67

UNIFIED THEORY OF TORQUE PRODUCTION IN SWITCHED AND SYNCHRONOUS

RELUCTANCE MOTORS
D A Staton

W L Soong

C Cossar T J E Miller

University of Glasgow, UK
ABSTRACT
One of the difficulties in comparing the capabilities of
the switched reluctance motor with those of AC motors
is the lack of a unified theory of toque production, in
which the same equation can be used for both motors so
that the comparisoncan be reduced to the comparison of
coefficients.

closed locus on coordinates of phase flux-linkage vs.

phase current, traced out by the 'operating point' [ i g ]
as the rotor rotates through one 'stroke', Fig. 1.
U-.

1".

u
.
,

I*...

.
I
.
V
_
I."#

*.a

1.10

The main impediment to the development of such a

theory has been the fact that the switched reluctance
motor does not satisfy the necessary conditions for the
dq-axis transformation, because of its double saliency.
Essentially it produces toque in impulses and it is
analysed by calculating the energy converted from
electrical to mechanical during one stroke. This is equal
to the area enclosed by the trajectory of t k operating
point in the phase flux-linkage versus phase-current
diagram [ 1-31. In this paper the toque production in the
synchronous reluctance motor is analysed by the same
energy-conversion loop method [4]. The new concept of
the ellijxe diagram not only allows a direct comparison
with the switched reluctance motor, but also enables the
calculationof torque ripple, this not being possible using
conventional dq-axis theory.

L'M

O.W
0.60
0.U

LL

2.00

9.m

4-00

U8

'.Do

7.w
A .LbI

Fig. 1: Locus of operating point in the i-Q plane,

showing energy W -converted in each step.

The instantaneous torque of the SR motor is given by:

T = - aw '(i,e)

ae

THE SWlTCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR

The switched reluctance motor (SR motor) while having
several advantages compared with other motor types (i.e.
simple construction, low rotor losses, a high torque to
inertia ratio, etc.), does have a reputation for high levels
of toque ripple and acoustic noise. Both deficienciesare
due to the doubly-salient construction and the fact that
toque is produced in impulses.

The toque production mechanism of the

SR motor is
well documented [l-31. The average toque (TAv) is
given by:

where q = number of phases, N, = number of rotor

poles, and W is the energy converted from electrical to
mechanical on one 'working stroke'. The number of
working strokes per revolution is qN,. The SR motor is
analogous to a multicylinder internal combustion engine
and W is analogous to the enclosed area of the 'indicator
diagram'. In the SR machine the indicator diagram is a

where W is the co-energy and 8 defines the rotor

position. In general, W' is a function of all the currents
but this equation is still valid for calculating the toque
if 'i' is replaced by the vector of all phase currents. In
most SR machines the scalar phase current 'i' is used,
because mutual coupling :ffects are usually assumed to
be negligible. This assumption is not necessarily justified
[SI,but it is very common.
Graphically, for a constant current of 10 Amps and
moving from 25" to 30" (Oo = un-alignment; 45' =
alignment), the electromechanical energy converted is
equal to the shaded area (X") shown in Fig. 3. The
instantaneous torque is equal to the ratio AWIAO, where
A0 = 5". It is clear from this diagram that the
instantaneous toque of the SR motor varies with the
spacing between the magnetization curves, so that the
production of constant toque is difficult, even with
constant current. Over a range of average toques, the
toque per ampere is also liable to vary widely. When
two phases a n conducting simultaneouslyfor a fraction
of each stroke, the toque contributions add in a
nonlinear way.

68
The torque capability of the SR motor clearly depends on
the available area of the i-v diagram. To achieve a high
specificoutput, it is important to have a large inductance
ratio and a high aligned saturation flux-linkage. P e
inductance ratio is the ratio of the unsaturated aligned
and unaligned inductances).

In order to calculate the instantaneous toque of a SR

motor, not only must the aligned and unaligned
magnetisation curves be known, but also magnetisation
curves at intermediaterotor positions. The magnetisation
curves can be calculated using analytical functions [3] or
finite-element (FE) analysis. Fig. 2 shows a 2dimensional FE flux-plot for a typical 6:4 SR motor with
its rotor 30" from the un-aligned position. This motor
has been modeled with 0 vaned between 0" and 45" in
5" increments. The FE magnetisation curves are
compared with measured characteristics in Fig. 3. "'he
FE magnetisation curves have been input to PCSRD (a
simulationpackage developed at Glasgow University for
the design of SR motors). This package has the facility
to interpolate between magnetisation curves 131, and has
been used to calculate the motor's static torque
characteristic. The predicted static toque is compared
with measured characteristics in Fig. 4.

Fig. 2: SR flux-plot

(e = 30').

