Hello BIO 203 Notes

BIO 203 Notes
Written by: Parth Pancholi
Table of Contents
Midterm 1 Material
Pages 1-15
Midterm 2 Material
Pages 16-46
Midterm 3 Material
Pages 47-70
Final Exam Material
Pages 71-75
Disclaimer: This document contains copyrighted material, both by the author and other sources. This
document is intended for private use only. No part of this work may be sold for any profit whatsoever.
Please dont steal my work. Thanks. Wait, why are you still reading this stupid disclaimer? Shouldnt you
be studying?
Lecture 1 (1/24) (Collins)
Physiology The study of how cells interact with their environment

to obtain the things requires for life (water, salts, heat, etc.)
Exchange systems Systems that allow for the exchange of material.
o For ex. respiratory system, circulatory system, etc.
4 levels of organization Cellular, Tissue, Organ, and System.
There are 5 Basic Principles
o All Life is Aquatic.
Water is 75% of body weight, 99% of all molecules.
o All life is compartmentalized
Basic unit is the cell
ICF = Intercellular fluid aka cytoplasm
ECF = extra cellular fluid. There are 2 types:
Interstitial fluid ECF between cells
Plasma Blood
Asymmetries between Compartments help maintain a potential
difference. This I needed for physiological functions.
For ex. More Na+ in ICF, and little in ECF.
o All Life deals with the same fundamental problems.
All Life requires an input of energy
ATP is principal form of energy.
This is done through either aerobic (w/ oxygen) or
anaerobic (without oxygen) cellular respiration.
Metabolism Sum of all energy-requiring life processes.
Metabolic Rate (MR) - metabolism in a unit of time.
Basal Metabolic Rate Lowest possible (resting) MR.
o All Life is constrained by the laws of physics and chemistry.
Size principle relationship between surface Area (SA) &
Volume.
As animal gets bigger, the SA/V ratio gets smaller.
This means that relative SA for exchange goes down.
Large animals exchange substances worse, but retain
better.
Small animals exchange well, but retain worse.
o All life can only tolerate a limited range of living conditions.
Ex. H20 level, salts, nutrients, etc.
Homeostasis: maintenance of a relatively constant internal
environment.
Requires negative feedback
Feedback A feedback mechanism has 3 components
o Sensor checks the level
1
o Integrator compares sensor level to set point

and takes an action
o Effector device used to fix the level back to
set point.
Negative feedback if things vary from set point you
act to fix things back to set point
o Ex. Thermostat.
Positive feedback Positive things lead to more.
o Leads to rapid changes.
o Ex. when you get money, you want more... you dont
want to return to the previous condition.
o Ex. Waves of contraction during labor stimulate
even more waves of contraction.
A food-energy budget must be maintained.

o Energy in (food) = energy out (work, synthesis ,heat)
Nitrogenous wastes (ammonia) have to eliminate from the body. There
are 3 ways to do this:
o Ammonotelic get rid of pure ammonia. Lots of water is
needed, but no energy is required. This is used by fish.
o Ureotelic Ammonia is converted to urea at the cost of ATP.
This makes it less toxic and less water is needed. Mammals use
this.
o Uricotelic Ammonia is converted to uric acid requires
almost no water to get rid of, but lots of ATP. This is used
by birds i.e. bird shit.
Heat can be obtained via 2 methods
o Environment animals get heat from the environment
o Endogenous Heat is produced by the animal for itself.
There are 4 ways to transfer heat:
o Conduction By touching things.
Temperature gradient (T2-T1) is driving force.
Rest is controlled by a constant Surface area & length between objects.
Thermal conductivity (metals have most, air least)
o Convection By air. There are 2 ways.
Free convection air doesnt move; natural heat rises.
Boundary layers form around you, with layers of heat
gradually going from body heat to ambient.
Forced convection disrupts the boundary layers. Ex. fan.
o Evaporation Liquids absorb heat from skin and become vapor,
thereby cooling the animal. Ex. Sweating, panting.
o Radiation just letting off heat through skin. Absorbing heat
due to environment/sunlight.
2
Counter current heat exchange - When you 2 fluids

flowing in different directions (ex. Veins and arteries
that touch), very efficient heat exchange will occur.
o This is used by mammals and birds to prevent heat
loss in the extremities.
Body temperature (Tb) must be regulated so that enzymes function and

dont denature.
2 Main strategies for maintaining body temp:
o Ectotherms Use external heat to thermoregulate
All non-vertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, fishes.
Body temperature is dependent on Tambient.
No insulation. Low MR. Limited physiological change (ex.
vasoconstriction. Behavioral thermoregulation.
o Endotherms Generate own heat (endogenous) via MR.
Energetically very costly. Used by mammals and birds.
Lots of insulation (fur, etc.). High MR. Physiological
change. Behavioral thermoregulation in addition to
endogenous.)
MR varies with Tamb in Ectotherms.
o At low Tamb, MR is lower, so animal uses less energy and is slow.
o At High Tamb, MR is higher; animal uses more energy and is fast.
MR varies differently with Tamb in endotherms.
o As Tamb gets lower, MR increases to maintain body temp (Shivers)
o At a certain range, you have the thermoneutral zone (TZ).
At this zone, thermoregulation can happen without MR.
Animals MR is at the basal metabolic (Resting) rate.
o After you pass the TZ, you use MR to lower body temp (sweating)
Behavioral Thermoregulation animals use behavior to thermoregulate.
o E.g. stay in the sun in the day, go underground in the night.
o Heliotherm use the sun as the heat source
o Thigmotherm use substrate (earth, rocks, etc.) to get heat.
Thermal acclimation: slow transition from one environment to another
o Done by selective synthesis of different forms of same enzyme
o Isoenzymes isoforms of enzymes. Only one can be produced at a
time. They have different optimal temps and MRs.
Heterotherms- Animals capable of varying degrees of heat production.
o Temporal Heterotherms - Tb (hibernation, day/night fluctuations)
Hibernation regulate Tb, but at much lower level).
Torpor (birds, small mammals suspend thermoregulation and
let Tb get very low.
o Regional Heterotherms different temps at a different parts
Ex. Testes in mammals.
Thermogenesis Converting chemical energy into heat
o Shivering thermogenesis muscle contractions make heat
3
o Non-shivering thermogenesis metabolizing fat to make heat

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a specialized fat for this.
Its found in neck/shoulders in mammals. It heats up
quickly and is highly vascularized.
Temperature is regulated using 3 components. (negative feedback)
o Sensor measures level.
In humans, this is in preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus
o Integrator compares level to set point and controls effector.
Set point the temperature its supposed to be at.
In humans, this is in the same area as the sensor.
o Effector Regulates everything so it returns to the set point.
In humans, effectors are shivering, BAT, etc.
Pyrogens are fever producing substances
o Exogenous pyrogens are very potent and produced by gram negative
bacteria.
o Endogenous pyrogens are produced by the body itself (like from
White blood cells)
They can also be released due to exogenous pyrogens.
Fluid and ion concentrations must be balanced and kept constant

Body fluids are compartmentalized ICF, Interstitial fluids, Plasma.
Solvent the liquid that things dissolve in (ex. H20)
Solute the things that dissolve in solvent salts, ions, etc.
Diffusion the movement of things from high conc. to low conc.
o Osmosis Diffusion of fluids/water.
o Passive no energy is needed.
o Driven by the concentration differential (C2-C1).
The cell membrane is selective permeable and highly regulated.
o Hydrophobic substances can easily diffuse through
o Hydrophilic substances cannot pass through directly.
o Lipophobic- molecules that cant go through the membrane
o Lipophilic molecules that can diffuse through the membrane.
Cells regulate lipophoic things through aqueous pores (ion channels)
o Aquaporins special channels for water
o Can open and close as needed.
o Each channel is selective to its own specific ions.
Water balance must be maintained.
o There is no active transport of water only osmosis.
The concentrations of solutes cause osmosis
o Water moves from areas of less solute (high conc. of water) to
areas of high solute (low conc. of water)
Osmotic pressure the pressure produced by osmosis
1 osmolars (Osm) 1 mole/1 liter.
o Molecules can dissociate though.
For ex. NaCl will become NA+ and CL-..
4
So 1M of NaCl will become 2 osmolars

o Remember as the # of osmolars goes up, it means that the amount
of solute rises. Solute Osmolars Concentration of water
o Therefore, water flows from low osmolars to high osmolars!
Terms uses to describe osmolarity describe the amount of solute
o osmotic : used for compartments and non-bio things
Needs a frame of reference! Be careful!
o tonic: used for cells. Frame of reference is always the cell!
o Hypo less concentration. Iso same conc. Hyper high
concentration.
Ex. compartment A is hypoosmtic to compartment B.
o This means compartment A has less solute compared to B.
o This means compartment A has a lower osmolars than B.
o This means water will flow from A to B.
Osmoregulator regulate the osmolarity inside the body

Osmoconformer live isosmotic to the environment. They conform to the
environmental conditions
Euryhaline animal that survive over a wide range of conditions
Stenohaline animal that can only tolerate a limited range.
Ionoconformer uses the same ion concentrations from the environment
Ionoregulator regulates the ion concentrations.
Vertebrates are osmoregulates with a Body fluid osmotic concentration
(BFOC) of ~300 mOsm. They have to maintain water budgets!
o Ions balance and water concentrations are linked! Osmolarity is a
function of ion concentration over volume of water
Factors to consider in terms of H2O/ion balance:
o Availability of H20 and salts. Aquatic vs. terrestrial, etc.
o Respiration (passive water loss) and temp for terrestrials.
o Skin (integument) permeability it varies between animals
Frogs/amphibians : very permeable
Reptiles/desert creatures/birds/mammals: very impermeable
Sweating by humans is an exception. Still impermeable.
o Food intake of water and salts.
o Excretion how much is gotten rid of. Skin, salt glands, etc.
Theres a lot of difference between fresh water and salt water fish
o Fresh water has 1 mOsm while fish try to maintain 300 mOsm
Fish gain water and ions from gills, excrete through kidney
o Salt water has 1000 mOsm while fish try to maintain 300 mOsm
Fish drink lots of water and ions.
They lose lots of water and ions through gills.
o Smoltification remodeling the pumping process in salmon as they
change from freshwater to seawater.
Its meditated by hormones, and the number and size of
chloride cells that pump out Cl- out of the gills.
5
Transport epithelia cells are very important!

o Apical membrane outward facing membrane (external envir.)
o Basal membrane facing towards inward towards the tissue
o There are transporters on both membranes for through transport.
Epithelial cells are connected by tight junctions
o This means that they form an impermeable sheet of cells.
o Transcellular transport transport through the cell.
o Paracellular transport transport between cells (not through)
They are used to pump ions and other substances through the body.
o For ex. glucose from the intestines to the blood stream.
o They have lots of mitochondria to provide the energy needed
o These help to maintain balance of substances and ions.
Lecture 6 (2/9) (Cabot)
The distribution of electrolytes (ions) in fluid compartments (ECF,

ICF, ISS) is main focus.
o The compartments are all in osmotic equilibrium. The only
exception is that the plasma has more proteins then the rest.
o However, all compartments are in chemical disequilibrium.
o Also, the compartments are in electrical disequilibrium.
Plasma compartment
o Electrolytes (Na, K, Cl, etc.)
o Non electrolytes (glucose, etc.)
o Colloids- large negatively charged proteins.
Major Cations (positive ions): Na+, K+, Ca2+.
o In Plasma Na+ high
o In ICF- K+ high. Ca2+ very low.
Major Anions (negative ions): Cl-, bicarbonate Hco3-, Phosphate ions.
o In plasma: Cl- and bicarbonate.
o In ICF: phosphate
Balance of charge the number of charges has to be identical (11+,
11- ) but the actual number of ions doesnt have to be equal.
Electrical disequilibrium
o Potential difference of about -70mv on the cell membrane
This is the resting membrane potential
This is the difference in potential between the ICF and ECF
Negative inside cell, positive outside.
Membrane potential has many causes
o Separation of the electrolytes between compartments is one.
Permeability of membrane drives the electrolytic imbalance.
Not really the actual change in conc. Of ions!!!
More channels, more permeability.
o Potential can pull ions in as well. called the electrical force
This will lead to the electro-chemical gradient.
Equilibrium potential is the voltage generated in the membrane for a
single ion that the membrane is permeable to.
Equilibrium potential can be calculated using the Nernst equation.
6
o Nernst potential = equilibrium potential. (units are millivolts)

o It only applies to one ion at a time!
[ion]
61
E
=
log
(
)
ion
10
o 61 is a gas constant and all
z
[ion] out
( )(
o Z = valence electrons.
so for ex. +1 for K+; -1 for Cl-; +2 for Ca2+
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation
o Predicts the resting membrane potential for several permeable
ions
+
K
+
Na
out
+
K
+
o 61 is a gas constant and all
Na
P Na
Pk
P Na
Pk
V m=61log
o P is the permeability of the specific ion
Permeability are relative
o K really dominates the equation... Pk is almost 40x Pna
o If you are adding other ions to the equation, remember that for
negative ions the concentrations must be flipped (in/out)
Conceptualizing the Goldman equation:
o THINK PERMEABILITY, NOT ION CONCENTRATION
Assume that all concentrations are the same. Only
permeability changes.
o When things are logged, log (1) = 0. All logs over 1 get more
positive as you increase value. All logs under 1 get smaller when
you decrease value
o What this means is that as the numerator of the fraction
increases, the voltage increases.
o When the denominator decreases, the voltage increases.
o Ex. K is more on the inside than out. So it looks like (5/150)
7
When you increase the permeability, the denominator will

