Your immune system plays two vital roles in your body.

First of all, it responds to foreign organisms

that gain access to your body by producing antibodies and stimulating specialized cells that destroy
the organisms or neutralize their toxic byproducts. In this manner, it defends against foreign
invaders, including: germs, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. But it also stands guard over the
cells of your body to ensure that they do not become abnormal or degenerate. Normally, your body
produces anywhere from 100 to 10,000 abnormal cells a day in your body -- produced as part of the
normal metabolic processes, or as the result of exposure to environmental toxins or nutritional
deficiencies. But if your immune system is functioning properly, it can identify each and every one of
those cells and eliminate them before they can do any harm.
All in all, understanding how your immune system works and how to optimize it, while at the same
time keeping it in balance so it does not run out of control, turn on you, and attack your own body, is
essential to good healthif not your very life.

Your immune system

In many ways, your immune system is the most awesome system in your body, easily rivaling the
brain in terms of complexity, subtlety, and "self-awareness." As I mentioned a moment ago, your
immune system is capable of identifying every single cell in your body and recognizing those that are
friendly and belonging to your "self." Conversely, it is also capable of singling out and identifying
every single foreign invader that manages to make its way into your body -- ranging from bacteria
and viruses to fungi and parasites -- and treating them as "non-self." (Later on we will explore
exactly how it accomplishes this remarkable feat.)
Once it has identified an invader, your immune system then quickly develops a customized series of
defensive weapons that specifically target the invader's weak link. It then begins building cellular
factories that produce these weapons en masse, in quantities sufficient to totally overwhelm and
crush the invader. Then, once the invader has been defeated, the immune system has the
awareness to "shut itself down" until needed at a later date.
As amazing as all of this sounds, we haven't yet come to the three most awe inspiring aspects of the
immune system -- the ones that highlight its intelligence. First, once it has defeated an invader, your
immune system has the ability to "remember" that invader and the defense that was used to defeat
it. If that invader ever makes another appearance, even years later, your immune system can launch
its defense instantly -- and at a level 1,000 times stronger than when the invader first appeared. In
addition, your immune system can identify when a cell in your body has changed, has "gone over to
the enemy" as it were -- when it has turned from "self" into "non-self." This is a stunning level of
sophistication. Out of the trillions of cells in your body, your immune system can tell when a single
one has mutated and become cancerous -- and, in many cases, move in and destroy it before it can
do any harm. In fact, it does this thousands of times a day, without missing a single mutant cellwe
hope.
But most amazing of all, your immune system is in total communication with each and every part of
itself. "So, what's the big deal," you might ask? "The brain does the same thing." Yes, but remember,
unlike the brain, the trillion+ cells of the immune system are not in physical contact with each other.
To paraphrase Albert Einstein, "At its core, the immune system resembles nothing so much as a

great thought." And for good measure, your immune system is also in constant contact with your
brain, not to mention every single cell in your body -- not only receiving information from those cells,
but also sending information and commands back to them so as to marshal systems and organs
outside itself as required.
To put it simply, your immune system is awe inspiring!

The anatomy of the immune system

Before we even begin to look at the immune system, we need to define what we're talking about
when we refer to the immune system, which is not quite as simple as it might first seem and is
actually open to some debate. Generally speaking, though, the body's immune system is comprised
of those cells and organs that contribute to the body's active response against foreign invaders and
self-generated rogue cells -- "active" being the operative word. The immune system, then, excludes
non-specific defenses -- primarily physical barriers -- such as the skin, respiratory tract, and lining of
the intestine. The inside of the nose, for example, is lined with mucous to capture pollen and dust
and prevent them from entering the body before they can become a problem. That is an immune
function, but since it is both passive and non-specific, it's not counted as part of the immune system.
But what about the 100 trillion beneficial bacteria that line every square inch of a healthy intestinal
tract, from your mouth to your anus? They not only provide a passive barrier to invading pathogens,
but a number of them actively kill those same pathogens. Others produce immune-boosting
biochemicals such as transfer factor and lactoferrin. L. plantarum, for example, has the ability to
eliminate thousands of species of pathogenic bacteria. That's a pretty "active" immune function. And
then there's acidophilus. It can produce a number of powerful antimicrobial compounds in the gut
(including acidolin,1 and bacteriocins such as acidophilin and lactocidin. 2 If present, beneficial
bacteria in your intestinal tract can account for 60-70% of your immune system's activity.
Nevertheless, in accordance with standard medical texts, for the purposes of these newsletters, we
will consider them outside our definition of the core immune system proper.
However, that still leaves the Complementary Immune System, comprised of a series of cascading
enzymes, which although many medical texts do not include, we willand we'll discuss it later. For
now, though, let's focus on those parts of the immune system that are specific, wide-ranging, and
have long term memory, which is the standard medical definition of active immunity. In addition, as
we discussed earlier, the active immune system can distinguish "self" from "non-self" with great
accuracy and subtlety. An example of its subtlety is that despite its tendency to reject anything that
is foreign, it is, nevertheless, extremely tolerant of foreign substances that it encounters during
embryologic development and early infancy. That means that if you expose a fetus to a foreign body
during development, it will not reject it, but rather recognize it as "self" from that point forward. Why
is this so crucial? Because it allows the mother to pass natural antibodies to the fetus across the
placenta, or to the baby in breast milk, thus helping to protect the child with the mother's immunity
before the baby builds its own immune function, not to mention facilitating the actual building of the
child's immune system. This, of course, is crucial to the child's survival.