Fig. 4 Mesured and

FE static torque (SR motor).

THE SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

The synchronous reluctance motor (SYNCHREL motor) is
a sinewave a.c. motor. It has cylindrical surfaces on both
sides of the airgap. The stator is a conventional
polyphase a.c. stator, while the rotor has internal flux
barriers shaped to maximise the ratio of d-axis (high
inductance axis) to q-axis (low inductance axis)
reactance. Compared with the SR motor, it can be more
easily designed to give reduced levels of torque ripple
and acoustic noise due to its cylindrical constructionand
sinewave a.c. operation. Due to the operational
advantages, there has been a great deal of recent interest
in the SYNCHRELmotor [6-14].
While the design parameters that are important in
optimising the design of the SYNCHREL motor are well
known 161, there has been no attempt to compare the
toque production mechanism of the motor directly with
that of the SR motor. D- and q-axis flux plots for a
7.5kW D132 single-banier SYNCHREL motor are shown
in Fig. 5. It has been shown that the single-barrier
construction has a poor performance compared with an
axially-laminated construction [6]. However, due to the
large component of torque ripple associated with the
single-barrier design, it has been modelled in this paper
in order to demonstrate the abilities of the non-linear COenergy method in calculating average and instantaneous
toque.
Torque Calculated using DQ-Axis Theory
The electromagnetic torque of the synchronous
reluctance motor is traditionally calculated using dq axis
theory, i.e.:

LO

12

IFig. 3: Measured and FE predictions of phase flux-

(3)

CURRE" [APMSl

linkage chamcteristics.

where Id and I, are components of the r.m.s. phase

current $,, resolved along the d- and q-axes of the
phasor diagram and correspond to the space-vector

69

P W E C u R R e K T [AMRI

Fig. 6: Measured and FE predictions of L,- vs I,- ani

Lq-vs Iq for the D132 side-barrier motor.

ig. 5: SYNCHREL d- and q- axis flux plots.

components of stator m.m.f along the d- and q-axes of
the rotor. Here m is the number of phases, p is the
number of pole-pairs, and Ld and Lqare the direct- and
quadrature-axis synchronous inductances, respectively.
Fig. 6 shows the conelation between measured and FE
predictions of the variation in Ld and Lqwith I, and I,
respectively. Ld and Lqare equal to phase A inductance
(La) when phase A cunent is at maximum (all three
phases energised) and the rotor d- and q-axes are aligned
with the MMF-axis of phase A respectively. These are
only truly equal to the synchronous inductances if the
winding is sinusoidally distributed and airgap permeance
function is sinusoidal [ 131.
The SYNCHREL motor under investigation is supplied
with the following sinusoidal currents:
i,

= I,,cos(3 + y)

- 120")

i,

= IPkcos(O + y

i,

= Ipkcos(3+ y + 120')

mecuRReKT IAMBI

Ti.

7: Single-barrier motor torque-per-ampere.

Stator Self Inductance: In a magnetically linear

SYNCHREL motor, the self inductance of a phase winding
is always positive and has a second-harmonic variation
with rotor position (3) due to the different permeance
values associated with the q- and d-axes. The self
inductances La,, L,and L, are given by [ 141:

(4)

(5)
(6)

where the current angle y is the angle between stator

MMF-axis and the rotor d-axis.
Fig. 7 compares the measured torque per ampere with
that calculated using equation (3). y = 45" and the FE
values of Ldand Lq shown in Fig. 6 being used.
The self and mutual inductances associated with the
three stator phases are assumed to be sinusoidal
functions of rotor position [ 141.

where Lpo is the average component of self inductance

due to self flux-linkage crossing the airgap, LsL is the
phase leakage inductance and is due to self flux-linkage
which does not cmss the airgap (slot leakage and endwinding), and Lp2 is the magnitude of the second
harmonic component.

Stator Mutual Inductance: The mutual inductance

between stator phases also exhibits a second-harmonic
variation with 3 due to the rotor geometry. The mutual
inductance between phases A and B is evaluated by

70

considering the airgap flux linking phase A when only

phase B is excited. The resulting equations are [14]:

by i, and L* by i,.