increase more than the numerator. This means voltage
decrease.
Carrier proteins move ions and substances across the membrane.
o There are 3 types:
Uniport only transports 1 molecule in one direction
Antiport pumps 2 things in different directions.
Symport secondary transport move 2 molecules in 1 way.
o They are never open to both the ECF and ICF at the same time
o Some use ATP, others are facilitated diffusion.
o Some pumps are electrogenic pumps they help maintain the
electrochemical gradient in the membrane.
o Ex. Na/K pump pumps out Na, and pumps in K.
Channel proteins form either open channels or gated channel
o They form a pore continuity between ECF and ICF.
o Open channels dont open/close. They stay open. Ex. aquaporins.
o Gated channels are very important. 3 types:
Mechanically gated channels
Voltage gated channels (Gated by Na, K, Ca, etc.)
Chemically gated channels (ligand gated channel)
CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator)
o A chemically/ligand gated channel. Its a Cl- channel.
o cystic fibrosis is a disease when CFTR isnt able to be inserted
Disease caused by mucous becoming thick and sticky
o CFTR is regulated by the level of ATP inside the cell.
o In normal conditions cl- and na+ flow in, H20 cant go through
membrane, so the conc. of water outside increases dilutes
sweat.
o If Cl- cant go into cell (disease) the sweat is really salty.
o In resp. tract, Cl- leaves cell and brings water with it...
This makes a saline layer that forms under the mucous.
Without saline layer, Mucous will clog up the bronchi
and kill you.
Equilibrium potential =/= resting membrane potential

o Single ion (Nernst equation) vs. full potential (Goldman eq.)
There 2 types of electrical responses to change in membrane potential
o Graded potential
o Action potential
These changes only happen in Excitable tissue
o This is tissue capable of responding to/generating electrical
signals.
o These are: neural tissue, muscle tissue, and endocrine tissue.
Endocrine tissue cannot generate an action potential!
Membranes are polarized different charge inside and outside.
o Depolarizing takes potential to a less negative value.
8
Causes by increasing voltage(more +) in Goldman equation

o Hyperpolarizing- takes the potential to a more negative value.
Caused by decreasing voltage (more -) in Goldman equation.
Graded potentials must be generated using a stimulus.
o A stimulus applied to a membrane will affect the change in
permeability of the membrane to an ion, leads to voltage change.
As stimulus strength increases, the graded potentials
amplitude rises proportionally
The amplitude of multiple graded potentials can stack up.
o Graded potentials reduce in amplitude over distance.
Graded potential example: Beta cell (insulin cell) in pancreas
o Low glucose in blood slow metabolism low ATP K+ channel
regulated by ATP stays open K+ leaks outside Ca2+ channel
stays closed no insulin secreted.
o High glucose in blood Fast metabolism High ATP K+ channel
closes due to high ATP K+ stays inside Cell depolarizes
Ca2+ channel opens (depolarization is only thing that opens the
channel) insulin is secreted.
o Its important to note that Ca2+ is always needed for exocytosis.
Action Potentials
o They are triggered by graded potentials that depolarize the
membrane. (Never hyperpolarization, only depolarization!)
o The level of depolarization must be reach a specific level
o Action potentials are all or nothing events
Once you reach the threshold, it goes all the way,
regardless of what the amplitude of the stimulus is/was.
o Once the potential reaches its peak, it reverses and goes back to
the resting potential.
Example of an action potential: The neuron.
o The action potential can only be generated in the axon hillock
(Beginning of the axon)
It has the special channels needed. These are voltage gated
Na+ channels and voltage gated K+ channels
The voltage gated Na+ channel as 2 gates: an activation
gate and an inactivation gate.
The voltage gated K+ channel has only 1 gate.
o At rest, the activation gates on the Na+ channels are closed.
Same with the K+ gates.
o As the axon hillock depolarizes, voltage gated channels for Na+
open rapidly.
Once it reaches threshold (point of no return), it gets
positive feedback, which accelerates the depolarization.
Depolarization causes increase in permeability for
sodium, causing even more depolarization.
o The depolarization (Called upstroke) continues until it reaches

the peak of the activation potential. It then reverses! Then 2
things happen:
The inactivation gates on the Na+ channel close.
This is different from the activation gates, because it
doesnt allow the cell to generate another action
potential
This stops the depolarization.
The gate on the K+ channel opens.
This starts repolarizing the cell (Reversing it)
o Once the potential starts coming back down to -70 (resting), it
actually passes it (Called hyperpolarizing phase).
Some of the K+ channels still open, causing it to pass -70.
Then they close eventually, bring the membrane potential
comes to rest.
Action potential propagation though the neuron:
o The action potential propagates through the axon from the hillock
(Beginning) until the synapse (the end)
o The entry of Na+ causes the flow of electrical potentials through
the axon, thereby having the flow of electricity traveling
through the axon.
Some axons are myelinated, while some arent.
o Myelinated having a myelin sheath this is a thick fiber that
covers the axon in many layers. Its like an insulator.
o In some areas, theres a gap in the sheath- called a node of
Ranvier.
o In the node of Ranvier are where the voltage gated channels are.
o The myelin helps to speed up the reaction because instead of
having the action potential generated every mm, they are only
generated at the nodes of Ranvier, allowing the signal to leap
down the axon, instead of say, crawling.
This is called saltatory conduction.
o Myelination allows very fast speed of propagation.
During an action potential, there is a time interval, called the
absolute refractory period.
o During this, its impossible for the membrane to fire another
action potential.
This is due to closed inactivation gates on the Na+ channel.
o This prevents the signal from going back up the way it came.
o The period occurs on the upstroke and repolarization phases, as
they are above the threshold.
The relative refractory period occurs during the hyperpolarization of
the cell
o This is when some of the inactivation gates have opened, but not
all.
10
o During this, you need more than the threshold to fire another
potential.
The extra power needed lowers as you get close to normal.
Know the difference between Graded and Action Potentials!
Graded Potential
Amplitude varies with size of the
stimulus
Can be summed.
Has no threshold.
Has no refractory period.
Amplitude decreases with distance.
Can be a depolarization or
hyperpolarization.
Initiated by environmental stimulus,
neurotransmitter, etc.
Mechanism depends on ligand gated
channels or other chemical or
physical changes.
Action Potential
All-or-nothing. Once membrane
reaches threshold, the stimulus
doesnt matter.
Cannot be summed.
Has a threshold. (usually -15mv)
Has a refractory period.
Amplitude stays constant.
Is only a depolarization.
Initiated by a depolarizing graded
potential.
Mechanisms depend on voltage-gated
channels only.
There are 2 types of physiological communication between cells:

o Electrical communication is not receptor-mediated
o Chemical communication requires receptor mediation
Gap junctions are a form of electrical communication.
o 2 connexin proteins on each membrane join together to form a
pore.
o Syncytium when cells are so tightly connected to each other
that they act like a single massive cell.
Chemical communication is done through the use of many signal
molecules
o A Ligand is a primary (first) chemical messenger.
o The ligand can go to any cells in the body.
However, it can only invoke a response in a cell with the
receptor for that specific ligand.
o Many different types of cells can have different reactions to the
same ligand.
This is due to the receptor and how it recognizes the
ligand.
3 types of chemical communication:
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o Contact dependent signaling one membrane has specific

carbohydrates or proteins that match a receptor on the other
cells membrane. Ex. antigens in immune system.
o Local signaling: a cell releases the ligand for use in the local
environment.
Autocrine the messenger released by the cell also binds to
its own membrane, thereby causing changes on itself.
Paracrine the ligand affects neighboring cells.
Synaptic transmission is a specialized form of
paracrine signaling in the nervous system.
o Endocrine system Endocrine cells release hormones into the
blood stream. This allows for widespread signal transduction.
Receptors on target cells are required for the hormone to
have an effect.
Neuralhormone neurons can insert special hormones into the
blood stream.
Steps of the simple chemical signaling pathway
o A ligand binds to a valid receptor.
o The receptor, changes the conformation. And opens an ion channel
o The ion channel will lead to a cell response.
Some pathways have many relay molecules in a signal transduction
pathway
o The receptor activates relay molecules.
Typically the first one is a G protein.
Substance A will activate substance B, which will activate
Substance C
Substance C will then send out a secondary messenger, like
Ca2+.
o All of these leads to signal amplification and major changes.
o This pathway is the most common.
There are 4 types of receptors. We only need to know 3 of them:
o Ligand gated channels
o G protein coupled receptor
o Receptor enzyme system.
Ligand gated channel
o Binding of the ligand leads to an ion channel opening. Generates
voltage change cell response.
o Example : ACh (acetylcholine) at neuromuscular junction
ACh is a neurotransmitter that binds to the nicotinic ACh
Called this because nicotine can also bind to this
receptor and produce the same response.
Ach causes the ion channel to open. This channel allows Na+
to come in, and K+ to leave the cell. Cell depolarizes.
A depolarizing graded potential is generated.
Antagonist venom from the snake called a krait will block
the receptor, and cause paralysis leading to death.
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G Protein coupled receptor, opens ion channel (simple)

o A ligand binds to the receptor it changes the G protein thats
attached to the receptor G protein separates into 3 parts
the 3 parts go and make things happen.
o Example: ACh binding to a G protein, opening an ion channel.
ACh binds to the muscarinic receptor
Called this because muscarine is a toxin from a
poisonous mushroom that activates the receptor too.
G protein separates into the subunit and a / subunit.
The / subunit opens a K+ ion channel. Cell hyperpolarizes
Antagonist drugs that block this receptor lead to pupil
dilation and increased heart rate.
G proteins can generate a secondary messenger instead. (complex)
o Ligand binds to receptor, G protein activates, and separates
either the subunit or the / subunit activate an amplifier
enzyme this enzyme converts an inactive secondary messenger to
an active one Secondary messenger causes cell response.
o Example: G protein-coupled adenylate cyclase-cAMP system
Ligand binds to receptor and G protein splits
Active subunit activates the membrane protein adenylate
cyclase.
Adenylate cyclase takes ATP and generates cAMP
cAMP activates PKA, which goes around phosphorylating all
kinds of different proteins.
o Example: G protein coupled phospholipase C system
Ligand binds and G protein splits
Active subunit activates the protein phospholipase C
Phospholipase C breaks up membrane phospholipids called PIP2
into IP3.
IP3 binds to a receptor on the Ca2+ ion channel of the
endoplasmic reticulum (stores Ca2+)
Ca2+ leads to smooth muscle contraction.
Different receptors have different responses
o Epinephrine will cause dilation in bronchi
It uses an adenylate cyclase system for this.
The Ca2+ secondary messenger causes contraction.
o Epinephrine will cause dilation in arteries
It uses a adenylate cyclase pathway instead
This leads to relaxation.
Tyrosine-kinase receptors
o When ligands bind, the two proteins of the receptor come together
and activate They become phosphorylated and can activate up to
6 relay proteins
o Example: Insulins (hormone) mechanism of action
Insulin is released due to high glucose levels in the blood
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It binds to the receptor, activating lots of reaction

There are transporters that are waiting in vesicles to be
added to the membrane
The activated receptor helps the vesicles attach to the
receptor, which allows more glucose to come into the cell.
There is only pathway that doesnt use the cell membrane
o Special ligands can pass through the membrane and bind to enzymes
inside the cytoplasm or in the nucleus.
The ligand must be hydrophobic, lipophilic, and small.
Steroid hormones bind to cytosolic receptors
Thyroid hormones bind to nuclear receptors.
The receptor determines the response, not the ligand!
Synaptic transmission: transmission from a neuron to other cells.
o Action potential reaches the terminal of the synapse.
o Voltage gated Ca2+ channels open, and Ca2+ flows in.
o Ca2+ causes the exocytosis of neurotransmitter.
It binds to the vesicles and causes them to fuse with the
membrane and dump the load.
Synaptic transmissions must be stopped once theyre done
o Glial cells can absorb the neurotransmitter.
o You can have the neurotransmitter enter the blood stream
o You can chop up the neurotransmitter with an enzyme
This is the case of ACh.
AChE degrades Ach into 2 parts acetyl and choline
The choline goes back into the cell to be reused
---------------------------End Midterm 1 Material-------------------------
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------------------------- Begin Midterm 2 Material -----------------------
Lecture 9 (2/21) (Cabot) Intro to CNS & PNS
The nervous system can be broken up into 2 different systems:

o The central nervous system
Made up of the brain and spinal cord
o The peripheral nervous system
Made up of the nerves branching off of the spinal cord
The peripheral nervous system has 2 divisions
o Afferent division sensory function. Information going to brain
Somatic sensory touch, vibration, joint sensations.
Visceral sensory organ sensations and stuff.
Special sensory vision, smell, hearing, taste, balance.
o Efferent division motor information exiting the CNS.
Somatic motor all of the skeletal muscles
Things you can control and move.
Autonomic motor visceral/endocrine organs. Blood vessels.
Things beyond your control.
Cellular constituents of the CNS:
o Neurons
o Glial cells they are structural and functional. Help neurons.
Outnumber neurons 10:1
Astrocytes widespread and big.
Maintain chemical environment
Inactivation of neurotransmitters.
Form Blood-brain barrier.
o Surrounds capillaries and controls flow of things
from the blood to the neurons.
Oligodendrocytes they make myelinated axons.
15
Schwann cell - Oligodendrocytes in PNS.

