RAFT FOUNDATIONS

The commonest use of a raft foundation is on soils of low bearing capacity, where the foundation
pressures must be spread over as wide an area as possible. They are used for foundations on
soils of varying compressibility where the partial rigidity given by stiff slab and beam
construction is utilized to bridge over areas of more compressible soil, and thus differential
settlement of the foundation is minimized. Some designers work on the rule that if more than
50% of the area of the structure is occupied by individual pad or strip foundations, it will be more
economical to provide an overall raft.
Types of raft foundations
(i) Plain slab rafts- can be used on ground conditions where large settlements are not anticipated
and hence a high degree of stiffness is not required. A layer of mesh reinforcement in the top and
bottom of the slab is usually provided to resist bending moments due to hogging or sagging
deflections at any point in the slab.
Polythene
sheeting
G.L

Reinforcemen
t

(ii) Stiffened edge slab. It is suitable for foundations on weak compressible soils or granular fill
materials. The ground floor slab is made an integral part of the raft where a cut-off is provided at
the peripheral part of the slab
D.P.C
G.L

Bar Reinforcement
Fabric
reinforcement
Polythene sheeting

50mm blinding
concrete
(iii) Slab and beam raft. This is used as a foundation for heavy buildings where stiffness is the
principal requirement to avoid excessive distortion of the superstructure as a result of variations
in the load distribution over the raft or in the compressibility of the supporting soil. These stiff
slabs can be designed as downstand-beam or upstand-beam. The former has the advantage of
providing a level surface slab which can form the ground floor of the structure. The upstand
beam ensures that the beams are constructed in clean dry conditions above the base slab

PILES
BEARING CAPACITY OF PILES
Piles may be divided into two main categories depending on their method of installation. The first
category consists of driven piles of steel or precast concrete and piles formed by driving tubes or
shells which are fitted with a driving shoe: the tubes or shells are filled with concrete after
driving. Also included in this category are piles formed by placing concrete as the driven tubes
are withdrawn. The installation of any type of driven pile causes displacement and disturbance of
the soil around the pile. However in the case of H piles and tubes without a driving shoe, soil
displacement is small..
The second category consists of piles, which are installed without soil displacement. Soil is
removed by boring of drilling to form a shaft, concrete then being cast in the shaft to form the
pile: the shaft may be cased or uncased depending on the type of soil. In clays, the shaft may be
enlarged at its base by a process known as under-reaming: the resultant pile then has a larger
base area in contact with the soil.

fs

qf
c
d
b
a =a Precast reinforced
concrete
pile
b = steel H pile
c = shell pile
d = concrete pile cast as driven tube withdrawn
e = bored pile (cast in-situ)
f = under-reamed bored pile (cast in-situ)

The ultimate load that can be carried by a pile is equal to the sum of the base resistance and the
shaft resistance. The base resistance is the product of the base area (A b) and the ultimate
bearing capacity (qf) at base level. The shaft resistance is the product of the perimeter area of
the shaft (As) and the average value of the ultimate shearing resistance per unit area (fs),
generally referred to as the skin friction, between the pile and the soil. The weight of the soil
displaced or removed is generally assumed to be equal to the weight of the pile. Thus the
ultimate load (Qf), which can be applied to the top of the pile, is given by the equation:
Qf =Abqf + As fs
An appropriate load factor is applied to Q f obtain the allowable load on the pile.
Meyerhof has proposed the following correlation for piles driven into sand stratum
qf= 40NDb/B 400N kN/ m2
Where N= standard penetration resistance in the vicinity of the pile base and Db= the length of
the pile embedded in sand. The average value of skin friction over the length of embedded pile
in sand is expressed as
fs=2 N kN/ m2 where N = average value of standard penetration resistance
Worked Example
A precast concrete pile 450mm square to form part of a jetty is to be driven into a riverbed, which consists of a depth of
sand. The results of standard penetration test in the sand are as follows:
Depth (m)
N

1.5
4

3.0
6

4.5
13

6.0
12

7.5
20

9.0
24

10.5
35

12.0
39

The pile is required to support a compressive load of 650kN and to withstand an uplift load of
225kN: the load factor in each case is to be at least 2.5. Determine the depth to which the pile
must be driven.
(a)

Ultimate compressive load = Abqf +Asfs=2.5x650=1625kN

Ultimate uplift load = Asfs =2.5x650 = 563kN

Where Ab= (0.45)2= 0.2025m2, As=4x 0.45xDb = 1.4137Dbm2

Using Meyerhofs correlations,

qf= 40NDb/B 400N kN/ m2, fs=2 N kN/ m2

Db
(m)
1.5

3.0
4.5
6.0
7.5
9.0
10.5
12.5

4
6
1
1
3
2
2
0
3
4
3
5
9

4
5
8
9
11
13
16
19

As fs(kN)

22
54
130
194
297
421
605
821

(40/0.45)N
D
b
535

1600
5200
6400
13333
19200
32667
41600

400N

Abqf (kN)

1600
2400
5200
4800
8000
9600
1400
1560
0
0

108
324
1053
972
1620
1944
2835
3159

Abqf
+Asfs
130

378
1183
1166
1917
2365
3440
3980

By inspection, uplift is the limiting condition. By interpolation, the pile must be driven to at least
10.2m.