The anatomy of the immune system

All blood cells, both red and white, begin as stem cells in your bone marrow. These undifferentiated
cells begin to assume individual characteristics and become either red cells (the oxygen carriers) or

white cells (the cells of the immune system). Further differentiation divides the white cells (also
called leukocytes) into four main types of cells:

Lymphocytes

T-cells

Helper cells

Natural killer (NK) cytotoxic T-cells

Suppressor T-cells

Memory T-cells

B-cells

Phagocytes

Granulocytes

Dendritic cells.

Let's explore them in more detail.

Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are white blood cells that detect and destroy foreign invaders in various ways. They
serve as the key operatives of the immune system. In a healthy body, not under attack, they number
about one trillion. There are three main classes of lymphocytes: T-cells, B cells and natural killer
(NK) cells. Under a microscope, T and B cells are indistinguishable from each other. It wasn't until
specific antibody testing procedures were developed that scientists were able to differentiate
between them. NK cells are easily spotted because they are noticeably larger than either T or B
cells.
T-cells
T-cells work primarily through what is known as cell mediated immunity, which is another way of
saying that they do not instantly attack invaders on their own authority like antibodies do, but rather
require other cells to activate/mediate their response. In addition, they work not so much by "directly"
attacking invaders but by attacking cells that have been infected by invaders and inside which the
invaders are hiding. In other words, T-cells primarily defend against viruses that have taken up
residence in host cells and cells that have turned malignant. This is in contrast to B-cells and
antibodies that take on invaders that work out in the open in your bodily fluids -- most notably
bacteria.
Another difference between T-cells and other cells of the immune system is that T-cells are smarter
than the other guys. They've been to school, as it were.
When T-cells leave the bone marrow, they have no functioning TCRs (T-cell receptors) and are
virtually identical to each other, and essentially non-functional. In fact, they are called pre-T-cells, or

pre-TCR T-cells. But then they go to "school" in the thymus, which is where they migrate to after
leaving the bone marrow. The thymus is a small fatty gland located under the collar bone. It "curls
up" after childhood and is difficult to find in adults, but it's still there. Incidentally, the "T" in T-cells
refers to the fact that they mature in the thymus. While in the thymus, they learn two things. First,
they are educated (programmed by certain thymic proteins) in how to distinguish between the cells
of the body and invading cells, and how to distinguish between normal healthy cells and mutated
rogue cells. This is where they learn to distinguish between "self" and "non-self." T-cells that cannot
make this distinction are eliminated so that they do not make their way into the body and begin
attacking it.

tcr-mhc.jpg

In addition, the pre-T-cells are also exposed to proteins associated with virtually every invader that
the body has ever encountered in its existence --or that has been passed on to it by its mother. Like
young children that have very malleable minds, the DNA associated with the non-functioning T-cell
receptors is very malleable and can be easily rearranged in multiple variations, thereby creating
millions of different T-cells with millions of different TCRs. TCRs, by the way, are protein molecules
on the surface of T-cells that are responsible for recognizing specific protein molecules found on the
surface of each different invading antigen. Each and every one of these "new" TCRs is now
functional in that it can respond to each and every one of the invaders whose protein was used to
train the T-cell. Those cells that fail this part of training (that have unstable TCRs) are eliminated. But
those that survive differentiate into either CD4+ or CD8+ T-cells depending on which class of antigen
they are trained to recognize. If their TCR recognizes an MHC class I antigen (as found on nucleated
cells, such as cells infected with a virus), they become T8 cells. If their TCR recognizes an MHC
class II antigen (as found on other immune cells such as macrophages, T8 cells, B cells and
dendritic cells), they become T4 cells. This is important because MHC proteins act as "signposts"
that serve to alert the immune system if "non-self" material, such as a virus, is present inside a cell.
They achieve this by displaying fragmented pieces or antigens on the host cell's surface.
Once matured in the thymus, every T-cell carries a distinctive molecule on its surface that affects
how it behaves. This is the T-cell receptor that we've already talked about. T-cell receptors are
actually protein molecules that function as "locks" for the MHC "keys" found on the surface of

antigens, and other cells of the immune system. (We will discuss this in more detail later.) Antigens,
by the way, are foreign molecules or substances that provoke an immune response from the body by
virtue of specific geometric arrangements (antigenic determinants) on their molecular surfaces. An
antigen could be a grain of pollen, a speck of dust, a bacterium, a blood cell, or a simple molecule.
The bottom line is that something on the molecular surface of the antigen is recognized by the
immune system as "non-self." So once again, the MHC molecule "keys" tell the immune system
"locks" what's inside the antigen -- whether it's friend or foe -- according to what molecular lock on
the T-cell's surface the key fits into. It should be noted, however, if we wish to press our lock and
key analogy a little further, that although TCRs are unique and number in the millions, we're
nevertheless talking about a low security skeleton key system here as opposed to a high security
vault key. That is to say, despite the tendency to specificity, many different T-cell receptors recognize
the same antigen, and many antigens are recognized by the same TCR.
The TCRs are named after the proteins they present on the surface of the T-cells on which they
reside according to a naming convention referred to as the "cluster of differentiation" (CD) protocol.
Thus a cell that carries a cluster of differentiation 4 protein on its surface is called a CD4+ T-cell (aka
a T4 cell). If it carries an 8 protein, it is called a CD8+ cell (aka a T8 cell). Although there are a
number of different CD cells (CD1, 2, 3, and 17, for example), the two primary types of T-cells are
CD4+ and CD8+. T4 cells are known as helper T-cells because they don't attack invaders
themselves, but rather identify foreign invaders, activate B-cells, other T-cells, natural killer (NK)
cells, and macrophages to attack the invader. T-8 cells, on the other hand, are known as cytotoxic Tcells (also called "killer cells"), which -- once activated by T4 cells -- attack and destroy rogue
mutated cells in the body or cells that have been invaded by viruses and compromised. Because this
is a two-step process that requires the T4 cells to mediate both the recognition of an invader and the
subsequent attack on that invader by the killer cell, it is often referred to as cell-mediated immunity.