Microglia Scavenger
They act as phagocytes. Clean up debris.
o Ependymal cell Epithelial cells that line the 4 major cavities
Choroid plexus cells are special ependymal cells and secrete
CSF cerebral spinal fluid.
Theres 4 huge holes in the brains called ventricles
o There are 2 lateral ventricles (left & right)
o The 2 ventricles dump into the third ventricle.
o Third ventricle joins the fourth ventricle, which runs down the
spinal cord.
Ventricles contain CSF.
o CSF floats the brain (3 lbs.). It weighs like 0.1 lbs. with CSF.
Also serves as shock absorber.
o Theres around ~150 ml
o Choroid manufactures about 500 ml/day
o It leaves through the arachnoid granulations
One way valves that allows the CSF through.
o CSF goes into the Venus sinuses.
CNS divisions
o Cerebrum (cerebral cortices)
o Diencephalon
o Midbrain (brainstem)
o Pons (brainstem)
o Medulla oblongata (brainstem)
o Spinal Cord.
Rostrocaudal topography each nerve from the spinal cord serves a
specific area. Ex. nerves from the legs wont input to cervical
nerves.
Spinal cord has 2 types of matter:
o Grey matter cell bodies of neurons.
Appears gray
o White matter axons of neurons.
Appears white because of
myelination. Unmyelinated axons
still outnumber though.
Dorsal root Sensory info to the
brain.
o Ganglion group of neurons/
cell bodies
o Dorsal root ganglion - group of
neurons/cell bodies.
Ventral root Motor nerve fibers. 2 types of fibers:
o Somatic innervate all of the skeletal muscles
o Autonomic innervates all of the smooth muscle.
Medulla is the most caudal portion of the brain stem
o It is contiguous with the spinal cord
16
o It regulates blood pressure, heart rate, respiration. Also needed

for walking and standing.
Pons is above the medulla has a huge bulge on the ventral surface
o Connects cerebral cortex with the cerebellum. Lots of axons for
relaying information. Bulge is full of the axons
o It coordinates respiration and control of lateral eye movements.
Midbrain is at the top of the brainstem. It does a lot
o It process visual and auditory information and feeds the cortex.
o Also involved in movement in limbs and pupils.
o Substantia Nigra is a part of the midbrain
Looks black when you first see it.
Associated with Parkinsons disease.
Cerebellum sits behind/on top of brain stem. Its huge.
o Integrates sensory info needed to stand up straight.
o Plans and adjusts motor movement.
o Involved in motor learning. (learning eye/hand coordination)
o We know so much about the cerebellum but we still dont know
exactly what it does.
Diencephalon 2 major pieces thalamus and hypothalamus
o Thalamus sensory relay for all senses. Sleep and wakefulness.
o Hypothalamus thermoregulation, salt and water balance,
endocrine function, stress response, circadian rhythms, etc.
Only region of the brain that is different in males and
females
Sexually dimorphic nuclei nuclei are different based
on sex.
Cerebrum we have 2 cerebral cortexes.
o Left cortex manages the right side of body. And vice versa.
o We have 4 lobes in a cerebral cortexes
Frontal Lobe involved in motor function, speech, emotions.
Parietal Lobe Sensory integration, perceptual awareness.
Temporal Lobe Auditory center. Language. Memory.
Occipital lobe Retinal input.
o Hills are called Gyri; valleys are called Sulci.
Increased surface area leads to increased amount of neurons.
o Corpus collesum massive fiber tract that joins the 2
hemispheres together.
Somatic motor system: voluntary skeletal muscle movement only.
o motor neuron is responsible for this. The cell body sits in the
ventral horn of spinal cord. The axon goes to straight to the
muscle and use ACh to cause contraction on nicotinic receptors.
o Only generates muscle excitation. Its either excited or not.
Autonomic nervous system visceral organs and smooth muscle.
o Its involuntary! Innervates heart, lungs, blood vessels, etc.
o Maintains the stability of our bodys internal environment.
o 3 divisions
Sympathetic
17
Parasympathetic
Enteric nervous system does GI tract motility
Sympathetic system Catabolic system uses energy
o Global Responses: Fight or Flight, Exercise, Hemorrhage.
o Orthostasis prone position to standing position. Specific
response.
Parasympathetic system Anabolic restorative in function.
o Rest and digest sleeping, resting, digestion, urination, etc.
Autonomic motor systems are more complex
o Preganglionic neuron body is in the CNS. Axon synapses on the
ganglion cell in the PNS.
o Postganglionic neuron cell body is in ganglion. Axon goes to
required place.
o In the sympathetic system, the preganglionic neurons can synapse
on the Chromaffin cells.
These are cells that are part of the adrenal medulla they
release epinephrine.
o For parasympathetic system, the synapses at the ganglion use
nicotinic Ach receptors while the synapses at the effector organs
use muscarinic Ach receptions.
o Sympathetic system use nicotinic Ach receptors at the ganglions
as well. However, they can use alpha and beta receptors at the
effector. They can also use NE, DA, and peptides on to of Ach.
o Autonomic system can send excitory and inhibitory signals.
Muscle Terminology
General Term
Muscle Cell
Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Modified Endoplasmic Reticulum
Muscle Equivalent
Muscle Fiber
Sarcolemma
Sarcoplasm
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
18
Myofibrils do the
contracting.
Excitation
Somatic neurons send a single

through the nerve and
synapse on the neuromuscular
synapse.
Motor unit a
motor neuron and all of the
muscle fibers that it
innervates.
o Each muscle fiber is
only innervated by one
motor
neuron.
The motor end plate
(where the axon meets
the muscle fiber) and
the sarcolemma are
very different from
each other.
What happens at the
junction:
o The action
potential arrives at
the
axon terminal, and
ACh is released.
o ACh binds to the nicotinic ion-gated channel. Both Na & K can
flow. The motor end plate depolarizes a lot. It sends a graded
potential outward.
To stop the signal, AChE chops up ACh at the motor plate.
o The sarcolemma membrane picks up the graded potential and turns
it into an action potential that propagates along the sarcolemma
and down the T-tubules.
o As soon as the action potential reaches the T-tubules, it opens a
Ca2+ port in the SR.
o The Ca2+ leads to the contraction of the sarcomeres.
Properties of the neuromuscular junction
o Specialized synaptic junction between an motoneuron axon
terminal and a skeletal muscle fiber
19
o The motor end plate potential generated by the synaptic release

of ACh is always a graded, depolarizing potential.
o The amplitude of the end-plate potential is always above the
threshold for action potential generation, and the subsequent
conduction of the action potential into the t-tubules
o When a motor neuron axon terminal depolarizes, and releases ACh,
the underlying muscle fiber contracts.
Skeletal and cardiac muscles are called striated muscle due to the
sarcomeres.
Myofibril structure
o Thin filament
Actin
Tropomyosin (regulatory proteins)
Troponin (regulator proteins)
Tropomyosin runs through the actin. Troponin ____
o Thick Filament
Myosin has 2 globular heads. Each head has 2 binding
sides.
1 binding site is for the actin
The other binding site is for ATP
o There are 2 proteins that help give structure
Titin holds the myosin thick filaments.
the longest protein in the body
Nebulin holds the actin thin filaments.
Sarcomere goes from Z disc to Z disc.
A band is where all of the myosin is.
The H zone is where you have no overlap of actin
and myosin filaments.
M line (center) is where all of the tails of
the myosin are.
I band is where theres no myosin, only actin
o Center of I band is the Z line/disc.
When a sarcomere moves the actin filaments
slide over the myosin filaments
o I band and H zone get smaller.
How sarcomeres contract
o At rest, Tropomyosin is like a string that rests on top of the
active sites of the actin.
o Troponin is a calcium binding molecule. It is attached along the
Tropomyosin.
o Calcium binds to troponin, while causes the Tropomyosin to
uncover the active sites of the actin.
o The energized myosin head binds to the exposed active sides and
forms a crossbridge.
20
o When ADP and Phosphate released from the myosin head, the power
stroke happens the myosin head pivots, moving the actin
filament back (causing contraction)
o ATP binds, and is used to release the myosin from the actin.
o Myosin head returns to original position with high energy and an
ADP and Phosphate molecule.
o Calcium unbinds from the troponin and calcium pumps use energy to
bring the calcium back into the SR.
Rigor mortis a few hours after death, the body stiffens up, because
the myosin molecule cannot dissociate from actin due to lack of ATP.
Roles of Ca2+
o It causes release of ACh at the junction
o The resulting action potential down the T-tubule triggers the DHP
receptor (DHPR). DHPR opens a significant ion channel. Theres a
mechanical foot protein that connects the DHPR to the ryanodine
receptor (RyR). The RyR is a Ca2+ channel in the SR cistern. When
DHPR is triggered, the RyR opens, and Ca2+ comes out. RyR is
really what causes the main Ca2+ release, not DHPR.
Lecture 11 (3/01) (Cabot) switch gears to cardiovascular system
Cardiovascular system is comprised of blood, heart, and circulation.

Blood
o Plasma is the liquid. Makes up 55% of the blood.
Carries ions, proteins, hormones, etc.
o Cellular elements make up the rest of the 45% of the blood.
Red blood cells (RBCs) (erythrocytes). Majority of the
cells.
White blood Cells Immune System.
Platelets Do all of the clotting.
o Hematocrit the percentage of the blood volume that is occupied
by Red Blood Cells. RBCs occupy about 42-45% of blood.
Heart is one of the most important parts of the blood.
o The apex of the heart is a little left of the centerline. Its
also close to the chest wall.
o The heart has 4 chambers
21
2 atria (Receive blood)

2 ventricles (pump
blood)
Right side of the
heart
receives blood from
the blood and pumps
to the lungs.
Left side of the
heart receives
blood from the
lungs and
pumps to the
body.
All blood flow is unidirectional!
This
is due to the 4 valves
o Tricuspid valve
between right atrium
and right
ventricle
o Pulmonary (semilunar)
valve between right ventricle and
artery.
o Mitral/bicuspid valve between left atrium and ventricle.
o Aortic semilunar valve between left ventricle and aorta.
o Valves open and close passively due to the pressure.
o To open the semilunar valves, the heart must generate more
pressure inside than outside in the blood vessel (Diastolic)
The Left ventricle has more mass/muscle due to the fact that the
system has high pressure circulation (120/80 mmhg) while the right
ventricle pumps low pressure circulation (25/10 mmhg)
o The same amount of blood is pumped by both sides. This is called
stroke volume.
Cardiac output (liters/minute) amount of blood pumped in liters per
minute.
Mechanics:
o Ventricular systole period of the ventricular contraction
o Ventricular diastole period when the ventricle relaxes.
Steps:
1. Ventricular filling ventricles fill up from the atria
a. At the end of diastole, the atria contract to push blood
into the ventricle.
2. Ventricular systole
a. Isovolumetric contraction Contraction starts, the AV
valves close, so the ventricle is briefly closed to
everything.
b. Ventricular ejection: the pressure forces the semilunar
valve open and blood is ejected with the heart.
22
i. Not all blood is ejected however.

3. Isovolumetric relaxation Ventricular diastole starts.
a. Ventricles relax and the blood backflows, causing the
semilunar valves to close. Ventricles are fully closed.
EDV end diastolic volume the most blood in the heart. (~135 ml)
o This occurs right after the atria contract and push blood in.
ESV end systolic volume left over blood in ventricles. (~65 ml)
o Occurs right after ejection. Isovolumetric relaxation.
Heart Beat Electrical coordination.
o 1% of cells form the cardiac conducting system
o It all begins at the SA node.
It sets the beat of the
heart.
Fires off an
Action
potential to the AV
Node and
atria.
o AV node receives the
signal
and fires off action
potentials to fibers
in the bundle of his.
Fibers conduct down all of
the way to the apex, and to
the purkinje
cells
(go up the side
of the
heart).
o This ensures that atria contract before the ventricle, and that
both dont contract at the same time.
Atria and ventricles dont connect or talk to each other;
the bundle of his is the only connection.
The AV node helps delay the ventricular contraction so it
happens after the atrial contractions.
Also ensures that the heart contracts from the apex, and not
the base.
Cardiac muscles arent innervated with nerves. Only electrical signals
control them.
o Membrane potentials flow thorough the gap junctions of cardiac
cells called intercalated discs.
o The cells are so interconnected that the cells act as a single
fiber.
o They also dont have neuromuscular junctions.
SA Node cells are autorhythmic They generate own cells.
o They are 3 types of voltage ages ion channels: Na, K, and Ca2+.
o Na+ channel is very different its called an HCN Channel.
It has no inactivation and activation gates.
It opens to both Na+ and K+. its non-specific
F-type (Funny) voltage-gated channel.
23
The repolarizing of the membrane causes the opening of the

channel.
3 phases of the action potentials:
o Pacemaker Potential: due to the opening of funny channel.
o Depolarization
o Repolarization.
Action potential at SA Node:
o When Na+ gate opens, the depolarization of the membrane opens the
voltage gated Ca2+ gate at a threshold. This causes the rise of
AP.
o This process takes a long time 250-300 ms (2-3 ms normal)
o Regular K+ channel ends the AP.
Action potential at muscle: google
o The opening of the gated channels led to a movement of ions
through the gap junctions into the next cell.
o Muscle cells have almost no permeability to the Na+ ions.
o During repolarizing of the membrane, voltage gated Ca2+ ions come
in.
Slows down the repolarizing and leads to the really long
action potential.
Cardiac muscle respond to action potentials a little differently:
o In skeletal muscles, the opening of the DHPR calcium channel was
insignificant.
The foot protein would open the RyR channel in SR.
o In cardiac muscles, there are no foot proteins; everything is
dependent on the DHPR calcium.
Cardiac cells get Ca2+ from the ECF due to the DHPR.
o The calcium released from the DHPR channel opens the Ca2+ RyR
channel in the SR. (Calcium induced calcium release)
o Cardiac cells must use a passive protein pump to pump out the
Ca2+ back out to the ECF using the inward flow of Na+ to power
the pump.
Cardiac action potential has a huge refractory period for almost 250
ms. This prevents the contractions from summating and reaching a
tetanus state (max tension.. fully contracted, and not relaxing)
o Autorhythmic cells have no refractory period.
24
Lecture 12 (3/06)
(Cabot)
ECG
Electrocardiogram electrical measure of

correlated cardiac mechanical events.
The most important measure is the electrical
axis
from upper right arm to left leg.
Components of the ECG:
o P wave Atrial depolarization
Complete discharge of the SA
node.
Contraction of the Atria happens at the
end
of the P wave.
o QRS complex ventricular depolarization
Q contraction of interventricular septum (separates left
and right ventricles)
R contraction of the ventricles from the apex starts.
S completion of the contraction.
Contraction of the ventricles starts at the top of the R
phase.
o T Wave.
Repolarization of the ventricular muscle.
Ventricular fibrillation ventricles are contracting all out of
whack.
o Damage to ventricular muscle resulting in uncoordinated
contraction. This can be lethal.
A defibrillator works by depolarizing the heart, which stops all of
the activity. As the heart repolarizes, the SA node will start sending
action potentials again. This resets the system.
Blood pressure
25
o Systolic pressure maximum pressure exerted by the blood against

