold is closed, and heat and pressure are applied,
causing the plastic to become viscous and flow to con-form to the mold
shape. Before molding, raw materials may be mixed and cold-pressed into a
disc, which is called a perform. Preheating of the preform reduces molding
time and pressure, extends the die life time, and produces a more uniform
finished piece. This molding technique lends itself to the fabrication of both
thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers; however, its use with
thermoplastics is more time-consuming and expensive than the more
commonly used extrusion or injection molding techniques.

Figure 2-6 Compression molding: (1) charge is loaded, (2) and (3) charge is

compressed and cured, and (4) opening the mold halves and removing the part from
the cavity.

Compression molding presses are oriented vertically and contain two platens
to which the mold halves are fastened. The presses involve either of two
types of actuation: (1) upstroke of the bottom platen or (2) downstroke of
the top platen, the former being the more common machine configuration.
They are generally powered by a hydraulic cylinder that can be designed to
provide clamping capacities up to several hundred tons.

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Molds for compression molding are generally simpler than their injection
mold counterparts. There is no sprue and runner system in a compression
mold, and the process itself is generally limited to simpler part geometries
due to the lower flow capabilities of the starting thermosetting materials.
However, provision must be made for heating the mold, usually
accomplished by electric resistance heating, steam, or hot oil circulation.
Compression molds can be classified as hand molds, used for trial runs;
semiautomatic, in which the press follows a programmed cycle but the
operator manually loads and unloads the press; and automatic, which
operate under a fully automatic press cycle (including automatic loading and
unloading).
Common plastics used in compression molding processes include

Polyester
Polyimide (PI)
Polyamide-imide (PAI)
Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS)
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Fiber reinforced plastics

There are four primary factors in a successful compression molding process:

Amount of material
Heating time and technique
Force applied to the mold
Cooling time and technique

8.4.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Compression Moulding

Advantages

Low initial setup costs

Fast setup time
Capable of large size parts beyond the capacity of extrusion
techniques

Allows intricate parts

Good surface finish (in general)
Wastes relatively little material

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Can apply to composite thermoplastics with unidirectional tapes,

woven fabrics, randomly orientated fiber mat or chopped strand
Compression molding produces fewer knit lines and less fiber-length
degradation than injection molding.

Disadvantages

Production speed is not up to injection molding standards

Limited largely to flat or moderately curved parts with no undercuts
Less-than-ideal product consistency

Figure Compression Moulding Machine

8.4.2.3

Applications

Compression molding is commonly used for manufacturing electrical switches and

socket, flatware,

gears, buttons, buckles, knobs, handles, electronic device cases, helmets,

appliance housing, and large container.

26

Figure Parts manufactured by compression moulding machine

8.4.2.4 Quality Issues

The process requires a controlled quantity of raw material placed in the cavity with
the exception of flash moulds. During production internal cavity stresses are
minimal and low die maintenance is necessary but problems may be encountered
with the possibility of air entrapment. Tumbling may be required for finishing to
remove flash but the surface detail is good.

8.4.3 Blow Moulding

Blow molding is a manufacturing process widely used to create hollow thinwall plastic objects such as bottles, cases, containers, and bellows.
Not all plastics are suitable for blow moulding. The most frequently used
materials in blow molding are

Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Polypropylene (PP)
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

The products manufactured by blow molding, although limited to hollow

shaped plastics, are widely used in many industrial fields and everyday lives.
8.4.3.1 Types of Blow Moulding

There are three most popular types of blow molding:

Extrusion blow moulding
Injection blow moulding
Stretch blow moulding

1. Extrusion blow molding

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It is the oldest, simplest, and most common type of blow molding. Common gallon
or larger size gas tanks and water tanks are often manufactured using extrusion
blow molding. Its procedures are:
1. A hot hollow tube of thermoplastic material is dropped from an extruder. This
tube is usually called parison.
2. The parison is then captured in the closed chamber of a divided mold which
seals one end of the parison and leaves the other end open.
3. Compressed air is injected through the open end of the parison. The parison
is expanded like an inflated balloon.
4. Compressed air continues to blow in until the parison reaches the wall of the
mold. The hollow parison now conforms to the shape of the mold cavity.
5. The moulded plastic stays in the mold until it cools and hardens. Once
released from the mold, further handlings such as rimming and trimming can
be performed.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Extrusion Blow Molding

Advantages

Simple
Low costs
Fast to setup to begin production
Allows a wide variety of container shapes
Can produce large size containers

Disadvantages

Production speed is slower than other newer blow molding methods.