Also, as I mentioned earlier, T-cells defend against intracellular pathogens -- things that happen
inside other cells or by other cells. Viruses, for example, are intracellular pathogens. They work
inside cells. Until a virus implants itself inside the cells of your body, it can neither replicate nor do

any harm. Fortunately, even though hidden inside your body's own cells, the viruses leave traces of
themselves on your cells' surfaces, which usually allow your immune system to track the viruses
down. Additionally, some cancers, which also use your own body's cells to harm you, present protein
markers on their cell surfaces, just like viruses, that allow your immune system to perceive them as
"non-self" foreign bodies (much like virus infected cells) and thus marked for destructionif your
immune system is functioning properly.
On a related note, tissue transplants (lung, heart, kidney, etc.) are also viewed as intracellular
foreign bodies -- unless coming from an identical twin -- and thus subject to an all-out attack by the
body's T-cells. This can quickly lead to rejection of the transplanted organ. That's why transplant
recipients require immunosuppressants for the rest of their lives to prevent such an attack. That said,
even if you use immunosuppressants, there will be a continual low level attack on the transplanted
organ that over time can lead to the degradation of the transplanted organ. But immunosuppressants
can push that date out many, many years.
It should be noted that we don't store a lot of T-cells, just a few of each kind. Storage areas include
the spleen, liver, and Peyer's patches in the intestinal tract. The T-cells wait there, looking to see if
they recognize the particular protein geometry of an invader they have been trained to identify and
then react to it.
Helper cells
This is pretty much another name for T4 cells (CD4+). T4 cells are known as helper T-cells because
they help activate the antibody-mediated immune response by identifying foreign invaders, then help
activate B-cells, other T-cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages to attack the invader. In
addition, T4 cells produce interlukin-2 to costimulate virtually all immune processes.
Cytotoxic NK (natural killer) T-cells
These are mainly T8 cells that have been activated by T4 cells and "transformed" into killer T-cells
(AKA, Killer CD8+ T-cells). Remember that we mentioned earlier how the T-cell receptors on T4 cells
are tuned to identify and locate other cells in the immune system in addition to "non-self" invaders?
Well, NK T-cells are the reason why. T4 cells identify the invading threat and then hunt down T8 cells
to transform them into killers to crush the invader. Once activated/transformed by the T4 cell, the T8
cell undergoes further growth and differentiation when stimulated by interleukin-2 released by the
same T4 cell that locked onto it and activated it. This exponentially increases the number of NK cells
programmed to identify a target antigen and then travel throughout the body in search of antigenpositive cells to destroy. This provides a failsafe two-step costimulation process for your immune
system -- stimulation by direct contact with the T4 cell and stimulation by the interleukin-2 released
by the same T4 cell. This two step process helps prevent the immune system from misfiring and
attacking healthy cells in the body. This is so important that it's worth discussing in a little more
detail.
A car provides a useful metaphor for thinking about the way costimulators (interleukins, AKA
cytokines) work. If antigens on foreign invaders are the "keys" that turn on the T-cells' engines, then
costimulators, are like "putting the car into gear" after you turn the engine on. In the same way that

you wouldn't want a car to jump forward the moment you turn the ignition key, you wouldn't want
your immune system to jump into action until the nature of the invader was truly verified. In this
sense, the interleukins serve as a failsafe backup mechanism.
The literal translation of interleukin is, "To speak between white cells." Once it has been determined
that the threat registered by the T-cells is legitimate, the interleukins will communicate between the
T4 and T8 cells to throw the immune system into action by up-regulating its activity. A question you
might have at this point is, "Just exactly what are costimulators protecting against?" In simple terms,
the failsafe system is required to make sure the body doesn't throw itself into an overly strong
allergic reaction and possible anaphylactic shock. When the system doesn't work properly, we have
exaggerated allergic responses to seemingly innocuous situations. This can sometimes even result
in death.
All of that said, after recognition of the invader and costimulation by interleukin, the T8 cells are
sensitized and transformed into cytotoxic killer cells; after which, they then begin to clone
themselves into millions and millions of identical killer cells with similar TCRs -- all primed to attack
the new invader.
Killer T-cells recognize specific "non-self" cells (primarily intracellular foreign invaders) and kill them
by lysing (breaking apart) the compromised cells. They require direct contact to kill cells. Doctors call
this the "kiss of death." The reason for this is that the CD8 key of the activated Cytotoxic T-cell has to
directly insert itself into the specific Antigen-MHC-1 TCR protein complex on the compromised cell
that it is trained to recognize. Once this lock and key mechanism attaches, matches, and inserts, it
sets up a series of responses.

The Cytotoxic T-cell secretes a protein called perforin, which causes the invader's plasma
membrane to blow holes in itself, thus causing the cells' contents to spew out and the infected
cell to die. If the invader is a virus that has taken up residence within the cell, killing the cell
prevents the virus from reproducing. In addition, macrophages eat up any viruses that flow out
from the broken cell (see below).
NK cells secrete lymphotoxin, which kills enzyme systems in the invader.
They secrete gamma interferon, which stimulates macrophages to eat foreign invaders. Thus
any viruses that were released from inside the cells are now fully exposed and subject to
destruction by the macrophages. (As we mentioned earlier, viruses are intracellular foreign
invaders. They can't work, reproduce, or do damage by themselves. They are literally DNA
surrounded by a protein coating. They have to take over another cell and its energy producing
mechanisms in order to replicate and spread damage. Once a virus enters a human cell, in most
cases, it is protected inside that cell. However, it will leave telltale traces of protein on the cell
surface that will tell the immune system to no longer consider that cell as part of "self" and attack
the cell in which it has taken up residence. Blowing apart that cell exposes the virus to the other
elements of the immune system capable of destroying it. )

Once they have done their job killing a cell, cytotoxic (killer) T-cells can detach and find another
invader -- thus killing again, and again, multiple times, before they are used up and die.