the artery walls.
Results from ventricular systole
Normally around 120 mmhg.
o Diastolic pressure lowest pressure in the artery
Results from ventricular diastole
Happens right before ventricular systole.
Usually around 80 mmhg.
o Pulse pressure difference between systolic and diastolic
pressure.
Blood pressure measurements
o Pump up the blood pressure cuff and collapse the artery
There will be no sound b/c theres no flow.
o Once you start to lower the pressure, youll hear sounds
The pressure when you hear the sounds is the systolic.
The noise is due to turbulent flow through the constricted
the artery. (Period of turbulent flow)
o Once the sounds stop, you reach the diastolic pressure.
Once the pressure releases, the artery goes back to normal
and the turbulent flow stops. (Period of laminar flow)
MAP is the pressure in the aorta.
Its assumed that when vena cava enters the atrium, their
pressure is 0.
o Mean arterial pressure (MAP)= Diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse
pressure
Rough estimate.
o MAP = Cardiac output (CO) X Resistance to blood flow (R)
MAP is a dependent variable; CO & R are independent
variables.
CO (L/min) = Heart rate (beats/min) X stroke volume (L/beat)
Heart rate is regulated using SA node pacemaker cells (~ 100 bpm)
o Unregulated (denervated) heart rate = 100 beats/min
o But a normal resting heart rate is 72-80 bpm.
ACh activation of muscarinic receptors in SA nodal cells decrease
heart rate (parasympathetic nervous system cardiac innervation)
o Parasympathetic simulation hyperpolarizes the cells. This causes
the action potential to be generated slower.
NE,E activation of the -adrenergic receptions in the nodal cells
causes increases in heart rate.(sympathetic system innervation)
o This depolarizes the cells, and increases the slope of the action
potential, causing the potentials to be faster.
Increasing the heart rate 3 ways to do it
o Increase the -adrenergic stimulation from the sympathetic
system.
o Withdraw the Muscarinic stimulation from the parasympathetic
system.
o Hormonal control of heart rate add more plasma epinephrine.
26
Decrease the heart rate

o Increase the muscarinic stimulation from the parasympathetic
system. (most effective way to do it)
o Withdraw the -adrenergic stimulation from the sympathetic
system.
o Decrease levels of plasma epinephrine.
Stroke volume the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle each
heartbeat. The average is around 70 ml per beat.
o It represents the difference between the EDV(max amount of blood
in the ventricle) and the ESV (blood left over in the ventricle)
o As you increase the EDV, the stroke volume will increase.
Very unique property of the heart

there is a range where the
heart muscle can match
the increased volume put
into the ventricle with
output.
Frank-starling curve.
This is important for
when venous return
increases
The venous system can hold blood it
holds up to 61% of blood.
o Squeezing the veins will pump a lot more venous blood into the
heart.
The heart will have to compensate for this by increasing the
stroke volume.
Venous return must equal cardiac output.
Cardiac muscle can also change stroke volume and tension development
by altering contractility.
o Contractility an increase in
developed tension without a change
in
the resting length.
o For any given EDV, if you
increase contractility, you
increase the stroke volume.
o This allows increased CO while
increasing rate.
o Sympathetic system also innervates
ventricular muscles cells.
It causes an increase in contractility.
Recap:
27
Special properties of cardiac muscle (Recap):
Cant be tetanized.
Over a large range of initial
lengths, increasing muscle
increases force development
(frank-sterling law of the
heart)
Can increase contracility
increase tension developed
without changing muscle
length.
muscle
length
The arterioles in the

cardiovascular system are under physiological control. They are
influenced by many things. Its also called resistance vessels,
because they can restrict blood flow.
o Its composed of Smooth muscle with layer of epithelium and its
under control of sympathetic system. It also responds to
hormones.
o It also responds to paracrine messengers
Blood pressure decreases as it flows through the system, starting very
high at the aorta, and near 0 at the venae cave.
o This is because there is a decrease in flow resistance (R in MAP
= CO X R). (CO constant) High resistance High MAP.
Resistance to blood flow in the system is influenced by:
o Blood flow is opposed by friction.
o Length of vascular system
o Blood vessel radius
o Viscosity of blood (hematocrit)
o Increasing/decreasing resistance manually.
R= (8L)/( r4)
o 8 and pi are constants so they arent important
o L = Length of vascular system. This is constant unless you are
obese (fat tissue is highly vascularized)
o
= viscosity of blood. Constant unless at high altitudes.
o R = radii of arterioles. This is important since it is raised to
the 4th power. Very small changes have very large impacts.
Very small decreases lead to very large increase in MAP.
During normal activity, the sympathetic system makes sure the
arterioles are always contracted at rest. (called vasomotor tone)
NE attaches to receptors that cause vasoconstriction
Withdrawing the NE will cause vasodilation.
28
Hormones such as epinephrine, angiotensin and vasopressin cause

vasoconstriction. Epinephrine can cause dilation on -receptors too.
Local tissue can cause vasodilation due to paracrine resources such as
oxygen
Nitric oxide (EDRF+) also causes vasodilation (Viagra)
Histamine will also cause vasodilation.
Changes in MAP due to peripheral resistance (CO Constant!)
o Will increase if blood vessel length increases (morbid obesity)
o Will increase is hematocrit increases (high altitude)
o Will increase if there is systemic vasoconstriction (decrease in
arteriolar radius)
o Will decrease if there is systematic vasodilation happens.
Capillaries are the exchange vessels. They do metabolic exchange.
o They deliver all kinds of products O2, CO2, glucose, etc.
o They do primary and secondary active transport.
o Transcytosis movement of very large molecules (endo &
exocytosis)
Bulk flow is important.
o Mass movement of water and dissolved solutes between blood and
interstitial fluid.
o Function isnt exchange of nutrients, electrolytes, etc but
rather the distribution of extracellular fluid (ECF)
o Capillary wall is highly permeable to water and all solutes, but
not large proteins.
Proteins give the compartments different osmotic pressures.
This helps maintain water distribution.
ECF distribution is a balance between capillary blood
pressure and the protein-induced osmotic pressure.
o Filtration direction of movement is out of the capillary into
the interstitial space into the capillary
o Absorption - direction of movement is into of the capillary into
the interstitial space into the capillary
o At the arterial end of the capillary, the blood pressure is
greater than osmotic pressure, and fluid flows out of the
capillary. (Filtration)
o At the venule end of the capillary, the blood pressure is lower
than the osmotic pressure, and fluid flows into the capillary.
o More filtration happens than absorption though. (~20L/day
filtrated, 17L/day absorption)
Because you have more filtration than absorption, the lymph system
absorbs the remaining 2-3 L/day and returns it back to the blood.
If you have more absorption than filtration, it leads to interesting
consequences.
o If you bleed, the body can do this to get more fluid into the
blood.
29
Baroreceptors are nerve fibers that lie in the blood vessel and sense
the blood pressure in both the aorta and the carotid artery.
o Increasing the MAP increases the frequency of firing action
potential of these nerves. And Vice versa.
o The Medulla will interpret the information and generate an
appropriate action. It fixes what needs to be done.
It can change the SA node frequency using the
parasympathetic system. (Heart Rate)
It can use the sympathetic system, it can make the
ventricles contract with more force. (Stroke Volume)
It can also use sympathetic system for changing radius of
arterioles and veins. (resistance of the arterioles)
30
Orthostasis Going from a laying down position to a standing up

position. I stood up too fast; I feel lightheaded
31
o Blood rushes out of the brain suddenly

o Decrease in venous return leads to EDV and stroke volume
decrease. This leads to a decrease in CO and MAP.
o Baroreceptors drop in activity and the brain responds by
increasing sympathetic cardiac and peripheral nerve activity.
You also drop the parasympathetic cardiac nerve activity
(most effective way)
o All of this results in increase heart rate, stroke volume and
resistance. This in effect increases MAP.
Hypertension chronically increases MAP, BP greater than 140/90.
o Associated with chronically increased total peripheral
resistance, due to decreased arteriolar radius.
o Baroreceptors reset to a new set blood pressure.
o Renal dysfunction can be the cause of hypertension.
o Its important to treat because the heart is the most affected
organ
Heart has to work harder.
Heart becomes pumped up with muscle and its irreversible.
This is called hypertrophy.
The ventricles get smaller and smaller, and the person will
die due to heart failure.
o Hypertension also increases the chances of stroke and
cardiovascular disease.
Exercising
o EDV, SV, Heart Rate, all go up, leading to a CO increase of 220%
o But the resistance drops, so that the MAP only rises 121%
This is so that more blood gets to the muscle
o Skeletal muscle gets almost 3 times the amount of blood
o The system gets the more blood needed from the veins.
Lecture 14 (3/13) (Cabot) Kidney function
Kidneys are connected to the ureters which empty into the bladder
Micturition The act of urinating.
o It is under voluntary and involuntary control.
o The outlet of the bladder is wrapped in skeletal muscles.
(volitional control)
o Smooth muscle is controlled by parasympathetic and sympathetic
nerves. It is involuntary.
During filling.
o The detrusor muscle(main muscle of bladder) is relaxed allows
the bladder to get bigger and bigger. Sympathetic innervation.
o Skeletal muscle keeps the bladder closed.
o After a threshold however, the brain causes a reflex and causes
micturition.
During micturition
32
o The skeletal muscle becomes inhibited.

o The detrusor muscle becomes stimulated and contracts.
Function of the mammalian Kidney
o Elimination of metabolic waste products
Urea protein catabolism
Uric acid - Nucleic acid catabolism
Creatinine - Muscle creatine catabolism
o Regulation of Water and inorganic electrolyte (Na+,etc.) & pH.
o Removal of foreign chemicals (drugs such as penicillin, food
coloring, pesticides, etc.)
o Gluconeogenesis Generating glucose (extreme fasting only)
o Section of hormones and an enzyme
Erythropoietin (Stimulates RBC production)
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (important for Ca2+ homeostasis)
Renin(enzyme)controls formation of angiotensin
II, which influences blood pressure and Na+
synthesis)
A nephron is the function unit of the kidney.
They are 2 locations
Cortical nephron
Juxtamedullary nephron.
Not going to be discussed.
Nephron blood flow
o Glomerular capillaries are arranged in a
ball called a glomerulus. This is inside
a capsule called bowmans capsule (also
called corpuscle)
The space between capillaries in the
capsule is called the bowman space.
o There is an incoming afferent arteriole, and
then the efferent arteriole leaves
There is no gas exchange here.
o The efferent arteriole then
branches out into lots of
capillary beds that
surround
the tubules all the way
down. (called peritubular
capillaries in the
cortex(top) part)
This is because 99%
of the stuff that are
filtered in the
corpuscle is reclaimed
into the
blood stream.
So you need lots of
vascularization!
Nephron Tubules.
33
o From Bowmans capsule (space), everything flows into the proximal

convoluted tubule (PCT), which goes into the descending Loop of
Henle.
o The loop then ascends, and goes into the distal convoluted tubule
(DCT), which then empties into the collecting duct.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) The
distal tubule
becomes in close proximity to the
afferent/efferent arteries. Composed of:
o Granular cells synthesis and store
the enzyme renin.
Innervated by sympathetic nervous
system.
o Macula Densa Cells in the tubules that
are close to the granular cells.
Renal processes
o Filtration - happens in the bowmans
capsule)
o Reabsorption happens in capillaries
o Secretion some solutes are removed from the
blood of the peritubular arteries and secreted by
the tubular cells into the filtrate
(tubes)
o Filtration amount reabsorbed + amount secreted
= amount excreted.
o Most substances are either reabsorbed or secreted, but not
both.
Transport
o
Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
H+ is secreted.
Bicarbonate, NaCl, Water, Glucose get reabsorbed
o Loop of Henle
H20 & NaCl is reabsorbed.
o Distal tubule - under physiological regulation
o Cortical/Medullar Duct K+ is secreted. H20 is reabsorbed.
Fluid in the system
o In Bowmans capsule and end proximal tubule about 70% of the
filtrate is reabsorbed. Osmolarity remains at plasma level (300)
o At the end of the loop of Henle, 90% is reabsorbed, osmolarity is
100 mOsm.
o At the end of the collecting duct, osmolarity varies.
Physiological regulation
o Forces generating glomerular filtration
o Regulating of the filtration rate.
o Regulation of reabsorption
o Regulation of secretion.
There are many forces that affect filtration
34
o Glomerular hydrostatic pressure blood pressure ~60mmhg.

More than regular capillaries (~35 mmhg)
o Capsular hydrostatic pressure oppose filtration - ~15 mmhg
The capsule is full of water, so it has a pressure inside.
o Glomerular osmotic pressure opposites filtration - ~28 mmhg
Proteins arent being filtered. Therefore its making a
pressure. (see bulk flow)
o Net filtration pressure: ~17 mmhg. (can never be negative)
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) rate at which kidney is filtering.
Dependent on the net filtration pressure. ~125 ml/min
o GFR is autoregulated by the kidney.
o The diameter of the afferent arteriole changes
It constricts and reduces GFR. And vice versa.
GFR can be regulated using 2 ways
o Myogenic autoregulation
Increased blood pressure increases the outward pressure
against the sidewall of the arteriole. This causes the
artery to contract more.
Its very effective, and maintains a normal GFR for all
blood pressures between 80 and 180 mmhg.
o Tubuloglomerular autoregulation
Increase in GFR is sensed by the macula densa cells in the
tubule.
The macula densa sends a paracrine signal to the afferent
arteriole to contract.
This causes decrease in GFR.
o Neural and hormonal control of the afferent arteriole.
For ex. epinephrine causes vasoconstriction.
Regulation of reabsorption in proximal tubules.
o Active transport: Na+ flows into the tubule. It is passively
transported into the epithelium cells in the tubule. Its then
pumped using the Na/K pump into the interstitial space. The bulk
flow causes Na+ to go into the peritubular capillary blood.
o Secondary Active Transport: Glucose enters through a Symport with
Na+ ions. Na+ gradient provides energy for the glucose to be
pushed into the cell. It then diffuses out of the cell on the
other side.
In normal conditions, all glucose that is filtered is
reabsorbed.
With high blood sugar, all glucose cant be reabsorbed
Glucosuria pissing out glucose.
o Diffusion
Urea can diffuse through membranes.
So a concentration gradient must be formed for it.
Active transport of NaCl from the filtrate into the
peritubular capillaries causes water to follow.
35
So the concentration of urea has gone up since water