Not suitable for precision parts. Wall thickness is difficult to control.
Limited to hollow parts.

2. Injection Blow Molding

Injection blow molding is a process combining injection molding and blow molding.
Its procedures are described below:
1. The blow stem is placed in an injection mold.
2. The melted thermoplastic material is injected into the injection mold and
formed around the blow stem.
3. The blow stem is now wrapped with the "preform".
4. The perform along with the blow stem are then placed in the blow molding
chamber.

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5. Compressed air is injected through the blow stem into the preform. The
preform is expanded like an inflated balloon.
6. Compressed air continues to blow in until the preform reaches the wall of the
mold.
7. The molded plastic stays in the mold until it cools and hardens.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Injection Blow Molding

Advantages
o
o
o

Faster production speed than extrusion blow molding

Higher precision than extrusion blow molding, but still not exactly a precision
process
Net cost may be lower in high volume production

Disadvantages
o
o
o
o

Higher setup costs due to two different molds.

May take longer to setup to produce the first product.
Limited to smaller containers.
Limited to simple shapes with no handles.

3. Stretch blow molding

It is a two-stage process similar to that of injection blow molding. First, a test-tube
like preform is made using injection molding or a similar process. The neck of the
preforms is fully finished but the diameter and length of the body portion are much
smaller than the final product. The preform then undergos a stretch-and-blow
process
The single most important product made by stretch blow molding is the 2-liter PET
bottle for carbonated soft drinks introduced in 1978 and updated to one-piece bottle
in early nineties. The PET bottles are virtually unbreakable, lightweight, transparent.
They and have various (good) barrier properties. The traditional glass containers
cannot compete with PET bottles and are almost extinct from the field of carbonated
soft drinks.

8.4.3.2 Applications
Blow moulding commonly produces products that are hollow with relatively thin
walls such as drinks bottles, water drums and ducting.

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The below fig. shows some of the applications of blow moulding machine

8.4.3.3

Quality Issues

Control of cross sections is difficult and it is important to consider/monitor the creep

and chemical stability of the component material. Residual stresses may decrease
with time causing the part to distort. The surface finish of the product can be good
and the higher the pressure during manufacture the better the finish.

8.4.4

Rotational Moulding

Rotational moulding or roto-molding is a relatively slow process that is capable of

making large one-piece hollow plastic objects at a cost lower than most other plastic
moulding processes.

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The rotational moulding process starts with a closed split mould. The moulding
compound, usually a thermoplastic in the form of pellets or granules, is premeasured and loaded into the moulding chamber. The chamber is then sealed and
mounted on a multi-axial rotation station. The chamber is heated and the
compound inside is melted. Preferably, the molten material has low viscosity and
can be distributed easily. The rotation station begins to rotate slowly on multiple axes
simultaneously such that the molten material is evenly coated on the internal
surfaces of the mould while the temperature continues to drop in a controlled
manner. The rotation and cooling continue until the moulding compound solidifies.
The mould can then be opened and the finished part is released.
The rotational speeds, heating and cooling rates need to be carefully controlled
throughout the process. Unlike other common plastic moulding methods, such as
injection, extrusion, and compression mouldings, there is no external pressure
applied during the entire moulding process. Again, this is a very slow process and
each cycle usually takes about an hour or more.

Figure Typical Rotational Moulding process

8.4.4.1 Materials
The process may use fluoropolymers and thermoplastics, such as: low density
polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polystyrene (PS).

8.4.4.2 Considerations for Rotational Moulding

Deign Related

Sharp corners and edges should be avoided as they create stress points/lines.
Internal features need to be adequately separated (at least 3~5 times the
wall thickness of the part) to allow proper melt flow.