Suppressor T-cells
So what happens when the invader is destroyed? How does the immune system know the battle has
been won, and that it's time to take a rest? That's where Suppressor T-cells come into play. These
cells cause down-regulation of the immune response. Very little is known about them. But medical
researchers do know that when the immune response has gone on long enough and that the invader
has been defeated, suppressor cells somehow signal the rest of the immune system to ratchet down
so that it doesn't start harming healthy cells. The bottom line is that we don't yet know how they do
these things -- only that they do.
It should be noted that some cancer cells have the ability to convince suppressor T-cells to tell the
rest of the immune system to shut down prematurely so that the immune system won't attack the
cancer cells -- thus allowing the cancer to spread unopposed. Very devious. Very nasty.
Memory T-cells
Once an invader is defeated, most of the active T4 and T8 cells dry up and disappear. However, the
T4 cells produce a clone of themselves called Memory Helper T-cells, which can last a long, long
time (anywhere from decades up until the day you die) to resist the next invasion of that specific
antigen. This is an amazing advantage when you consider that building that first recognition
response can take up to a week or ten days. That's a lot of time for an invader to have free rein in
your body -- more than enough time to make you extremely sick, or even kill you when faced with an
aggressive invader. However, having Memory Helper T-cells in place cuts that time to just a matter of
hours.
Consider the example of a mother taking care of her child with measles. How does her previously
acquired immunity prevent her from getting measles? Surprise! It actually doesn't. Every mother
actually catches measles from her child no matter how many times she's been vaccinated or had
measles herself. But because of her immune system's "memory" of measles, her immune system's
response is so fast that she totally eradicates the invader before she even gets one single symptom.
This is a really, really important point to understand about your immune system.Even if you have
immunity, you're still going to get the disease, if the virus enters your body. The virus
absolutely starts reproducing in your body, but the response is so fast that it kills the virus before it
can ever really get started. It's gone before you ever even knew it was there. That's how immunity
works. But it's not only the speed of the response that's increased, it's also the strength. The
response triggered by memory cells during second exposure to an invader can be as much
as a 1000 times stronger than the initial response. This is known as an anamnestic (or
accelerated) response. And that's how a trained immune system protects you against a foreign
invader -- virus, bacteria, fungus, whatever. And in fact, approximately one in every 200 immune
systems can even protect against seemingly unprotectable viruses such asHIV AIDS. Pretty
amazing, not to mention being indicative of opportunities for optimizing your immune system through
both natural and medical means.

Conclusion

That concludes our discussion of cell mediated immunity -- T-cell immunity, mediated by
lymphocytes, interferon, and interleukins. In Part 2 of our series on the Immune System, we'll
explore:

Humoral immunity, which takes place in the blood. B cells, the primary agents of humoral
immunity.
Antibodies, the chief weapon of the humoral immune system.

Phagocytes -- the "Sin Eaters" of the immune system.

Granulocytes. Think of them as bounty hunters or hired guns.

Dendritic cells. These are kind of like super heroes with special powers. Spiderman comes to
mind.

The organs of the immune system.

And how to boost your immune system.

In subsequent parts we'll also explore some of the diseases of the immune system, how to
rebalance your immune system, Circulating Immune Complexes, the Complementary Immune
System, how to give your immune system a break and directly kill invading pathogens, how your
immune system communicates with itself, the pros and cons of immunization, and how medical
science is both helping and hurting the immune system.

In our last newsletter, we explored the elite half of the immune system: cell-mediated immunity.
These are the T-cells and Cytotoxic NK killer cells. To use a military analogy, these are the officers of
the immune system -- those educated at West Point. In this issue, we explore humoral immunity, the
grunts of the immune system, the draftees who man the front lines and do the bulk of the fighting.
These are primarily the B-cells, antibodies, phagocytes, granulocytes, and dendritic cells. In poetic
terms, these are Tennyson's "Six hundred." 1 This is where millions and millions of "cellular soldiers"
are thrown into battle and sacrificed in defense of your body. And frequently, this is where the battles
of life and death are fought -- your life and death, that is.
The word humoral is a throwback to the earliest days of medicine when doctors thought the body
was regulated by four basic fluids called humors. Specifically, they thought that the body was filled
with black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood, and that illness occurred when these humors were
out of balance. "Blood letting," was a common treatment used to put the humors back in balance by
reducing excess blood, thus bringing the body back into balance.
Nowadays, when doctors refer to "humoral immunity," they're just talking about that part of the
immune response that takes place within body fluids (notably blood and lymph), not inside body
cells, which, as we saw in the last newsletter, is where cell-mediated immunity works. In other words,
humoral immunity works against extracellular pathogens in the blood and lymph -- most notably
bacteria and viruses not yet in cells, or that have been forced out of cells by cytotoxic NK cells.

Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity

Humoral immunity targets invaders directly. To clarify, cell-mediated immunity defends against
viruses that have taken up residence inside host cells and are doing their dirty deeds while
ensconced there, whereas humoral immune cells take on invaders (bacteria, inactive viruses, fungi,
molds, etc.) that are out in the open, traveling about in your blood and lymph. Humoral immune cells
include:

B-cells
Antibodies

Phagocytes

Granulocytes

Monocytes

Dendritic cells

B-cells
When talking about humoral immunity, B-cells are at the head of the pack. The "B" in B-cells is now
generally understood to refer to the "B" in bone marrow, where they are generated. B-cells travel
directly from the bone marrow into your bloodstream. They do not pass go; they do not collect $200;
and they do not go to the thymus like T-cells for specialized training. In fact, each B-cell comes out of
the bone marrow programmed to make one specific antibody to defend against one specific invader.
An antibody, by the way, is a soluble protein produced by B-cells that's capable of binding to and
destroying or neutralizing one particular foreign substance (antigen) in the body. Antibodies belong
to a particular family of nine proteins called the immunoglobulins.
Antibodies in our immune system react with specific antigens to kill or neutralize them. They have a
specific geometry that is crucial to their function. It is not quite like the lock and key mechanism of
the T-cells, but it does include geometry specific antigen binding sites that grab onto and bind to
specific antigens, as implied in the illustration above. So, one B-cell, for example, produces one
particular antibody to defend against one particular strain of flu, whereas an entirely different B-cell
produces the antibody for the strep bacteria, and so on. Note: there is a subset of B-cells that is a bit
less specific and can work against multiple antigens. In fact, there are several subsets of B-cells, but
four are primary.
1.

B2-cells are the specific antigen cells that we primarily think of when referring to B-cells, and
will be the primary B-cells we discuss below.
2.
B1-cells have an affinity for multiple antigens. They are present in much fewer numbers than
B2-cells and are found primarily in the peritoneal and pleural cavities.
3.

Plasma cells are the large cells produced by B-cells that have been exposed to a particular
antigen. They are short lived -- about one week -- and die off quickly once no longer needed.

4.

Memory B-cells are formed from "activated B-cells" -- B-cells that have been exposed to an
antigen and finished attacking it. These function much like memory T-cells in that they are
specific to the antigen encountered during the primary immune response. Memory B-cells live for
a long time and, like memory T-cells, can respond quickly following a second exposure to the
same antigen.

A critical difference between B-cells and T- cells is how each lymphocyte recognizes the antigen
they're geared to seek. As we discussed in Part 1 of our series, since T-cells have to identify
invaders "hidden" inside body cells, they don't get to look for the entire antigen. Instead, they have to
recognize their targeted invader in a "processed" form, as a peptide fragment (a protein molecule)
presented by the MHC molecule on the cell's surface -- the key to the T-cell's lock, as it were. To
learn this skill, they are trained in the thymus. B-cells, on the other hand, have an easier task. They
get to look for their targeted antigen in its complete and unprocessed native form. They don't have to
look for bits and pieces of viral proteins, for example, they get to examine the complete target in all
its glory. They get to track down free (soluble) antigens in the blood or lymph using their BCR (B-cell
receptor) or membrane bound-immunoglobulin. To give you an analogy; it's like playing "Name that
Tune." B-cells get to listen to the entire song before having to identify it; T-cells have to "name that
tune" in just three notes.2 Much harder!
As mentioned previously, B-cells work primarily in the blood and lymph, defending against "foreign"
invaders and toxic molecules. (In general, they are not as good at defending against the body's own
cells that have "gone bad" as T-cells, although in some cases, antibodies can indeed attack cancer
cells.) By themselves, B-cells cannot produce a sufficient number of antibodies to overwhelm an
invader. Instead, once a B-cell encounters the particular invader that it is built to defend against, it
produces a vast number of plasma cells to manufacture the antibodies for them. Plasma cells are
large cells that are essentially "factories" that produce millions of specific antibodies and release
them into the bloodstream. Every single clone of the original plasma cell produced from a specific Bcell secretes a specific antibody for a single antigen. It is extremely specific. Each antibody targets
one specific antigen and one only. Once the invader has been eliminated, the B-cells stop production
of the plasma cells, and in a short period of time, most of the antibodies fade away.
Interestingly, even though they "work" in body fluids, B-cells do not generally circulate in the blood or
lymph. Instead they camp out in the lymph nodes, spleen, and intestinal lymphatic tissue -- waiting to
be called into action. Like T-cells, they require costimulation to start working. The first stimulation
comes from antigen receptors on their surfaces. They are activated by recognition of a specific
antigen. The costimulation comes from interleukins (interleukin 2, 4, and 5) dispensed from T-helper
cells. Once an invader has been recognized and the B-cells have been costimulated by a T-helper
cell, they differentiate into plasma cells. As I mentioned previously, plasma cells function as antibody
factories and secrete antigen-specific antibodies at a rate ofmillions of millions of molecules per
cell per second. This is a major, major immune event/response.
Antibodies

Antibodies are Y-shaped protein molecules produced by B-cells that function as your body's primary
immune defense. Compared to the other components of the immune system, they are tiny. However,
since they are proteins, they are also remarkably complex and composed of hundreds of amino
acids folded over and over on each other, ultimately forming two chains. Their numbers dwarf by
many magnitudes the numbers of T-cell defenders and macrophages. Each antibody molecule and
its clones has a unique binding site that is set to combine with the complementary site of a foreign
antigen. In the image below, on the left, you can see a representation of the complex folded amino
acid structure of the antibody. On the right, there's a representation of how the unique binding sites
work.