concentration has gone down.
This way, urea goes back into the blood stream.
Secretion can be regulated as a renal process as well.
o Normally involves transport against a concentration gradient.
o It occurs in the PCT and the DCT
o It handles H+ and K+
Diabetes Mellitus type 1
o Commonly autoimmune disease destruction of 1 cells in pancreas
o Insulin hyposecretion or hypoactivity.
Person has to intake artificial insulin
o Hyperglycemia elevated levels of plasma glucose.
Leads to glucosuria
This leads to polyuria (osmotic diuresis) increases the
amount of urine produced
Polydipsia youre going to always really thirsty.
Polyphagia youre going to always be hungry.
Causes damage to blood vessels, eyes, kidneys, CNS, etc.
Type 2 Diabetes 97% of all diabetics.
o Insulin resistance inability to recognize proper levels of
glucose and get rid of it.
Skeletal muscles and all wont really get glucose.
o Glucose tolerance test can find if theyre diabetic or not, but
they cant differentiate between Type 1 and Type 2.
o Hyperglycemia high blood sugar.
o If untreated, people will get atherosclerosis, renal failure,
blindness, neurological damage, etc.
o About 70% of people die from a cardiovascular disease.
Kidneys can only converse fluid, not restore it

o GFR and urine regulation conserve fluid.
Na+ reabsorption is an active process.
o Its not regulated in the PCT
o But in the collecting duct, it is regulated.
Water reabsorption
Water reabsorption is by osmosis (diffusion) and will follow Na+

reabsorption (If possible)
o Water moves down its concentration gradient due to Na+ generating
the gradient. (Na+ leaving makes water leave)
Na+ Reabsorption and Water reabsorption are independently regulated.
Water movement o Can only occur if epithelial cell membranes are permeable.
o H2O reabsorption is high in the PCT.
H2O and Na+ are reabsorbed in constant amounts in PCT.
36
o H20 permeability in the collecting duct can be high or low and is

physiologically regulated.
Hormonal control of H2O reabsorption
o In the hypothalamus are sensors that sense the osmolarity of
blood.
o If theres an increase in osmolarity (decrease in water), urine
production is slowed.
AVP is released
It decreases the generation of urine by reabsorbing more
water.
AVP is (arginine vasopressin), also called ADH (anti-diarrheic
hormone) is a hormone released by the hypothalamus/pituitary gland.
o It stimulated by many things.
Changes in osmolarity, volume or pressure of blood
Also released due to angiotensin.
o It binds to the vasopressin receptors on the collecting tubule
cells.
Receptor is a G protein receptor that sends out a secondary
messenger, cAMP.
o cAMP facilitates the delivery of vesicles to the apical membrane.
The vesicles have aquaporin channels.
o Doing this increases the permeability of the membrane to water
More water will be reabsorbed.
Diabetes Insipidus Has nothing to do with the other diabetes!
o H2O Diuresis you piss out tons of water.(25L/day vs 1.8 L/day)
o Occurs When AVP secretion and/or receptors dont work.
Water cant flow through concentration gradient.
H20 diuresis is different from osmotic diuresis
o H2O diuresis is not due to excessive solute loss
o Osmotic diuresis is water loss due to excessive solute loss. .
Na+ reabsorption
Na+ Excreted = Na+ filtered Na+ reabsorbed

RAAS ReninAngiotensinAldosterone System.
The kidney can produce and store renin in the JG cells. It can also
release them at the right time.
RAAS Steps:
o Stimulus to generate renin release is severe drop in MAP.
o Decrease in MAP causes brain to try and increase MAP.
Renal sympathetic nerve synapses on the Granular (JG) cells
Cells will then release Renin
o The liver generates angiotensinogen all of the time..
Renin chops off a piece of the angiotensinogen and makes it
angiotensin I.
Angiotensin I is a biologically inactive peptide.
37
o Many epithelium cells in the body have ACE Angiotensin

converting Enzyme.
Its particularly high in the Lung capillaries (~40%)
It converts Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II
Angiotensin II is biologically active.
o Angiotensin II has 2 different effects
It has a powerful effect of vasoconstriction in the
cardiovascular system. Causes increase in MAP.
Will cause GFR to decrease due to afferent arteriole
constricting.
It causes the adrenal cortex to synthesize and release the
steroid hormone aldosterone.
Because steroid hormones cant be stored due to being
lipophilic, they have to be made on the spot. This
takes a few hours.
o Aldosterone causes Na+ ion and water retention.
It affects the hypothalamus and causes release of AVP.
Aldosterone pathway:
o Aldosterone flows through the membrane and binds to receptors
inside the cytoplasm.
o The receptor-aldosterone goes into the nucleus and causes protein
production.
o 2 interesting proteins that are generated:
Increases synthesis/insertion of Na+ channels on the apical
(facing tubule) membrane.
Increases the permeability of the Na+ so it can be
reabsorbed so much.
Na+/K+ pumps are made. Na+ reabsorption increases a lot.
Water flows with the Na+ out.
38
R
e
n
al
Regulation of K+
o Most abundant intracellular ion. ECF conc. is regulated.
Its critical to our survival.
o Important for maintain membrane potentials.
Processing of K+
o Its filtered.
o Its passively reabsorbed in the PCT.
o Its regulated in the collecting duct.
Increases in plasma angiotensin & plasma potassium leads to more
aldosterone.
o Aldosterone makes Na/K pumps that cause K to be pumped into the
cell. It also increases K+ channels on the apical side.
Causes K+ to be excreted.
2 Conditions due to K+ concentrations:
o Hyperkalemia: too much K+ depolarizes cells, can lead to
cardiac arrhythmias.
Things that usually wont reach threshold end up reaching
it.
Lethal its whats used in lethal injections.
o Hypokalemia: too little K+ - hyperpolarizes cells, can lead to
failure of respiratory and cardiac cells.
39
Graded potentials cant reach the threshold due to

hyperpolarization.
Clearance A useful way to measure renal function
o Its a non-invasive way to measure GFR
o Its defined as the volume of plasma from which a substance has
been completely removed per unit of time (cleared/time)
o Its a rate.
o To measure GFR, you need a substance thats filtered, but not
reabsorbed or secreted.
So filtered = excreted.
Inulin is this substance.
Process of clearanceo Give someone an IV with inulin and measure how much you give and
what concentration. (lets say the conc. Is 4 inulin per 100 ml)
o Inulin will get filtered at the GFR rate. (lets say rate is
100ml/Min)
o Then you collect urine and analyze the rate. (so lets say
theres 4 inulin molecules. Then you know that GFR is 100ml/min)
o GFR = clearance of inulin.
If the clearance of a substance X is greater than clearance
of inulin, then its filtered and secreted.
If the clearance of a substance X is less than clearance of
inulin, then its filtered and reabsorbed.
If the clearance of a substance X is equal to clearance of
inulin, then its filtered, not reabsorbed, and not
metabolized.
Creatinine is the closest naturally occurring substance with
clearance values near those of inulin.
Hormone A chemical messenger secreted by a cell or group of cells

(neurons included) into the blood for transport to a distant target,
where it exerts its effects at very low concentrations.
o All hormones exert their effects through receptors.
Effects of hormones
o Alter membrane permeability/electrical state
o Regulate the transport of molecules across membranes
o Activate genes for transcription
o Stimulate the synthesis of proteins or other molecules.
o Active or deactivate enzymes.
o Induce exocytosis (Secretion)
3 classes of hormones
o Peptide (for ex. insulin, AVP, angiotensin II, ACTH)
Most common
40
Short chains of amino acids.

Mostly hydrophilic & lipophobic. Easily transmitted in the
blood.
Most receptors are G Protein linked receptors.
Insulin receptor is tyrosine kinase.
o Amine (catecholamine) (ex. epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroid)
All derived from the amino acid tyrosine.
Water soluble. They are Lipophobic.
Most receptors are 1 receptors. Also 1,2 receptors.
These are still G protein linked receptors.
o Steroid hormones (ex. aldosterone, cortisol)
Are derived from cholesterol.
They are hydrophobic and lipophilic. They dont like being
transported through blood.
They have to be bound to a protein to be transported.
Theres no barrier to these cells.
Steroid receptors are intracellular in the cytoplasm.
They have a long half-life.
Peptides and catecholamines have a very fast response time. minutes
to an hour.
Steroids have a very slow response time hours to days.
o But they stick around for longer.
3 Classes of stimuli for
hormone release:
o Humoral
Plasma
or
ISF.
o Neural
o Hormonal.
Humoral stimulus
pathway example:
o Rise in
plasma
glucose
inhibits
cells in
the pancreas
and
stimulates cells in the pancreas to release insulin.
o Increased levels of insulin affect the liver and other cells.
Liver cells get affected by insulin
Glycolysis, glycogenesis, and lipogenesis are
increased.
Muscles and adipose tissue increase glucose transport.
o All of this leads to decrease in plasma glucose.
41
About insulin
o Half-life of 5 minutes (very short)
o Factors affecting release: plasma glucose, GI hormones, nerves.
o Target cells: liver, muscle/adipose tissue,
Brain, kidney and intestines are not insulin-dependent.
They take up glucose without insulin. This means that
if you have too much insulin and not enough glucose in
the blood, the brain will be glucose deprived (faint).
o Target receptor: tyrosine-kinase receptor.
o Actions: Lower plasma glucose, by increasing transport and use.
Increases synthesis in the cell.
Glucagon is a peptide hormone that
follows the same pathway.
o It is released when cells in
the pancreas are stimulated.
Happens when glucose levels
get too low.
Also, cells are inhibited
from releasing insulin.
o Liver will then generate glucose
Gluconeogenesis and
glycogenolysis.
o Plasma glucose increases and you
get back to normal.
About glucagon
o Has a short half-life. 4-6
minutes.
o Stimulated by low plasma levels.
o Targets liver.
o Receptor is G protein-coupled
adenylate cyclase with cAMP.
o Actions: gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis in liver.
Neural Stimuli. Example pathway autonomic, insulin.
o Autonomic system sends an impulse down to a parasympathetic
ganglion, where it synapses and continues to the pancreas. The
pancreas then releases insulin.
Adrenal medulla pathway (sympathetic neural stimuli)
o Preganglionic sympathetic neuron synapses in the adrenal
medullas Chromaffin cells (wannabe neurons).
They have nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.
Channels open and the Chromaffin cell depolarizes, causing
ca2+ channels to open.
Ca2+ causes exocytosis of vesicles containing epinephrine
and some norepinephrine.
NE is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone.
42
E/NE bind to arteriolar muscle contraction ( receptors) and

bronchiolar smooth muscle relaxation ( receptors).
Neural control of hormones that release hormones etc. hypothalamus.
o Hypothalamus and pituitary gland are connected by neurons and
vasculature via the pituitary stalk (called infundibulum)
Pituitary gland has 2 parts
o Posterior gland is neural tissue.
o Anterior gland is true endocrine tissue.
Posterior pituitary gland:
o Has 2 hormones that it releases:
o Oxytocin and AVP/ADH(See kidney).
Oxytocin is used for uterine
contraction.
o Hormone is made and package
in cell
body of neuron in
hypothalamus. (green neurons in
pic)
o Vesicles containing hormone are stored in
posterior pituitary.
When youre drunk, you have to take a long
piss.
This is cause alcohol inhibits AVP release.
Neurotransmitter is short distance. Neuralhormone
is long
distance.
Hormonal Stimuli complex endocrine pathways. AKA Hormone-ception.
o Stimulus causes hypothalamus to secrete a hormone. The hormone
causes an endocrine gland to release another hormone, which then
does the work.
Hypothalamus releases a hormone (Called a releasing hormone)
into a capillary bed called the median eminence at the base
of the hypothalamus.
This then goes to capillary bed of the anterior pituitary.
Anterior pituitary then releases the main hormone.
Capillary bed to capillary bed is called portal
circulation (connected via portal vessels)
Then this hormone can cause a release of another
hormone
o There are 6 anterior pituitary hormones.
CRH(Corticotrophin releasing hormone) Pathway (AKA stress pathway) :
o Stress causes CRH to be released from the hypothalamus.
o CRH is released into the capillaries of the median eminence. It
then passes through the portal vessels into the capillaries of
the anterior pituitary.
o CRH will cause the Anterior Pituitary to release the peptide
hormone ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone) into the blood.
43
o ACTH will then bind to receptors in the adrenal cortex. Adrenal

cortex increases production of the steroid cortisol, which takes
a while to happen.
o Cortisol will then enter the blood stream. It causes increase in
blood glucose.
Cortisol is a glucocorticoid.
It promotes gluconeogenesis
Leads to hyperglycemia
Protein catabolism
Increases energy metabolism by mobilizing fat stores.
Depresses inflammatory and immune responses.
Vasoconstriction.
o Regulation: (negative feedback)
Increased levels of cortisol lower production of CRH and
ACTH. (long loop feedback)
ACTH levels also regulate CRH levels too. (short loop)
About Cortisol
o Steroid that is made from cholesterol.
Must be transported on binding globulin protein in blood.
o Half-life is 60-90 mins.
o Target receptor is intracellular (because its a steroid)
Giving external steroids reduces production of cortisol
o If this is prolonged, the cells that produce CRH/ACTh/cortisol
producing cells die.
Cushings syndrome: when you have too much cortisol production.
o You get a moon face with red cheeks.
o A buffalo hump fat deposits on the shoulder.
o Hypertension due to vasoconstriction.
o Increased abdominal fat.
o Easy bruising and poor wound healing.
Physiological responses to stress:
o Rapid response (HypothalamusAnt. Pit. adrenal cortex E/NE)
Increased CO, redirect blood flow, maintains BP
Maximized breathing
Increased sweat production.
Mobilizes carb and fat stores.
Increases glucose production and inhibits insulin.
o Prolonged response (CRHACTHCortisol)
Glucocorticoid response (cortisol)
Immunosuppression.
Fat breakdown.
Mineralocorticoid response.
Retention of sodium and water by kidney
BP will increase due to AVP & Angiotensin II.
44
------------------------ End Midterm 2 Material --------------------------
------------------------ Begin Midterm 3 Material ------------------------
Lecture 17 (3/22) (Cabot) Innate Immunity
Immunology study of physiological defenses by which the body defends

itself against foreign matter.
Components of
White Blood cells (leukocytes) arise from stem cells
o Lymphoid stem cells give rise to lymphoid white blood cells NK Cells
B cells
T cells
o Myeloid stem cells give rise to everything else
RBCs and platelets
Monocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Most of the lymphoid cells arent circulating in blood, but rather
sitting in the interstitial fluid and lymph organs
Other cells that make up the immune system:
45
o Macrophages (different from monocytes)

o Dendritic cells (like macrophages)
o Mast Cells (different from bone marrow cells)
Lymphoid organs are where the cells reside and mature
o Primary organs: Where the cells mature.
o Secondary organs: Where mature lymphocytes reside and replicate.
2 main immune organs:
o Bone Marrow: B and NK lymphocytes mature here
o Thymus: T lymphocytes mature here.
Secondary organs can be encapsulated or unencapsulated
o Spleen and lymph nodes are encapsulated.
o Tonsils and Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) are not.
Immunity can be divided into innate and acquired (adaptive) immunity.
Innate system is what were born with.
o Its non-specific.
o Response time is minutes to hours.
o Clears or contains an infection till acquired response happens.
External defenses: skin, mucous membranes, secretions.
Internal defenses:
o Natural killer (NK) cells kills virally infected or cancerous
cells.
o Inflammatory response
o Fever.
Phagocytes they carry out phagocytosis.
o Theyll recognize something on the surface of the bacteria, and
then swallow it (endocytosis), and then merge with a lysosome,
which kill and digests the bacteria.
o They recognize bacteria based on carbs and lipids on the cell
walls. Also, tagging by the use of opsonins also helps recognize.
Antimicrobial proteins
o Complement a series of 30+ proteins activated in a sequence.
When they come in contact with the bacteria, they make holes
in the wall of the bacteria, causing water and ions to flow
in, thereby bursting the bacteria.
This is called the Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
Opsonin chemical mediator that binds to and tags a microbe
to promote phagocytosis.
Antibodies
Complement proteins. (called C3b)
o C3b acts as a ligand and triggers receptor
mediated phagocytosis in macrophages.
o Interferons
Its a cytokine it affects the growth and activity of the
microbe
It prevents replication of viral cells when they take over
host cells.
Infected cells will generate these.
46
o Natural Killer Cells