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Process Related

The heating period should be just long enough to melt the polymer
thoroughly without damaging the plastic's molecular structures.
Rapid cooling may introduce extra thermal stresses and/or shrinkages,
resulting in warped parts.

8.4.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Rotational Molding

Advantages

One-piece product design reduces or eliminates assembly cost.

Allows complex mold split lines.
Allows molded threads and mold-in inserts.
Allows a wide range of surface finishes (textured, smooth, or polished).
Very little waste in material.
Low residual stresses. There are thermal stresses during the cooling process
but (almost) no forming stresses because no external pressure is ever
applied.
Tooling is less expensive. Due to its low pressure operation, the wall thickness
of the molding chamber can be thinner than those for other molding
methods.
Suitable for both low-volume prototypes and high-volume production runs.

Disadvantages

Slow production speed. It usually takes about one hour to finish a cycle, as
opposed to just a few seconds for a typical injection molding process.
Lower precision.

8.4.4.4 Applications
Typical applications for rotationally moulded products are those with a large hollow
such as: water tanks, storage vessels ,drums, garden furniture and sporting
products. The process is often used for prototyping.

32

Figure Parts manufactured by Rotational Moulding Machine

8.4.4.5 Quality Issues

The moulding process is practically free from residual stresses and dimensions can
be distorted if the curing time is not sufficient before the part is removed from the
die cavity and the raw material is not monitored correctly.
Surface detail of the final component is fairly good and reflective of the surface of
the mould but it is important to know that there is no control of the inside surface
quality.

Figure Rotational Blow Moulding Machine

8.4.5

Extrusion

Plastics extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process in which raw plastic

material is melted and formed into a continuous profile. Extrusion produces items
such as pipe/tubing, weather stripping, fence, deck railing, window frames, plastic
films and sheet, thermoplastic coatings, and wire insulation.
8.4.5.1 Process
In the extrusion of plastics, raw thermoplastic material in the form of nurdles (small
beads, often called resin in the industry) is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper
into the barrel of the extruder. The process has much in common with plastic
injection moulding from the point of the extruder technology though it differs in that
it is usually a continuous process.

33

The material enters through the feed throat and comes into contact with the screw.
The rotating screw (normally turning at up to 120 rpm) forces the plastic beads
forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the
molten plastic (which can range from 200 C to 275 C depending on the polymer).
In most processes, a heating profile is set for the barrel in which three or more
independent PID controlled heater zones gradually increase the temperature of the
barrel from the rear (where the plastic enters) to the front. This allows the plastic
beads to melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel and lowers the risk of
overheating which may cause degradation in the polymer.
Extra heat is contributed by the intense pressure and friction taking place inside
the barrel. In fact, if an extrusion line is running certain materials fast enough, the
heaters can be shut off and the melt temperature maintained by pressure and
friction alone inside the barrel. In most extruders, cooling fans are present to keep
the temperature below a set value if too much heat is generated.
At the front of the barrel, the molten plastic leaves the screw and travels through a
screen pack to remove any contaminants in the melt. The screens are reinforced by
a breaker plate (a thick metal puck with many holes drilled through it) since the
pressure at this point can exceed 5000 psi (34 MPa). The screen pack/breaker plate
assembly also serves to create back pressure in the barrel. Back pressure is
required for uniform melting and proper mixing of the polymer.
After passing through the breaker plate molten plastic enters the die. The die is
what gives the final product its profile and must be designed so that the molten
plastic evenly flows from a cylindrical profile, to the product's profile shape. Uneven
flow at this stage would produce a product with unwanted stresses at certain points
in the profile. These stresses can cause warping upon cooling. Almost any shape
imaginable can be created so long as it is a continuous profile.
The product must now be cooled and this is usually achieved by pulling the
extrudate through a water bath. In a tube or pipe extrusion line, a sealed water bath
is acted upon by a carefully controlled vacuum to keep the newly formed and still
molten tube or pipe from collapsing. For products such as plastic sheeting, the
cooling is achieved by pulling through a set of cooling rolls.
Plastic extruders are also extensively used to prepare recycled plastic waste and/or
raw materials after cleaning, sorting and/or blending into filaments suitable for
chopping into the 'resin' bead or pellet stock used by the plastics industry at large.
8.4.5.2 Materials

34

The process uses thermoplastics, such as: polyvinyl chloride

(PVC), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP).