Unlike T-cells, antibodies do not "actively" defend. They do not penetrate cell walls. They do not
"consume" invaders, nor do they inject them with protein toxins. There is no "kiss of death" as seen
with T-cells. Like Lilliputians taking on Gulliver, antibodies defeat invaders by sheer force of
numbers.
Antibodies work by physically attaching themselves to the surface of an invading cell in massive
numbers. The medical term for this is agglutination, which is defined exactly as it sounds (a gluing
together). This has several possible effects on invaders such as bacteria. First, as more and more
and more and more antibodies "agglutinate" to the bacteria, it becomes heavier and heavier until it
literally precipitates out of the body fluid in which it is floating. At that point, it becomes easy prey for
roving macrophages looking for detritus to eat up. The medical term for "coating" bacteria and other
cells and rendering them subject to phagocytosis (being engulfed by phagocytes) is opsonization.
A secondary effect of massive agglutination is that the antibodies eventually build up to the point
where they immobilize ciliated or flagellated bacteria. Once immobilized, they become easy targets
for the macrophages. Ciliated bacteria are those that move about by virtue of all the little hairs on
their surface, like the oars on a Roman galley. Flagellated bacteria, on the other hand, move about
through the rotating motion of a tail-like structure that moves them forward like the propeller on a

boat. When covered with antibodies, both processes come to a halt and the bacteria are
immobilized.
Agglutination also allows antibodies to neutralize toxins from bacteria, such as tetanus, by literally
encasing the toxins. Tetanus toxoid immunization injections, incidentally, artificially stimulate
antibody production before exposure. (Immunization by vaccination is a controversial topic in the
alternative health community, to say the least. We'll talk more about immunization, the pros and
cons, later on in our series on the immune system.)
And finally, antibodies serve as a form of preventative care in that they can stop viruses before they
have a chance to enter cells, do their damage, and replicate exponentially.
Note: doctors often make use of antibodies' specificity for particular antigens by cloning them in the
laboratory to target specific antigens for either diagnosis, the delivery of chemicals, or even the
ability to precisely delivery controlled doses of radiation. Antibodies cloned in the laboratory for these
purposes are known as monoclonal antibodies.
Phagocytes
Most people are not aware of what phagocytes are or exactly what they do; nevertheless, when they
think of the immune system, if they think of it at all, phagocytes are probably the cells they are
thinking of. Phagocytes are the large white cells that eat and digest invading pathogens, primarily
through protease enzyme activity. There are several kinds of phagocytes:

Macrophages
Neutrophils

Monocytes

The word macrophage translates from the original Greek as "big eater." And in fact macrophages
are among the larger cells of the immune system and have a number of functions. Not only do they
attack foreign invaders, they also play a key role as scavengers by "eating up" worn out cells and
other waste in the body -- referred to as necrotic tissue -- especially in the lungs. Once macrophages
have "digested" an invader, they then present the key identifying molecules, or antigens, to the Tcells to initiate the immune response.
From an alternative health point of view, macrophages play a key role in fasting. When you are not
eating and creating new waste in the body, macrophages get a chance to "get ahead of the game" in
terms of cleaning up debris. Fasting time thus becomes "spring cleaning" time for macrophages.
Incidentally, macrophages look like amoebas, flowing from point to point, as they move about in
pursuit of "enemies." On another note, macrophages can play a significant role in the destruction of
metastases in the early phases of tumor development, at least if your immune system is functioning
properly. Unfortunately, at a certain point, tumors usually develop the ability to shut down
macrophage attacks, thus ensuring their own survival. As always, it is easier for your immune

system to prevent cancer from taking root than to eliminate it once it has. It of course can be done,
but it takes much more effort and is more problematic. 3
Neutrophils, which are classed as both phagocytes and granulocytes, are actually the most
abundant white cell in the body, comprising about 50% to 60% of the total circulating white blood
cells, with each liter/quart of blood containing about five billion neutrophils. They have a very short
life span, only living about six hours after leaving the bone marrow. However, it only takes them
about 30 minutes to reach the site of an infection once they are released. Neutrophils rapidly attack
any microorganisms coated with antibodies and kill them by eating them up, poisoning them with
granule proteins, or capturing them in ultrafine nets created from their own DNA. Very cool! Once
they have finished their work, they die and become the prime constituent of pus, along with captured
bacteria, tissue debris, and blood serum.
At certain stages of cancer development, at least for some tumors, neutrophils can help fight
cancer.4,5 However, once tumors are established, certain types of tumors, such as breast cancer,
don't just shut down neutrophils, they can actually co-opt them to promote the growth and invasive
nature of that tumor.6,7 Once again, it easier for the immune system to prevent cancer than to
reverse it once it's established. Once cancer is established, you need to be more selective in how
you use the immune system to reverse it.
Monocytes are sort of the reserve, undifferentiated cells of the immune system. They don't actually
do much of anything themselves. Their importance lies in what they can become. They circulate in
the blood for about three days after creation and then go hang out in different areas of the body, with
about 50% being stored in the spleen, waiting to be called into action. As required by the nature of
the infection or inflammation, they will flock to the area under attack and differentiate into
macrophages and dendritic cells -- thus providing a huge influx of warriors as needed.
Granulocytes
Granulocytes are named after the granular texture of their cytoplasm, which needless to say is
granular. They include neutrophils (which function like phagocytes, but have the granular texture of
granulocytes), eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells. Granulocytes destroy invaders by releasing
granules filled with potent chemicals. Eosinophils play a key role in the killing of parasites through
several specialized, highly toxic proteins present in the granules they release, including toxic basic
protein and cationic protein. Basophils aren't so much killers in their own right; they act more as
facilitators. They release histamine and prostaglandins at the site of infection, which creates
increased permeability of the tissue in the area, thus allowing for easier phagocyte migration to the
site of infection so that the phagocytes can consume the invading microbes. In a normal, healthy
immune system, granulocytes will aggressively kill certain types of cancer cells -- at least until such
time as the cancer figures out how to shut down the immune system. See for yourself.
Dendritic Cells
Dendritic cells have long threadlike tentacles that are used to wrap up antigens and expended
lymphocytes and carry them to the lymph nodes for removal from the body. However, their primary

function is to identify antigens, process them, and present them to the T-cells and B-cells to initiate
the immune response.
In the first two parts of our series on the immune system, we covered cell-mediated immunity and
humoral immunity -- essentially, the whole range of immune cells (T-cells, B-cells, macrophages, etc.
plus antibodies). Now, we start picking up the odds and ends, including:

The complementary immune system

How your immune system communicates

How we build immunity

Understanding each of these aspects of the immune system offers you an opportunity to fine tune
performance and enhance your resistance to disease.