Has surface receptors that bind directly (but
nonspecifically) to virus infected cells and cancer cells.
Releases chemicals that induce apoptosis (cell death)
Inflammatory response Happens when skin/barrier is broken
o 4 signs: Swelling , Heat, redness, pain.
o Damaged cells and responding cells release chemicals
o Leads to vasodilation and increased vascular permeability.
o Chemicals cause the neutrophils in the blood to bind to the
endothelial cells in the blood vessels.
o Diapedesis- the cell squeezes out of the vessel.
o Chemotaxis cells move towards the infected cells via chemicals
Fever
o Most pathogens dont replicate well in high temperatures
o It enhances phagocytosis and a bunch of other immune stuff.
Lecture 18 (3/27) (Cabot) Acquired Immunity
Acquired response is slower, but it has memory and specificity.

o Memory doesnt last forever, but lasts for a long time.
Humoral immunity recognizes and destroys antigens in the ECF.
o B cells, antibodies, opsonins, and macrophages.
Cell-mediated immunity destroys antigens hidden inside cells.
o Helper(CD4) and cytotoxic (CD8) T cells, NK cells.
3 stages of immune response
o Encountering and recognizing an antigen by lymphocytes
o Lymphocyte activation
o Antigen destruction
Antigen piece of the microbe that is recognized by the system.
B cells and T cells receptors bind to antigenic
determinants.
o Receptors are
very
different for
each one.
Look at picture.
o Each cell
identifies
one type
of
antigen
but has
100k
receptors.
B Cell Activation
o B cells binds to antigen molecules.
o B cell keeps replicating itself. This is called clonal selection
o Clones can attach to other antigens of the same type now.
47
o B cells differentiate in 2 different types once theyre done.

Memory clones go back to the humeral space to chill.
Plasma cells cells that eject antibodies(the receptors)
into the plasma
o This way, the next time the infection happens, the response is
faster and more robust.
The point of multiple immunizations.
Antibodies do lots of things.
o They act as opsonins, the constant part (bottom part) acts as a
receptor for macrophages. This leads to phagocytosis.
o Antibodies help initiate the complement process, which create the
MAC.
o Antibodies clump and immobilize the antigens
o They neutralize viruses by surrounding and attaching to it.
T Cell Activation
o T cell receptors are 2 chained proteins embedded in the membrane
Are very different from the B cell receptors .
o T cell receptors cannot combine with an antigen unless the
antigen is first tagged with some of the bodys own proteins.
o Major Histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins are the proteins
that the cell expresses.
MHC class I proteins are on the surface of all cells.
Except RBCS
The MHC proteins hold a piece of cut up protein from the
cell.
o T cells are born in the bone marrow, mature in thymus, and then
chill in the secondary lymphoid organs.
Cytotoxic T cell (CD8) activation
o They wander through the ECF looking at the surfaces of cells
looking for the MHC and the attached antigens.
If they find an MHC protein with virus dna on it, theyll
respond.
CD8 is the protein on the T cell that recognizes the MHC I.
o The T cell will release 2 types of paracrine molecules
Perforins they punch holes in the membranes of the cell.
Enzymes they go inside the holes and activate apoptosis.
o The T cell also clones itself a bunch of times, and some go to
storage.
MHC II proteins are found only on the surface of macrophages, B cells,
and dendritic cells. These cells are called APC cells (antigenpresenting cells)
o MHC II proteins will show the chopped up antigen peptides.
o But cytotoxic T cells wont respond. Helper T cells will instead
Helper T cells use CD4 to recognize MHC II.
o Helper T cells help facilitate the response to the antigens.
They outnumber cytotoxic T cells by more than 2:1.
Helper T cell activation
48
o APC cells and Helper T cells match up with both the MHC II
complex, and another non-antigenic receptor.
o When this happens, the APC releases paracrine signals.
o The Helper T cell becomes activated and goes around activating
other responses.
o Activated Helper T cells can activate and help B cells.
They are needed for B cells to function normally.
o Activated Helper T cells also stimulate/activate cytotoxic T
cells.
Innate and Acquired (humoral and cell mediated) act synergistically
together.
Immune system failures
Autoimmune diseases incorrect immune response
o Type 1 diabetes
o Myasthenia gravis
o Multiple sclerosis
o Lupus
o Rheumatoid arthritis.
Overactive responses
o Allergic reactions. Can be lethal.
Lack of response
o Immunodeficiency diseases Primary or acquired
o AIDS is an acquired immunodeficiency diseases.
HIV/AIDS.
o HIV is an asymptomatic infection
o AIDS is basically destruction of the immune
system.
o Routes of transmission
Transfer of contaminated blood
Unprotected sex
Contaminated needles
Mother to fetus/child (Placenta or
breast milk)
HIV is a retrovirus that has reverse
transcriptase.
Processo Virus fuses with the cell and the capsid
(outer shell) proteins are removed.
o Reverse transcriptase helps synthesize a
DNA strand thats got the viral RNA.
o Virus uses cell machinery to produce lots
of copies of itself, and then sends them
out to infect some more.
HIV/AIDS Timeline:
49
o Virus infects and enters the

body, but lays dormant for 6-8
years.
o After 6-8 years, it comes back
and
destroys the immune system by
infecting the Helper T cells.
Less Helper T cells, means
less activation of CD8
cells and B cells.
o This leads to AIDS.
o AIDS leads to infection by
other regular microbes.
o This leads to death.
AIDS treatment strategy
o Drugs that prevent fusing of
the HIV virus to the CD8 cells
o Block Reverse Transcriptase
from
transcribing viral DNA.
o Block Integrase from chopping
up
the nuclear envelope and
allowing Viral DNA from being inserted inside.
o Block HIV Enzymes from reassembling and activating the viral DNA.
HAART Highly active anti-retroviral therapy.
o Cocktails of all of the aforementioned drugs.
o It lets HIV infected individuals live a long time.
Lecture 19 (4/10) (Collins) Respiratory System
Main function of respiration is gas exchange. O2 in, CO2 out.

o Animals need a constant supply of O2 and let off CO2.
O2 is not very soluble in water.
Respiratory surface site of O2/CO2 exchange.
o They must be moist the gases dissolve in the water before
exchange happens.
o Large surface area is needed.
Humans have 50-100 square meters of surface area in lungs.
How Animals achieve large surface area:
o Small organisms can use the entire surface area of the organism
O2 diffuses very slowly through water
Cells must be within ~1mm to the respiratory surface.
o Larger animals use specialized respiratory surfaces.
Not all animals transport the gases via circulation though.
o Tracheal systems lots of trachea go throughout the body
Trachea get smaller and smaller, untill theyre close to
every cell in the body.
Gases dont go in circulatory system.
Rhythmic body movements compress and expand the tubes.
50
Insects use this.

o Coupled Respiratory & Circulatory System
Circulatory system acts as a transport system for gases.
Step 1 exchange b/w respiratory medium and circulation
Step 2 exchange b/w circulation and interstitial fluid.
o Aquatic Animals Water helps respiratory surfaces stay moist
But because of water, the O2 concentration is very low.
Therefore, exchange has to be very efficient.
o Gills
Out foldings of body surface.
Can be all over body, or localized
Some are external (sea fish) others are internal
(lobsters)
Exchange is maximized by:
Ventilation
o Usually due to muscle movement. Energy is spent.
o For ex. paddle like appendages to push water over
gills. (Lobsters)
o Swimming increases water flow over gills.
Called Ram ventilation.
Counter-current exchange.
o Water flows through lamella (flaps that make small
channels in the gills),
o The lamella have a dense network of capillaries
o Blood flows in opposite direction of water.
o Terrestrial animals
Advantages of Air high conc. of O2. Fast diffusion.
Disadvantages loss of water due to evaporation.
Temporal counter current exchange minimizes loss.
Gills and all wouldnt work because they would dry up.
They must have an internal tube system.
Lungs mammals and birds rely exclusively on them.
o Restricted to one location.
o Not in direct contact with other parts of the body.
Circulation system serves as the link.
o They have a dense network of very thin capillaries.
o Know basic anatomy of the lung bronchi, alveoli, etc.
o Dead space air that cant really be used. For ex. air that was
already in your lungs when you inhale.
Lungs are inside a pleural sac
o They are stuck to the pleural sac due to pressure differences.
Theres less pressure in the sac than the lungs.
If pressure in pleural sac becomes too high you get
pneumothorax (collapsed lung)
Air flow depends on differences in pressures
51
o Air flow is proportional to pressure/resistance to flow.

o Pressure = intrathoracic pressure air pressure.
o Mammals exhibit negative pressure breathing.
Pressure is negative during inspiration.
Lower pressure inside than outside. So air flows in.
Inspiration is an active process
o Diaphragm expands the volume of the thoracic cavity, causing the
pressure inside to decrease. This causes air to go inside lungs.
o Exhalation is passive because the muscles relax and therefore the
thoracic cavity goes back to normal.
o Only when youre doing very strenuous exercise does exhaling
become active.
Lung Volumes
o Dead space air trapped in the airways at the end of each breath
(~150ml)
o Expiratory reserve volume everything you can push out
o Inspiratory reserve volume maximum intake
o Tidal volume what you normally breathe. (~500ml)
o Vital Capacity maximum volume of air that can be moved into or
out of the respiratory system with one breath.
o Residual Volume volume of air remaining in lungs at the end of
a forced exhalation (~1200ml)
Alveolar ventilation volume of fresh air reaching alveoli per min.

o Alveolar ventilation = (breath volume dead space)*breaths/min.
o Pulmonary ventilation is same thing, without dead space being
subtracted.
The lungs obey Ficks law of diffusion
o Rate of diffusion = Coefficient * (C2-C1)
o Concentration gradient (C2-C1) is driving force.
Concentration of a gas is measured using partial pressure.
o Partial pressure = (percentage) * Total pressure.
o Ex. O2=21%, Tot. Pressure = 760mmhg. Partial p.= (.21)*760mmhg.
o Gases diffuse from regions of high partial pressure to low
partial pressure.
Partial pressure in a fluid is the partial pressure of the same gas in
the air directly above the fluid.
52
When it comes to partial pressure in

fluids, solubility must be taken into
account.
o Not a good way to measure amount
of gas dissolved in water.
O2 & CO2 exchange
o Gas exchange occurs only in the
capillaries.
o Inhaled air and alveolar space
air are different because of
mixing with dead space air. It
also equilibrates with the
pulmonary blood.
o Must be able to compare/contrast the
partial
pressures.
o Partial pressure of O2 at rest is
40
mmhg, and can be lower for very
active tissue.
Oxygen is not very soluble in water
o So respiratory pigments are
used to carry the blood.
o Hemoglobin is the respiratory
pigment for mammals.
o Some other animals use
hemocyanin, which uses copper instead.
Hemoglobin
o It has 4 subunits, each with a heme group
containing
iron.
2 subunits and 2 subunits.
Each subunit can bind 1 molecule of O2, so 4 in total.
o Hemoglobin carries 98% of the O2 in the body.
Determines O2 carrying capacity in the blood.
Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve (sigmoid curve) (Important!)
o X axis partial pressure of oxygen
o Y axis oxygen saturation of hemoglobin
NOT oxygen concentration or oxygen content in blood!
This is the percent of the binding sites of hemoglobin that
are holding oxygen.
53
o When a red blood cell goes in the

pulmonary capillaries, and the O2
partial pressure is over 100 mmhg
(normal breating), you completely
fill the blood w/ oxygen.
o In the systemic circulation, a
bunch of things.
If tissue is at rest, O2 is at
40 mmhg.
So it releases 25% of the
oxygen. So 1 out of 4 iron
drops an O2.
If tissue is really active and
mmhg of O2 is at 10 mmhg,
It will release over 80%
of its
O2.
o This is a sigmoid relationship Molecules that carry multiple
amounts of same thing exhibit this.
Hemoglobin responds to the needs of
the tissue based on mmhg of O2.
pH will affect the hemoglobin and cause a
shift in the curve
o This is called the Bohr shift.
o Additional O2 released from hemoglobin
when pH is low (normal pH is 7.4)
o Increase in temperature will also shift
the curve to the right.
o Increase in partial pressure of CO2 will
also cause a shift to the right.
All of these three things change when cells are active.
o Active cells will cause local changes in tissue that cause
hemoglobin curve to shift to the right, and release more O2.
Myoglobin Respiratory pigment in muscle
o Has a single heme group, unlike hemoglobin
o Made by striated muscle, like the heart.
o Cells that have a lot of it appear red.
o It has a very high affinity for oxygen.
o It doesnt leave the muscles.
o It has an exponential curve because it only
has 1
binding site.
o It acts as a reserve source of oxygen for
muscle.
It doesnt release much oxygen until the
pressure falls below 20 mmhg.
o It gets its oxygen from hemoglobin. (Hb = hemoglobin in picture)
Bicarbonate Buffer system
54
o CO2 is very soluble in

water
(blood)
o CO2 combines with water to
become carbonic acid
o The carbonic acid becomes
bicarbonate and H+
Catalyzed by carbonic
anhydrase
o 70% of CO2 becomes
bicarbonate
o 23% becomes bound to amino groups, as in
hemoglobin.
o 7% actually dissolves in the water.
o Cl- moves into the RBCs when
bicarbonate leaves the RBC
(bicarbonate chills in plasma)
Make sure you know EVERYTHING on
the
massive summary picture on the right
Respiratory Drive.
o Physiological drive to breathe
o Factors affecting depth and rate of
breathing
o PO2, PCO2, pH
o Emotions
o Sleep
o Lung inflation
o Light and temperature
o Speech
o Conscious Volition
Control of Respiration
o Everything is controlled by the Central
nervous system
o Pons Modulates rhythm.
o Medulla Generates rhythm
Hering-Breuer stretch reflex
o Responds to the stretch of the lungs
when
inhaling
o Sensory info is fed to the medulla,
which
inhibits inspiration.
So inspiration stops inspiration.
o Its not a very strong reflex.
Peripheral Chemoreceptors play a much larger role.
o They sense PO2 and PCO2 levels.
o They are located in close
proximity to the large vessel leaving the heart. (Aorta)
They are in the carotid body and aortic arch in humans
55
o They arent very sensitive to changes. They only respond to

extremes.
Central Chemoreceptors control breath to breath respirations.
Avian Respiratory System
Birds have more efficient respiratory systems.