8.4.5.3 Types
1. Sheet/film extrusion
For products such as plastic sheet or film, the cooling is
achieved by pulling through a set of cooling rolls (calender
or "chill" rolls), usually 3 or 4 in number. Running too fast
creates an undesirable condition called "nerve"- basically,
inadequate contact time is allowed to dissipate the heat
present in the extruded plastic. In sheet extrusion, these
rolls not only deliver the necessary cooling but also determine sheet thickness and
surface texture
A common post-extrusion process for plastic sheet stock is thermoforming, where
the sheet is heated until soft (plastic), and formed via a mold into a new shape.
When vacuum is used, this is often described as vacuum forming.
Thermoforming can go from line bended pieces (e.g. displays) to complex shapes
(computer housings), which often look like they have been injection moulded
Plastic extrusion onto paper is the basis of the liquid packaging industry (juice
cartons, wine boxes...); usually an aluminum layer is present as well.

Figure Sheet Extruder Machine

2. Blown film extrusion

The manufacture of plastic film for products such as shopping bags and
continuous sheeting is achieved using a blown film line

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This process is the same as a regular extrusion process up until the die. The
die is an upright cylinder with an annular opening similar to a pipe extrusion
die. The opening diameter can be a few centimetres to more than three
metres across. The molten plastic is pulled upwards from the die by a pair of
nip rolls high above the. Changing the speed of these nip rollers will change
the gauge (wall thickness) of the film. Around the die sits a cooling ring that
blows air onto the film tube as it travels past. The air flow cools the film as it
travels upwards. In the centre of the die is an air outlet trough which
compressed air can be forced into the inside of the extruded cylindrical
profile, adjusting the bubble volume. This expands the extruded circular
cross section by some ratio.
The nip rolls flatten the bubble into a double layer of film whose width
(layflat) is equal to half the circumference of the bubble. This film can then
be slit, spooled, printed on or cut into shapes and heat sealed into bags or
other items.
An advantage of blown film extrusion over traditional film extrusion is that in
the latter there are edges where there can be quality (thickness) variations.
8.4.5.4 Applications
Continuous extrusion produces components that may have complex profiles.
Rods, bar, tubing and sheets e.g. pipes, laminates, guttering, window sills,
insulation on wires, cling-film and tyre reinforcement.
8.4.5.5 Advantage and Disadvantages of Extrusion Molding
Advantages

3. Low initial setup costs

4. Fast setup time
5. Low production costs
Disadvantages

Moderate production speed

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Mediocre precision

Limited to parts with a uniform cross section

8.4.5.5 Quality Issues

Components made by the process are prone to shrinkage and distortion so
that the accurate control of uniformity and cooling rate is important to reach
accurate dimensions. The extruded product may increase in size as it leaves
the die and may be compensated by decreasing extrusion rate or the melt
temperature. One problem that affects the output and quality of extrusion is
the possibility of trapped gases in the extrusion screw which is particularly
common when using powdered raw materials.

8.5

Testing of Plastics

The plastics testing centres (PTC) of CIPET are well equipped and fully
devoted for fulfilling the objectives of offering best services to the plastic
industries by undertaking testing assignments viz: plastics materials/
products/ composites testing as per the National and International standards.

8.5.1 Izod Impact Testing

Notched Izod Impact is a single point test that measures a materials
resistance to impact from a swinging pendulum. Izod impact is defined as the
kinetic energy needed to initiate fracture and continue the fracture until the
specimen is broken. Izod specimens are notched to prevent deformation of
the specimen upon impact. This test can be used as a quick and easy quality

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control check to determine if a material meets specific

impact properties or to compare materials for general
toughness.