The Complementary Immune System

If the initial cell-mediated immune response is overwhelmed, the "complementary immune system"
(aka, the complement system) kicks in. The complement system helps or "complements" the ability
of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from your body. This secondary system is
comprised of approximately twenty-five proteins and enzymes that activate in a cascading sequence
and end with what's called the "membrane attack complex." As its name implies, the membrane
attack complex attacks the cell walls of invaders -- literally blowing holes in them.

The different proteins and enzymes of the complement system are generally synthesized by the
liver. When stimulated, the complement system cleaves to antibodies that have attached themselves
to the surfaces of invading and/or mutant cells. Once "cleaved," they release cytokines, which initiate
a cascade of further cleavages and further cytokine releases that:

Attract even more immune cells to attack the invaders.

Increase vascular permeability, which enhances the ability of immune cells to reach the
invader.
Mark the pathogens for destruction by the immune system.
And as a bonus, some of the proteins and enzymes released as part of the complement
cascade can actually kill unwanted cells directly by blowing apart their cellular membranes. 1

A secondary function of the complementary immune system is to help rid the body of Circulating
Immune Complexes (CIC's). CIC's start out as extra-large protein molecules (primarily from wheat,
corn, and dairy) that are only partially digested in the small intestine and then absorbed into the
bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, the immune system treats them as invaders because they
are too large to be metabolized, thus provoking an immune reaction. Antibodies couple with these
foreign protein invaders to form CIC's. At first, these CIC's may be neutralized by phagocytes in the
lymphatic system and subsequently flushed out of the body through the lymph system. But over
time, as you continue to eat more and more of the offending foods, too many CIC's are created, and
they overwhelm the body's ability to eliminate them. In addition, they overwhelm the immune system,
and they overwhelm your kidneys. At this point, your body has no choice but to "store" them
somewhere in the hope that it can deal with them later. For lack of a better option, it stores the CIC's
in its soft tissues -- muscles, organs, you name it. Unfortunately, your immune system can still sense
the antigens in the CIC's even though they are buried in your soft tissue and continues to attack
them as invaders. And even more unfortunately, your immune system cannot separate the antigens
in the CIC's from the soft tissue in which they are stored-- so it attacks both. In effect, your body is
now attacking itself. This leads directly to chronic, systemic tissue inflammation and, ultimately,
autoimmune disorders.
It is here that a good proteolytic enzyme formula can come into play. Proteolytic enzymes can
compensate for your unhealthy dietary choices by making their way into your bloodstream, where
they get to work breaking down CIC's in your blood and soft tissue -- eventually passing the waste
out through your kidneys. Not only can this relieve the autoimmune condition caused by the stored
CIC's, but it also takes huge stress off your immune system, freeing it up to focus on real invaders.

How Your Immune System Communicates

We now have a sense of how the immune system works and how it identifies invaders and mounts a
response, but how does it communicate with itself? The answer lies in the powerful cytokine
chemical messengers secreted by the cells of the immune system that we discussed previously.
These include interferon and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), but it is the interleukins in particular that
swarm through the body like billions of tiny messengers. They activate the B-cells and T-cells, "train"

cells as to what enemies to fight, and promote the rapid growth of "intelligent" defenses. They also
shut down defenses when the threat is gone and control the inflammation response. In short, they
provide a remarkable set of intelligent checks and balances on the immune system -- guiding it,
training it, regulating it, marshaling it as required, and resting it when no longer needed. And as we
learned in our last newsletter, some natural immune boosters, such as suma and astragalus work by
boosting cytokine production -- which leads right into a discussion of how we build immunity.

How We Build Immunity

When we are born, we have weak immune systems. Whatever immunity we have is given to us by
our mothers. Almost immediately, however, if we are nursing, that immunity begins to grow. The first
"milk" we receive from our mothers is, in fact, not actually milk but a substance called colostrum,
whose primary purpose is to boost our immunity. Colostrum is packed with natural immune boosters,
such as immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, alkylglycerols, and transfer factor. In addition, nursing helps
build the cultures of "friendly bacteria" in the digestive tract, which also support immune function.
Children that are put on formula are denied these benefits. Not only are formula-fed children more
liable to experience colic, ear infections, and colds, but there is significant evidence that their
immune systems never fully "catch up" no matter how hard they try to build them later.
The primary way we build immunity is by "teaching" our immune systems how to respond more
quickly and more aggressively. Whenever T-cells or B-cells become activated by an invader, some of
those cells become memory cells -- they encode a "memory" of the particular antigen associated
with that invader so that the next time they encounter the same antigen, the immune system can
respond without delay. In other words, having an illness and being exposed to microbes on a daily
basis trains the body to better defend against that illness and those microbes the next time they
appear. That said, there are a number of factors that affect the level of immune response we are
capable of mounting. Genetics certainly plays a role, as some individuals are born with stronger
immune systems than others. Diet, lifestyle, and environment can also enhance or erode the
immune system. Zinc for example is essential for a healthy immune system as it helps to increase
the levels of T-Cells and white blood cells in our body. Likewise, selenium is also essential, again
being required for white cell production. Thus, a diet deficient in either zinc or selenium will produce
a less than optimal immune system. In addition, the strength of your immune response and the
duration of your immune memory of an invader are strongly influenced by the type of antigen that
was detected and how much of it originally entered the body. This becomes important when we
consider the efficacy of vaccination.
In truth, we actually build immunity in five different ways:

1.