Gas transfer takes place in small flow through tubes called
parabronchi.
The volume of the lung doesnt change, unlike mammals.
Ventilation is achieved by compressing air sacs
o Air sacs reduce density of bird, so it makes it easier to fly.
During inspiration, the birds air sacs expand, which pull the air
into the lungs and air sacs.
During expiration, the air sacs compress, and it forces the air out
through the lungs and outside.
Air is exchanged in the parabronchi during both inhalation and
exhalation
Air flow through the lungs is unidirectional due to aerodynamic
valving (pressure differences force air into lungs)
Lecture 21 (4/17) (Collins) Regulation of Respiration
Medulla is the main source of respiration. It has 2 major respiratory

centers
o Dorsal group inspiration generates rhythm
Contains the central chemoreceptors.
o Ventral group expiration.
Central chemoreceptors are extremely sensitive to changes in pH.
Capillaries at the blood-brain barrier dont let anything that has a
charge or polarization to go through.
56
o So H+ cant go through.
H+ is produced in the CSF due to
increase in CO2 that crosses through
the blood-brain barrier.
o H+ changes in the CSF can
change the pH dramatically
o Decrease in pH is sensed by the
medulla, and rate is
increased.
In order for O2 to cause changes, the
partial pressure of O2 needs to be below 60
mmhg in the aortic arch (normal is ~100)
o This is rare- respiratory drive is
controlled by CO2 levels.
Shallow Water Blackout
o Medical symptoms - Sudden loss of
amnesia, and happens without warning
o Strikes typically happen within 15
surface.
o Physiological mechanisms for
shallow water blackout
Hyperventilation blows
off CO2, increases pH of
CSF, and decreases
respiratory drive. O2
levels remain the same
O2 remains the same
because its based
on hemoglobin,
which is almost
always full anyway.
soluble in blood.
Hypoventilation leads to
O2 drop, and huge CO2
increase.
This increases the
respiratory drive.
This leads to the
breath hold time to
decrease.
o Hyperventilation makes it so
that it takes CO2 longer to
rise to the point where it
primarily
consciousness,
feet of the
O2 isnt very
57
doesnt trigger the urge to breathe, prior to the O2 level

reaching the blackout zone.
o On ascent from free dive, lungs re-expand and O2 pressure in the
lungs decrease.
Near surface, the driving force for O2 exchange approaches
zero.
Physiology of diving mammals and birds
o Animals with lower rate of O2 use can dive for longer periods of
time (low metabolism)
Either having it low normally (turtles) or reducing it.
o Diving animals have significantly increased oxygen capacity
Difference is minimal with lung capacity. Most of the
storage is done in the blood and muscle the most.
o Diving reflex neurological response due to water splashing on
face
Vasoconstriction peripheral blood flow is restricted.
Redirects blood to brain and heart.
Bradycardia heart rate and cardiac output drops.
Lowers metabolism and O2 demand.
Lecture 22 (4/19) (Collins) - Digestion
Heterotroph an organism that obtains organic food molecules by

eating other organisms or their by-products.
Dietary needs
o Chemical energy for cellular work
o Organic precursors for biosynthesis
o Essential nutrients substances animals cannot make.
Chemical energy obtained from oxidation of organic molecules
o Fats, carbohydrates, and proteins
o Fats release twice as much energy than carbs and proteins.
o Fats and carbs are preferred.
Fats
o Very lipophobic molecule.
o Fats compose of a glycerol carbon backbone with up to 3 fatty
acids connected via ester linkages
o Saturated fats are carbon chains full of hydrogen, that have no
double bonds between carbons. The chains are very straight
They are solid at room temperature (Such as butter)
o Unsaturated fats arent straight, and cant pack together, and
therefore are liquid at room temperature.
Animals are unable to make unsaturated fatty acids.
o Animals can easily use cis fats, but not trans fats
Trans fats are synthesized in factories, cis by animals.
Carbohydrates
58
o Carbs are all composed of glucose molecules. They are linked

between the 1 group and 4 group, called a 1-4 linkage.
o There are 2 major forms of carbs starch and cellulose
o 1-4 linkages create starch. It can easily be digested by us.
The hydroxyl groups are all in the same plane.
Starches create helical structures.
Plant starch is very simple compared to animal starches.
o 1-4 linkages create cellulose. We cant digest it.
The hydroxyl groups alternate side to side.
The structure of cellulose is very linear, and it can band
together in large strands.
Its used for strength and structure. Ex. cell wall.
Proteins
o Amino acids join together to create a back bone composed of a
nitrogen and 2 carbons that have side groups hanging off.
o Structure
Primary string of amino acids
Secondary helix or pleated sheet
Tertiary 3d functional protein
Quaternary multiple protein subunits come together to make
one massive protein (ex. hemoglobin)
Organic precursors we need sources of carbon and nitrogen.
Essential nutrients things we cant make
o Some amino acids
There are 8 we cant make. (know them!)
Methionine
Valine
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Lysine
o Essential Fatty acids
Deficiencies are rare, but theres one we depend
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) needed to make
membrane phospholipids
Animals cannot make omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs.
o Vitamins
Can be water soluble or water insoluble
Soluble vitamins can be ingested a lot, transported to
wherever it needs to go to the body, and then get pissed
out. For ex. Vitamin C
Know everything on the table!!
Fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K).
They enter the fat and stay in the fat for a long
amount of time.
59
Greater toxicity risk.
o Min
era
ls
Inorganic nutrients
Metallic elements involved in protein structure
For ex. calcium, NA, K, CL, iron, and iodine.
Four stages of food processing
o Ingestion eating
o Digestion breaking food down into molecules small enough to be
absorbed
o Absorption cells take up small molecules
o Elimination removal of undigested material
Digestion occurs in specialized compartments
o Intracellular digestion
o Extracellular digestion
Gastrovascular cavities & alimentary canals
Intracellular digestion, Ex. Paramecium
o Specialized ingestion through oral groove via pinocytosis
o Food is immediately put in a vacuole
o Digestion and absorption happens in the vacuole
Digestive enzymes secreted in
o Exocytosis at the anal pore.
Gastrovascular cavities
o Allows for larger things to be ingested.
o Has a single opening to the outside
60
o Ingest food via mouth, and digest it inside the cavity.

o Absorption is also done in cavity, and then it is eliminated
through the mouth.
Alimentary Canal
o Tubes that extend between two openings (e.g. mouth Anus)
o Food moves in one direction (few
exceptions)
o Specialized regions for digestion and
absorption in steps.
Most absorption is done in the small
intestine.
GI tract (The whole tube) is lined with
strong smooth
muscles.
Stomach has very acidic secretions.
Intestines have very basic secretions.
61
Know everything in the picture

We start digesting food both
mechanically and
chemically in the
oral cavity.
Tongue forms a ball
(bolus) and pushes it back.
Saliva produced by the salivary
glands begin starch breakdown.
Pharynx/esophagus
conducts the food to
the stomach.
o There is
striated
muscle at
the top of the
esophagus
(voluntary
control)
o There is
smooth muscle
in the lower
esophagus.
o Involuntary
waves of contractions move food
bolus to the stomach
Called Peristalsis.
Stomach is a large elastic organ
o Animals dont have to eat constantly thanks to stomach
o It does the initial digestion of protein
Hydrochloric acid and pepsin (stomach pH 2)
Mixture of these 2 is called gastric juice
o Mechanical churning of food.
o Lining of stomach has thousands of gastric pits that have cells
Mucus cells protects the epithelium cells.
Parietal cells secretes hydrochloric acid.
Chief Cells Produce pepsinogen.
o Pepsinogen is an inactive proenzyme
It is synthesized as an inactive enzyme.
It is converted to active form as needed.
When HCl meets the pepsinogen, it activates it into pepsin
Pepsin can also activate pepsinogen (positive feedback!)
o The acid in the stomach does a lot of things.
It disrupts the ECM that holds cells together
Denatures (unfolds) proteins
Kills most bacteria and pathogens.
o Smooth muscles mix the bolus with the gastric juice, to create
whats called acid chyme.
o Contractions push the acid chyme through the pyloric sphincter
into the small intestine.
Small Intestine
o Longest part of the intestine. Approx. 6 meters long.
62
o Major organ of digestion and absorption

Major site for enzymatic hydrolysis and nutrient absorption
3 Major Parts: Duodenum, Jejenum, and Ileum
Duodenum
o Short first part of small intestine. (~25cm)
o Acid chyme mixes with digestive juices.
o Digestive Juices come from multiple sources
Pancreas, liver/gallbladder, and gland cells all meet in the
duodenum.
o Pancreatic Secretions
Bicarbonate neutralize
acid
chyme (increase pH
to 7-8)
Peptidases
Protein
digestions
Nucleases hydrolyze DNA &
RNA
Amylases Carb digestion
Lipase fat digestion.
The pancreas is both
exocrine and
endocrine.
o Pancreatic peptidases go from
inactive to active like
pepsin.
Trypsinogen
trypsin
Procarboxypeptidase carboxypeptidase
Chymotrypsinogen chymotrypsin
The duodenum has a membrane bound enteropeptidase
This is what activates trypsin
Trypsin activates the other two, as well as itself.
o Liver secretes Bile
Bile is made by the liver, but stored in the gallbladder.
Bile contains bile salts and bile pigments.
Bile salts are composed of cholesterol and amino acids.
The salts break up the fat globs into small pieces.
This facilitates hydrolysis of fat by the enzyme lipase.
Jejunum & Ileum
o Jejunum is the major site of digestion and absorption.
o It has a very large surface area due to Large circular folds into the lumen.
Finger like projections called villi.
The epithelial cells on the villi have their own
projections, called microvilli. Microvilli = brush border.
o Nutrients are absorbed through the epithelial cells in the villi.
The nutrients are then transferred to either the circulatory
and lymphatic systems.
Sugars and amino acids go to the circulatory system
63
o The circulatory veins go through the hepatic

portal vein to the liver before the heart.
Fats go to the lymphatic system via lacteals, and then
into the veins ultimately.
o Fatty acids and glycerol and cholesterol are
assembled in the epithelial cells to make
chylomicrons.
o The chylomicrons then go into the lacteal.
o The Ileum absorbs whatever the jejunum doesnt.
Regulation of digestion
o Stomach releases gastrin
Food in stomach or parasympathetic nerves stimulate release
Gastrin causes secretion of gastric juices.
Gastrin is inhibited if the pH becomes too low.
o Secretin secreted by cells in the wall of the duodenum
Secreted in response to low level of pH of acid chyme
It stimulates the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas.
o Cholecystokinin(CCK) also secreted by duodenum wall cells
Secreted in response to amino acids & fatty acids
Stimulates release of pancreatic enzymes.
Causes contraction of gallbladder (releases bile)
o Enterogastrone is also secreted by wall cells.
It inhibits stomach motility and gastic acid secretion in
response to fatty acids in the duodenum
It effectively tells the stomach to stop/slow down while the
duodenum takes care of the fatty acids.
Large Intestine
o Has a pouch called a cecum, to which the appendix is attached.
o By the time things reach the large intestine, 99% of the
nutrients have been absorbed. So everything in there is waste +
water
64
Main purpose of large

intestine is reabsorption
However, most of the
water occurs in the
small intestine.
Water Reabsorption
o Get to know the chart on
the right very well
Evolutionary Adaptations
o Vegetation is more
difficult to digest.
o Herbivores and omnivores
tend to have longer canals.
More time and surface
area for digestion.
o They have really big cecums
Fiber enters in the
cecum, which is full
of symbiotic organisms that break down the cecums.
Symbiotic organisms microorganisms such protists and bacteria
thrive in fermentation chambers in herbivores
o They provide essential nutrients, digest cellulose, and can be a
direct food source as well.
Lecture 24 (4/26) (Collins) Locomotion and motor control.
Locomotion active travel

o Purpose searching for food, escaping from danger, mating.
o Requires energy to overcome friction and gravity.
As animals get larger, locomotion gets more efficient.
Swimming
o Swimming is the most efficient form of locomotion
o The major challenge is overcoming the resistance of water
Water is more dense than air, and a sleek shape is a common
adaptation.
o Overcoming gravity isnt much of a problem because animals have
some buoyancy.
o Animals swim in diverse ways
Using legs(insects)
side to side body/tail movement (fish),