L, by i,,

For $,, = 15 Amps and y = 45", the variation in phase A

flux-linkage components, i.e. total (q,), self (Vm) and
mutual ( Q , ~+ (U,&, with 8 is shown in Fig 9. The self
and mutual wmwnents are nonainusoidal, but add to
form a sinusoidai total nux-linkage waveform.
-BA

w u x ~ e v u t w m w " ~

&Axis and @Mi Inductance: From dq-axis theory

(141,the d- and q-axis inductance values are equal to:
L,

,
L

Lq = LaL

+;CL&)

Lp2)

-LA

Rearranging in order to obtain L* and

(13)

(14)

4:
-1Sd
O

I
%
7

100

110

m0

250

300

310

AUGLB [EtE. DffiBeESl

Fig. 9 Phase flnx-linkage variation with 8

In the case of the single-bamer motor, the FE

predictions of Ld, L, and 4. at $h = 15 Amps and y =
45" a n 89.6mH, U).lmH and 23mH respectively. The
resultant predicted sinusoidalvariationin self and mutual
inductance is shown in Fig. 8.

IFig.8: Self and mutual inductance variation with 8.

ANOLB [F452 DffiReeFI

Torque from Co-Energy using Linear Analysis

It has been shown that in a magnetically linear 3-phase
SYNCHREL motor, the variation in self and mutual
inductance with 8 is sinusoidal in nature. The self fluxlinkage
and V%) variation with 8 and y can be
calculated by multiplying &a by i,, L,by i, and L
, by
i,. Similarly the variation in mutual flux-linkage (Vab,
Vh,
V, Vk and V d with e and Y can be
calculated by multiplying kbby i,,
by i,, La, by i,,

vb

vac,

If sinusoidal 3-phase currents, of the form given in

equations (4)to (6), are fed to the phases of the motor,
the i-Cv locus for each phase has the form shown by the
solid line in Fig. lo., i.e. an ellipse. The flux-linkage of
phase A has two components, one due to its own current
and the other due to the currents in phases B and C. The
self-component produces a flux-linkage which, when
plotted against in, gives the locus shown by the dashed
line in Fig. 10.This locus is bound by the aligned and
unaligned magnetisation curves and is, in fact, tangent to
them. The area enclosed is less than that which would be
enclosed with rectangular current waveform having the
same peak current. The mutual component of fluxlinkage, plotted against i,, gives the locus shown by the
dot-dash line in Fig. 10. This is made up of two
components, i.e. one due to the current in phase B and
the other due to current in phase C. These two terms are
plotted in Fig. 11.Note that areas enclosed in a counterclockwise direction give rise to positive (motoring)
toque, while areas enclosed in a clockwise direction
give rise to negative toque. The sum of the two fluxlinkage components for each phase give the ellipsoidal
total flux-linkage for that phase. The energy conversion
associated with any phase is the area enclosed within the
locus for that phase, and is the a m within the ellipse.
Clearly it is not boundad by the magnet*otbn curves m
the same sense as is for the SR motor.

Note that one traverse of the ellipse corresponds to the

passage of two rotor poles past the axis of the phase
winding. Consequently the basic unit of energy
conversion is half the area of the ellipse 0,and the
number of 'strokes' per revolution is equal to the
product 2mp, where m i s the phase number and p the

71

- I d '

.m

'

.IS

'

-IO

'

.J

'

'

'

IO

'

IS

"

20

CURREM' [AMPS]

Fig. 12: Linear analysis iyr loci at 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 11

125 and 15 Amps (Non-linearanalysb i-y, locus at 15
Amps also s h o h ) .

-1mal'
-m

'

.IS

'

-10

.I

'

'

IS

IO

"

zo

CuBRexp [AMRI

Fig. 11: Phase A mutual i-v loci.

number of pole-pairs. The average toque is:

T = X x W

(17)

This toque is numerically equal to that calculated using

dq axis theoty, i.e equation (3). Fig. 12 plots a full
family of ellipses, for y = 45" and values of $, equal to
1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15 Amps. The orientation of
the main axis of the ellipse changes with current, and is
due to saturation, both Ld and Lqbeing functions of IPh.

T o q u e from Co-Energy using Non-Linear Analysis

In order to verify the linear analysis given in the
previous section, FE analysis has been used to model the
variation in phase flux-linkage with 8 and Iph for the
D132 single-barrier motor. This was achieved by
performing FE calculations at 7 values of $,, between 1
and 15 Amps, while moving e in 2" increments over a
30" range, the value of y remaining constant at 45'
throughout. The values of va, and vcat any given
value of 0 and Iph is simply determined from the fluxlinkage with the respective phase winding. Fig. 13 shows
a typical FE flux plot obtained during the analysis (the
particular plot is for 0 = 20' and Iph = 15 Amps).

vb

Fig. 13: FE flux-plot

(e = 20" and I,, = 15 Amps).