Active immunization happens when your body is presented with something that it
considers "non-self." This can be either a foreign invader, or a newly formed cancer cell. Your
body then mobilizes its immune system (either cell-mediated or humoral) in response to the
invader. Exposure to measles, mumps, and chickenpox as a child, for example, can provide
immunity for many years -- in some cases, for the rest of your life.

2.

Specific immunization involves the injection of a reduced-strength antigen into the blood to
enable the body to then produce its antibodies. The other word for this, of course, is vaccination.

3.

Nonspecific immunization is different in that it involves the injection of certain antigens that
raise the level of immune function throughout the body -- but against an entirely different invader
than is presented by the antigen itself. The common acne bacterium,Corynebacterium parvum,
is an example. The use of C. parvum as an immunoadjuvant seems to have the ability to
stimulate the immune system so as to inhibit tumor growth throughout the body.2 Bacille
Calmette-Guerin (BCG), on the other hand, is the only effective vaccine for protection against
tuberculosis,3 an entirely different pathogen. And as we discussed in our last newsletter, some
natural immune boosters such as Echinacea work in a similar way, by tricking the immune
system into building up its defenses in general. And since there is no real invader requiring the
use of these defenses, they can lie in wait, perpetually ready for the appearance of a real
invader.

4.

Adopted immunotherapy requires the direct injection of, typically, interleukin-2 to stimulate
the immune system. Some immune boosters such as suma and astragalus, again as we
discussed last issue, work by stimulating cytokine production.

5.

Passive immunization is defined by the active infusion of antibodies against a specific

disease or invader, either by direct injection or through the womb. No memory or build-up is
required. The injection of gamma globulin, for example, will kill Hepatitis A for about 6 months
before it is used up. Natural pathogen destroyers, which we will talk about later, fall into this
category.

Active and Passive vs. Specific and Non-specific Immunity

Specific

Active
Immunization

Passive
Immunization

Exposure to measles, mumps, and

chickenpox as a child

Pooled gamma globulin

against Hepatitis A

Smallpox vaccine

Natural pathogen destroyers

Killed melanoma cells

Natural antibodies passed

from mother to fetus
across placenta
or to baby in breast milk

Hepatitis B Vaccine
Oral Polio Vaccine

Non-Specific

Corynebacterium Parvum

Adoptive immunotherapy
with IL-2 incubated with

BCG

lymphocytes against cancer

Echinacea like immune boosters

Suma and astragalus like immune

boosters

Before we continue, we need to repeat something that we discussed in the first part of our series -exactly how immunity works. Consider the example of a mother taking care of her child with
measles. How does her previously acquired immunity prevent her from getting measles? The thing
of it is: it actually doesn't. Virtually every mother exposed to the measles by her child catches those
same measles from her child no matter how many times she's been vaccinated or had measles
herself. But because of her immune system's "memory" of measles, her immune system's response
is so fast that she totally eradicates the invader before she even gets one single symptom -assuming, of course, that the memory of the antigen is still strong enough and that her immune
system is capable enough. This is a really, really important point to understand about your immune
system. Even if you have immunity, you're still going to get the disease, if the virus or bacteria
enters your body. The virus absolutely starts reproducing in your body, but the response is (or can
be) so fast that it kills the virus before it can ever really get started. It's gone before you ever even
knew it was there. That's how immunity works. But it's not only the speed of the response that's
increased, it's also the strength. The response triggered by memory cells during second
exposure to an invader can be as much as a 1000 times stronger than the initial
response. And that's how a trained immune system can protect you against a foreign invader -virus, bacteria, fungus, whatever. But it also explains why vaccines do not necessarily offer complete
protection -- nor, for that matter, does actually getting the disease naturally in all cases guarantee
protection. Then again, even if the immunity is not perfect and you get the disease, if there is any
memory of the disease in your immune system, the likelihood is that there will at least be enough
protection to minimize the extent and severity of infection -- which, in some cases, might be just
enough to save your life.

Vaccines
In the wisdom of modern medicine, we have created vaccines to "pre-build memory" for our immune
systems -- memories of significant diseases we have never had such as measles, mumps, polio,
diphtheria, and smallpox. Vaccines contain a weakened, sterilized version of microorganisms (or
proteins from those microorganisms) that is capable of producing an immune response in the body
without inducing a full-blown onset of the disease itself. Although vaccines have played a significant
role in helping reduce the number of deaths among children, this benefit has not come without cost.
I understand that vaccines are an emotional issue for many people. Whenever the Foundation has
published anything that even hints that vaccines might be even slightly beneficial, the response from
some of our members has been fast and furious. They don't like it and call me out as a traitor to the
cause. For many of our readers, the only good vaccine is a dead vaccine. However, it is not the role
of the Foundation to automatically support all positions prevalent in the alternative health community.

Our role is to offer reasoned, balanced, health advice -- no matter where it leads. So that said, the
truth about vaccines is that:
1.
2.
3.
4.

They are not as effective as the medical community and the media promote.
Nor are they as safe as promised.
On the other hand, they are not as ineffective as many in the alternative health community
believe.
Nor quite as dangerous.