Jet propulsion sucking water in and squirting it out
Squids, etc.
Locomotion on land
o Primary challenge is overcoming gravity.
o Overcoming resistance of air is a minor problem
o Strong muscles and skeleton more important than a streamlined
shape
65
Flying
o Its more efficient than ground locomotion.
o Overcoming gravity is the major problem
o The shape of wings provides lift.
Skeletons
o Functions support against gravity, maintain form and shape,
protection, and movement
o Three types of skeletons
Hydrostatic skeletons
Its fluid held under pressure in a closed compartment
Its well suited for aquatic animals and provides
support for crawling/burrowing in terrestrials.
Water is heavy however, and its not very protective.
Animals with this skeleton move by contraction of
muscles against a relatively non compressible fluid.
Example earthworm
o Made up of repeating segments. Each segment is a
sack of coelomic fluid.
o Antagonistic circular and longitudinal muscles are
coordinated to move it. (peristalsis)
o
Exoskeletons
Hard encasement on the surface of an animal
2 major categories
o Mollusks such as clams
Calcium carbonate shell that keeps growing
o Arthropods such as lobsters
Jointed skeletons made up of chitin
Exoskeleton is shed and replaced.
Endoskeletons
Hard supporting elements buried inside soft tissue
Chordates cartilage and bones
Provides support and increase mobility, as well as
protection.
Muscle Movement
o Movement is based on contraction of muscles against skeleton
Muscle movement is always to contract
Extension is passive.
o Muscles work in antagonist pairs they work against each other
in opposite directions to move body parts.
o Skeletal muscle fibers generate tension by shortening(sarcomere)
o Each action potential in the motor neuron produces a twitch
contraction in all of the muscle fibers innervated by that motor
neuron.
Muscle fibers are slaves to the neuron that controls it.
66
o The time source and amount of tension generated is determined by

the properties of the muscle fibers.
Muscle Tension
o There are two ways that tension generated can be varied
Temporal summation vary the tension generated by an
individual muscle fiber
This is done by changing the frequency of the signal
being sent.
Recruitment vary the number of motor units (muscle fibers)
that are activated.
o Fatigue some muscles can only maintain max tension for a short
amount of time, while other muscles are fatigue resistant.
Temporal Summation
o A second action potential before the muscle relaxes from the
first one will cause an addition to the tension of the muscle.
o Increasing the frequency of action potentials increases the
amount of summation and therefore tension of the muscle.
o Tetanus when you reach the maximum summated twitch due to high
frequency of action potentials.
Muscle fatigue inability to maintain tension during periods of
sustained, repetitive activation.
o Muscles that use anaerobic metabolism fatigue due to lactic acid
accumulation
o Muscles that use aerobic metabolism dont fatigue.
Motor unit recruitment
o The strength of contraction can be increased by activating
additional motor units
o A motor unit is
One motor neuron and its axon and
All of the muscle fibers that it innervates.
o Each muscle fiber is only innervated by a single motor neuron.
o Each motor neuron activates many multiple muscle fibers.
o Motor units vary in size (large size = large tension)
Usually, small motor units get recruited first, and then
larger motor units are recruited.
Smaller motor units result in finer control (such as tongue
and finger muscles)
Muscles that need to produce lots of tension at once (like
biceps) have larger motor units.
o 3 Categories of Motor units
Type S (slow) motor units
Contain slow oxidative muscle fibers
They contract and relax slowly. Long term tension
These are used for maintaining posture and position.
Type FR (fast fatigue-resistant) motor units
Contain fast oxidative muscle fibers
67
Fast, strong contractions

Fatigue resistant
Used for routine movements (Walking etc)
Type FF (fast fatiguing)
Contain fast glycolytic muscle fibers
Fastest, strongest contractions
Rapidly fatigue
Fibers used to rapidly generate maximum force.
o S is recruited first, then FR, and then FF
FF is rarely used on a daily basis though.
-------------------------- End Midterm 3 Material ------------------------
------------------------ Begin Final Exam Material ----------------------Lecture 25 (5/1) (Collins) - Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction genes come from 1 parent.

o Usually relies on mitotic cell division
o Allows animal in isolate to reproduce, and can very rapid.
o Its also advantageous in stable, favorable environments.
Types of asexual reproduction o Fission separation of parent into two or more individuals of
approximately equal size.
o Budding New individuals splitting off from existing one.
o Fragmentation breaking the body into several pieces, which will
develop into complete adults (regeneration)
Animals may reproduce exclusively asexually or sexually, or they may
alternate between the two.
68
Parthenogenesis- A process where an egg develops without being

fertilized.
Sexual reproduction
o Genes come from a fusion of 2 haploid cells (Called gametes) to
form a zygote that is diploid
Haploid 1 set of DNA, diploid 2 sets of DNA.
o Two types of gametes Ovum (egg/female) usually a relatively large and nonmotile
cell
Spermatozoon (male) usually a small motile cell.
o Advantages of sexual reproduction is genetic variability by
creating unique combinations of genes.
Hermaphroditism each individual has both male and female
reproductive systems.
o For ex. earthworm has both
o Sequential hermaphroditism an individual reveres its sex during
its lifetime.
Reproductive cycles
o Most animals display cycles of reproductive activity
o
Its controlled by hormones and environmental cues.
o Generally, reproductive happens when energy is available and
environment favors offspring
External fertilization eggs are shed by females, and fertilized by
the males, in the environment.
o Typically happens in an aquatic environment- All life is aquatic
o Usually produces a lot of offspring with little to no protection
or care.
Internal fertilization sperm is deposited in the female, and
fertilization occurs in the mother.
o Usually produces a small number of offspring, and provide
protection.
Human Reproduction
Sexual differentiation
o Humans, have 23 pairs of chromosomes. 22 pairs of autosomes, and
1 pair of sex chromosome.
o X & Y 1 pair of sex.
o Males have 1 X & 1 Y chromosome. Females are 2 XX chromosomes.
o SRY gene, sex determining gene on the Y chromosome.
A functioning SRY gene will produce the SRY protein, which
will lead to the gonadal tissue to becoming a testes.
Without a SRY gene, youll have ovaries.
o The gonadal tissue, once differentiated, will them produce
different hormones and proteins, that will do everything else.
Around the gondal tissue, you have 2 systems of ducts the mullerian
duct, and the wolffian duct.
69
o The mullerian duct forms the utures, fallopian tubes and part of
the vagina
o The wolffian duct forms the prostate, and seminal vesicles, etc.
o The SRY protein affects the medulla of the gonadal tissue and
cause differention.
o Testes will produce anti-mullerian hormones, which will prevent
the mullerian duct from growing, and the duct will degenerate.
Testes will also produce testosterone, which will develop
the wolffian duct into everything.
o Absense of testosterone will mean that the wolffian duct will
degenerate.
o Absense of anti-mullerian hormones will lead to the mullerian
duct growing.
SRY does not differentiate gender. It differentiates gonadal tissue.
o Default form is female
DHT, produced by the testes, will cause the external anatomy to become
male parts. Lack of DHT will cause female parts.
Male Reproductive Anatomy
o External reproductive organs
Scrotum houses testes & vas deferens.
Penis
o Internal reproductive organs
Testes
Accessory Glands
Ducts
Testes
o Leydig cells Synthesize and
secrete Androgens (testosterone)
o They develop high in the
abdominal cavity, and descend later. Lower
temp
outside the body favors sperm
production.
o Seminiferous tubules highly
coiled
tubes where sperm cells form
70
They start young, and become sperm as they

reach
the lumen of the tubule.
Each main germ cell (spermatocyte)
will produce 4 sperms.
o Sperm will mature in the epididymis.
Accessory Glands
o Seminal Vesicles 60% of volume of
semen.
Thick & Alkaline mucus, sugars,
enzymes, prostaglandins
Sperm need to be in an alkaline
environment to thrive.
o Prostate Gland largest accessory gland
Secretes thin milky fluid into urethra
o Bulbourethral glands
Secretes clear mucus fluid before ejaculation
Neutralizes acidic urine.
Carries some sperm released before ejaculation.
Pathway for Sperm SEVEn UP
o Seminiferous tubules Epididymus vas deferens ejaculatory
duct urethra Penis
Erection
o Penis is composed of three spongy cylinders of erectile tissue
o During vasodilation, leads to erectile tissue, filling with
blood.
Increasing pressure cuts off the veins that drain the penis
Female Anatomy
o External structures clitoris, labia, vaginal opening.
Clitoris gets erect during
arousal too.
o Internal structures ovaries and
ducts.
Ovaries are enclosed in tough
connective tissues
o They arent attached to
fallopian tubes.
Theyre attached by
ligaments to uterus
Ovaries Contains many follicles
o Each follicle contains 1 egg
surrounded by layers of cells.
o Cells of the follicles produce
estrogen.
o All 400,000 follicles are formed before birth
71
o After an egg is expelled from a follicle, the femaining tissue

forms a solid mass (Corpus luteum) that secretes estrogen and
progesterone.
o The primary cell (oocyte) form 2 forms 2 polar bodies and 1 ovum.
Pathway for Ovum
o Ovum is released into abdominal cavity near the fallopian tubes.
o The cilia on the will draw the ovum into the tube.
o Fertilization happens in the fallopian tubes.
o Ovum passes through the uterus. The endometrium (inside) of the
uterus gets very thick.
o If Ovum isnt fertilized, the endometrium degenerates, which
produces menstrual flow.
o Then the ovum + blood flow out of the vagina.
Reproductive Hormones
o Testosterone
o 17 -estradiol (form of estrogen)
o Progesterone
o Oxytocin
o Prolactin
Male hormonal control of reproduction
o Hypothalamus has anterior pituitary gland produce FSH & LH.
o FSH affects sertoli cells, which increase spermatogenesis
o LH affects leydig cells and have them make testosterone,
o Testosterone also stimulates spermatogenesis
o Testosterone serves as negative feedback to the brain.
Hormonal Control of reproduction for females
72
o Cyclic Behavior
o Menstrual cycle
endometrium enlarges and
then breaks down
o Ovarian Cycle
oogenesis leading to
ovulation
Cycle starts on Day 1
o Menstrual flow
o Low levels of
estrogen & progesterone
o Hypothalamus causes
release of LH & FSH
o FSH starts oogenesis of
an oocyte
o This causes estrogen synthesis
by the follicle
Estrogen increase causes
increase in the endometrium.
o This starts shutting the
hypothalamus down though
(negative feedback)
Very high estrogen levels
stimulates section from
hypothalamus positive
feedback.
o Theres a surge of LH.
o This causes ovulation.
o This occurs during day
14.
Corpus luteum, the
ruptured follicle, starts
releasing estrogen and progesterone.
o Progesterone shuts down the hypothalamus again. (negative
feedback)
o Progesterone stimulates endometrium build up.
If ovum isnt fertilized, the corpus luteum runs out of estrogen and
progesterone 12 days after ovulation. This leads to menstruation, and
a restart of the cycle.
If fertilization happens, the embryo/placenta will produce HCG, which
supports the corpus luteum, and prevents the corpus luteum from
running out.
---------------------------- End BIO 203 Notes ---------------------------
73
Your biology skill has now increased. You must now rest and meditate on
what youve learned.
Copyright 2012. No portion of this work may be sold for any sort of
profit what so ever without express written consent. Thanks.
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BIO 203 Notes

Written by: Parth Pancholi

Lecture 1 (1/24) (Collins)

Physiology The study of how cells interact with their environment

o Integrator compares sensor level to set point

Lecture 2 (1/26) (Collins)

A food-energy budget must be maintained.

Counter current heat exchange - When you 2 fluids

Lecture 3 (1/31) (Collins)

Body temperature (Tb) must be regulated so that enzymes function and

o Non-shivering thermogenesis metabolizing fat to make heat

Lecture 4 (2/2) (Collins)

Fluid and ion concentrations must be balanced and kept constant

So 1M of NaCl will become 2 osmolars

Lecture 5 (2/7) (Collins)

Osmoregulator regulate the osmolarity inside the body

Transport epithelia cells are very important!

Lecture 6 (2/9) (Cabot)

The distribution of electrolytes (ions) in fluid compartments (ECF,

o Nernst potential = equilibrium potential. (units are millivolts)

When you increase the permeability, the denominator will

Lecture 7 (2/14) (Cabot)

Equilibrium potential =/= resting membrane potential

Causes by increasing voltage(more +) in Goldman equation

o The depolarization (Called upstroke) continues until it reaches

Lecture 8 (2/17) (Cabot)

There are 2 types of physiological communication between cells:

o Contact dependent signaling one membrane has specific

G Protein coupled receptor, opens ion channel (simple)

It binds to the receptor, activating lots of reaction

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------------------------- Begin Midterm 2 Material -----------------------

Lecture 9 (2/21) (Cabot) Intro to CNS & PNS

The nervous system can be broken up into 2 different systems:

Schwann cell - Oligodendrocytes in PNS.

o It regulates blood pressure, heart rate, respiration. Also needed

Lecture 10 (2/28) (Cabot)

Somatic neurons send a single

muscle fibers that it

o The motor end plate potential generated by the synaptic release

Lecture 11 (3/01) (Cabot) switch gears to cardiovascular system

Cardiovascular system is comprised of blood, heart, and circulation.

2 atria (Receive blood)

i. Not all blood is ejected however.

The repolarizing of the membrane causes the opening of the

Electrocardiogram electrical measure of

o Systolic pressure maximum pressure exerted by the blood against

Decrease the heart rate

Very unique property of the heart

Special properties of cardiac muscle (Recap):

Lecture 13 (3/08) (Cabot)

The arterioles in the

Hormones such as epinephrine, angiotensin and vasopressin cause

Orthostasis Going from a laying down position to a standing up

o Blood rushes out of the brain suddenly

Lecture 14 (3/13) (Cabot) Kidney function

o The skeletal muscle becomes inhibited.

o From Bowmans capsule (space), everything flows into the proximal

o Glomerular hydrostatic pressure blood pressure ~60mmhg.

So the concentration of urea has gone up since water

Lecture 15 (3/15) (Cabot)

Kidneys can only converse fluid, not restore it

Water reabsorption is by osmosis (diffusion) and will follow Na+