Test Procedure

The specimen is clamped into the pendulum impact test fixture with the notched
side facing the striking edge of the pendulum. The pendulum is released and
allowed to strike through the specimen. If breakage does not occur, a heavier
hammer is used until failure occurs. Since many materials (especially
thermoplastics) exhibit lower impact strength at reduced temperatures, it is
sometimes appropriate to test materials at temperatures that simulate the intended
end use environment.
Figure An Izod Impact Testing Machine

Specimen size

The standard specimen for ASTM is 64 x 12.7 x 3.2 mm. The

most common specimen thickness is 3.2 mm, but the
preferred thickness is 6.4 mm because it is not as likely to
bend or crush. The depth under the notch of the specimen is
10.2 mm.

8.5.2 Rockwell Hardness

The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based
on the net increase in depth of impression as a load is applied. Hardness numbers
have no units and are commonly given in the R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the
number in each of the scales, the harder the material.

Test Procedure

A standard specimen is placed on the surface of the Rockwell Hardness tester. A

minor load is applied and the gauge is set to zero. The major load is applied by
tripping a lever. After 15 seconds the major load is removed. The specimen is
allowed to recover for 15 seconds and then the hardness is read off the dial with the
minor load still applied.

Specimen size:

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A standard specimen of 6.4mm thickness is either moulded or cut from a sheet.

Data

The hardness is read directly from the dial with either, R, L, M, E or K scales. The higher the
number in each scale, the harder the material. R and M scales are commonly used with plastics.

8.5.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion

Linear Thermal Expansion is used to determine the rate at which a material
expands as a function of temperature. This test can be used for design
purposes and to determine if failure by thermal stress may occur.
Understanding the relative expansion/contraction characteristics of two
materials in contact can be important for application success.

Test Procedure

In a TMA (Thermo-mechanical analysis), the specimen is placed in the holder

at room temperature. The height is measured by the probe. The furnace is
raised and the temperature is brought to 20 degrees below the lowest
temperature of interest. The specimen is heated at a specified rate, often ten
degrees a minute, over the desired temperature range. A graph is produced.
Alternatively, a dilatometer can be used. The specimen is placed in the
Dilatometer at room temperature, and the height gauge is positioned and
zeroed. The apparatus is placed in a temperature bath and the movement of
the sample is measured from -30 C +30 C.

Specimen size:

For the TMA, the test specimen should be between 2 and 10 mm. in length
and shall not exceed 10 mm in lateral dimension. The specimen must be flat
on both ends. For the dilatometer, the test sample should be approximately
12.7mm (0.5") wide x 75mm (3") long.

8.5.4 Shore Hardness

Durometer Hardness is used to determine the relative hardness of soft
materials, usually plastic or rubber. The test measures the penetration of a
specified indentor into the material under specified conditions of force and

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time. The hardness value is often used to identify or specify a particular

hardness of elastomers or as a quality control measure on lots of material.

Test Procedure
The specimen is first placed on a hard flat surface. The indenter for the
instrument is then pressed into the specimen making sure that it is
parallel to the surface. The hardness is read within one second (or as
specified by the customer) of firm contact with the specimen.

Specimen size

The test
6.4mm thick. It
specimens to
thickness, but

specimens are generally

is possible to pile several
achieve the 6.4mm
one specimen is preferred.

Data

The hardness
numbers are derived from a
scale. Shore A and
Shore D hardness scales are
common, with the
A scale being used for softer
and the D scale being used for harder materials.

8.5.5 Tensile test

Universal testing machines allow you to stretch (tensile), bend (flexural),
squash (compression) or pull (shear) a sample until it breaks.

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Scope:

Tensile tests measure the force required to break a specimen and the
extent to which the specimen stretches or elongates to that breaking
point. Tensile tests produce a stress-strain diagram, which is used to
determine tensile modulus. The data is often used to specify a
material, to design parts to withstand application force and as a quality
control check of materials. Since the physical properties of many
materials (especially thermoplastics) can vary depending on ambient
temperature, it is sometimes appropriate to test materials at
temperatures that simulate the intended end use environment.