PIER AND CAISSON FOUNDATIONS

The function of pier and caisson foundation is to enable structural loads to be taken down
through deep layers of weak soil on to a firmer stratum which will give adequate support in end
bearing and resistance to lateral loads. Pier and caisson foundations are also used in river and
maritime construction to enable foundations to be taken below zones of soil affected by scour.
They fulfill similar functions to piled foundations, the main difference being in the method of
construction. Pier foundation is pad foundation and the buried column above it which are
constructed insitu in a deep excavation. This definition distinguishes pier foundation from caisson
in which the foundation is built above the ground level and sunk to the required foundation level
as a single unit.

Bearing capacity for pier and caisson foundations

The ultimate bearing capacity of the soil beneath pier foundation and caissons can be calculated
from the knowledge of shear strength and density of the soil. Sub-surface investigations should
also be considered.
Skin friction
The total carrying capacity of a deep foundation is given by the sum of the base resistance and
the skin friction. However, there are many circumstances in which skin friction should be ignored
in contributing to the carrying capacity. These include the following;
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(iv)
(v)

If the depth of caisson or pier below founding level is less than its least width
If the ground above founding level is liable to be scoured away
If in sinking a caisson the soil is undercut behind the cutting edge
If the pier or caisson is surrounded by soft clay of fill material
If the soil is liable to shrink away from the foundation due to drying action
If compressible backfilling is placed between the foundation structure and the wall of the
excavation

Observed values of skin friction for caissons (after Terzaghi and Peck)
Type of soil
Skin
friction
(kN/m2)

Silt and soft

clay
Very stiff clays
Loose sand
Dense sand
Dense gravel

7-30
50-200
12-36
33-67
50-100

Resistance of pier foundations and caissons to lateral loads

Pier foundations and caissons are often required to carry
horizontal or inclined loads in addition to the vertical loading.
The horizontal forces on the foundation structure shown below
create an overturning moment about the base of the caisson.
This is resisted by the restoring moment given by the dead
weight of the pier, caisson and superstructure. Due allowance
must be made for buoyancy of the submerged portion of the pier.
Design and Construction of Pier Foundation
A more usual way of constructing pier foundations is to excavate vertical shafts to the prescribed
depths. The side sides of the shaft are supported by timber sheeting, steel sheet piling, steel
tube rings or concrete segments. A concrete base is formed at the bottom of the shaft and the
column section of the foundation is constructed within the shaft. The space around the column is
backfilled as the sheeting is withdrawn.
Design and Construction of Caisson Foundation
The essential feature of caissons is that they are constructed above ground or water level and
then sunk as a single unit to the required depth, and also that this unit forms part of the
permanent works. Because extensive temporary works are not required, they are especially
suited for deep and fast flowing waterways.
Types of Caissons
Box Caissons
Box caissons are structures with a closed bottom designed to
be sunk on to prepared foundations below water level.
Box caissons are unsuitable for sites where erosion can
undermine the foundations, but they are suitable for
founding on a compact inerodable gravel or rock which
can be trimmed by dredging. They can be founded on
irregular rock surface if all mud or loose material is
dredged away and replaced by a blanket of sound
crushed rock. When the depth of soft material is too deep
for dredging they can be founded on a piled raft.
Open caisson
Open caissons are suitable for foundations in rivers and waterways where the predominating soil
consists of soft clays, silts, sands or gravels. When the caisson is sunk into the water and reaches
the river bed, these soft materials are excavated from the open wells by grabbing. On reaching
founding level, open caissons are sealed by depositing a layer of concrete under water in the
bottom of the wells. These wells are then pumped dry and further concrete is placed after which
the caissons are filled with clean sand or concrete.
Pneumatic caisson
This is a caisson with a working chamber in which the air is maintained above atmospheric
pressure to prevent the entry of water into the excavation

Monolith
This is an open caisson of heavy mass concrete containing one or more wells for excavation.
They are suitable, due to their weight for sinking in deep soft deposits. Their main use is for quay
walls where their massive construction and heavy weight is favourable for resisting overturning
from the retained backfill and for withstanding impact form berthing ships.