Test Procedure:

Specimens are placed in the grips of the Instron at a specified grip

separation and pulled until failure. For ASTM D638 the test speed is
determined by the material specification. For ISO 527 the test speed is
typically 5 or 50mm/min for measuring strength and elongation and
1mm/min for measuring modulus. An extensometer is used to
determine elongation and tensile modulus.

Elevated or Reduced Temperature Test Procedure:

A thermal chamber is installed on the Instron universal test machine.

The chamber is designed to allow the test mounts from the base and
crosshead of the Instron to pass through the top and bottom of the
chamber. Standard test fixtures are installed inside the chamber, and
testing is conducted inside the controlled thermal environment the
same as it would be at ambient temperature. The chamber has internal
electric heaters for elevated temperatures and uses external carbon
dioxide gas as a coolant for reduced temperatures. The size of the
chamber places a limitation on the maximum elongation that can be
reached, and extensometers are generally limited to no more than
200 C.

Specimen size:

The most common specimen for ASTM D638 is a Type I tensile bar. The
most common specimen for ISO 527 is the ISO 3167 Type 1A
multipurpose specimen. ASTM D882 uses strips cut from thin sheet or
film.

Data:

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The following calculations can be made from tensile test results:

1. tensile strength (at yield and at break)
2. tensile modulus
3. strain
4. elongation and percent elongation at yield
5. elongation and percent elongation at break

8.6 Tool Room

CIPET centers are well equipped with ultramodern, state-of-the-art Tool Room
machines and it is an ideal Tool Room for any Tool Maker. CNC machinery and
extended its facilities for taking up commercial job assignments for mould
fabrication, high precision machining and manufacturing of standard mould
bases. Besides manufacturing of moulds, the tool rooms also undertake job
orders of varying magnitude such as repair of moulds and dies, CNC
machining, CNC spark erosion, grinding, drilling, designing, development of
jigs and fixtures, tool parts etc.

CNC Machines

Universal milling and boring Machine

Die sinking - EDM
Universal lathe with hydrobar feeder
High precision surface and profile grinder
Wire cut EDM
HAAS USA Make turning Centre
HAAS USA High Speed 5 Axis machining centre
HAA USA High Speed 3 Axis Machining Centre
CNC EDM Spark erosion Machine
Special purpose Machines

Jig boring machine

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Co-ordinate drilling and boring machine

Rigid die sinking machine Center lathe with hydro copying attachment
Rotary surface grinding Cylindrical grinder
Optical profile grinding machine

Inspection facilities

Co-ordinate measuring machine

Profile projector
Ultrasonic flaw detector Surface tester

8.7 DESIGN/CAD/CAM
Good design is important for any manufactured product but for plastics it is
absolutely vital. We have no instinct for plastics. Most of those we use today
have been around for little more than two generations. Compare that with
the thousands of years of experience we have with metals. And plastics are
more varied, more complicated. For most designs in metals, there is no need
to worry about the effects of time, temperature or environment. It is a
different story for plastics. They creep and shrink as time passes; their
properties change over the temperature range of everyday life; they may be
affected by common household and industrial materials. The philosopher
Heidegger defined technology as a way of arranging the world so that one
does not have to experience it. We can extend his thought to define design
as a way of arranging technology so that we
do not have to experience it. In other words, good design delivers function,
form and technology in objects that meet the needs of users without making
demands on them. The well-designed object gives pleasure or at least
satisfaction in use, and does what it should do without undue concern.

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Good design combines concept with embodiment. Unless the two are
considered together, the result will be an article that cannot be made
economically or one that fails in use. This is particularly important for
plastics. It is vital to choose the right material for the job. When that is done,
it is equally important to adapt the details of the design to suit the
characteristics of the material and the limitations of the production process.
Plastics come in a bewildering variety. There are a hundred or more distinct
generic types. On top of that, advanced techniques with catalysts and
compounding are creating new alloys, blends and molecular forms. All of
these materials can have their properties modified by control of molecular
weight and by additives such as reinforcements. The number of different
grades of plastics materials available to the designer now approaches
50,000. The importance - and the difficulty - of making the right choice is
obvious.

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