Fig. 9 compares the non-linear prediction of II, against e

with that calculated using linear analysis ($,, = 15
Amps), the non-linear waveform being a close
approximation to the theoretical sinusoidal waveform.
Fig. 12 compares the linear and non-linear i-y, loci at $,
= 15 Amps. A full set of non-linear ellipses is shown in
Fig. 14. Also plotted are the set of non-linear
magnetisation curves at 2" (mechanical degrees) intervals
of 0. The average torque can be calculated from the total
co-energy enclosed by the non-linear ellipses and
equation (17). This is compared with the measured
toque-per-ampere in Fig. 7. Compared to dq-axis
theory, non-linear analysis gives closer agreement to the
measured average toque, however, the errom associated
with linear analysis are not appreciable. This is due to
the total co-energy of the non-linear ellipse being
virtually equal to that of the linearcltipse.
Even though the total co-energy and average toque of
the non-linear ellipse is virtually equal to that of the

72

linearellipse, the spacing of the non-linear magnetisation

curves is such that the instantaneous torque is far from
constant. At any rotor position, the imtantaneous toque
of phase A is proportional to the cocnergy between
magnetisation curves at that position. The instantaneous
toque of phases B and C can be calculated in a similar
fashion, but with a 5120' offset. The total instantaneous
toque is the sum of all three phases. This is compared
with the measured toque ripple in Fig. 15.

ellipsoidal [i,y] locus, however, constant (ripple-free)

toque is not guaranteed. A complete comparison of the
toque producing capabilities of a SR and axiallylaminated SYNCHREL motor, having the same volume and
airgap, will be presented in a future paper. The method
can be extended to include PM synchronous and
induction motors.

REFERENCES
Miller, TIE : Switched reluctana motors and their control.
Published by Magna Physics Corporation, Hillsboro. OH, 1992
Miller TIE :BnrphleJs pnmancnt-magnet and reluctaaa motor
drives, Oxford University Ress, 1989.
Miller TJE, McGilp M : Nonlinar ihuuy of the switebcd
reluaana motor for rapid computer-aidcd design, IEE
Proceedings, Vo1.137, RB, No.6. Nov. 1990.
Woodsoa E and Melcben E : Electromechanical Dynamics,
Wiley (New York), 1968.
Preston MA and Lyons JP ; A switched reludaoa motor model
with mutual coupling and multi-phase exatation. IEEE

.IYIOl

'
.m

'

.IS

-5

-IO

C " r

to

20

IS

[AMPSI

Fig. 14: Non-linear analysis ig loci at 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5,

10, 12.5 and 15 Amps (Non-linear magnetisation
curves also shown).

Transactions on Magoctira. Vo1.27, N0.6, Nov. 1991.

Staton DA, Miller TJE and Wood SE : Optimisation of the
synchronous reluctana motor geometry, IEE Conferena on
Electrical Machines and Drives, London, Sept. 1991.

Xu L, Xu X. tip0 TA and Novotny DW

: Control of a
synchronous reluctana motor including sahwation and iron loss.
IEEE Traosaaioos. Vol IA-27. No.5, SepVOct 1991, pp. 977985.

& I d a I, Fu W and Nasar SA : Toque vector control ( n C )

of axially-laminated anisotropic (ALA) rotor reluctaoa
synchronous motors. Electric machines and Power Systems.
Vol.19, 1991, pp.381-398.
Platt D : Reluctance motor with strong anisotropy, Coot Rec.
of IEEE-lAS Annual Meeting, Seanle (USA), Oct. 1990,
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I
Oo

.
10

80

LW

I
120

140

IM

IBO

ANGlP ( U ? C l R l W DECREE31

pig. 15: Measured and

FE toque ripple.

CONCLUSIONS

Fram A and Vagati A :Axially laminated reluctance motor:An

analytical approach to the magnetic behaviour, Interoational
Conference on Electrical Machines, Pisa (Italy), Sept. 1988,
Vol.111, pp.l-6.

TA Vagnti A, Malcsani L, Fukao T : Synchmnous

Reluctana Motors and Drives - A New Alternative, Tutorid at
the IEEE-IAS Annual meeting, Houston,Oct. 1992

tip0

Beh. RE and Miller TIE : Aspecs of the control of

A method has been proposed for calculating the average

and instantaneous torque of the SYNCHREL motor from
a knowledge of the trajectory of the phase flux-linkage
versus phase current waveform, i.e. the same method as
used with the SR motor. This allows a direct comparison
between toque production in the two motors to be
made. It has been shown that while the locus of the
operating point on the flux-linkage/current plane is
limited to the first-quadrant in the SR motor, it
encompasses all four quadrants in the SYNCHREL motor.
Further it has been shown that, neglecting saturation and
slotting, the locus is ellipsoidal in shape. Even with an

synchronous reluctance machines, European POWNElcdmics

Conferena. EPE91. Flonna, Sept 1991.
Chiha A and Fukao T : Inductances of cageless relud.nasynchronous machines having aoosinusoidal s p a distributions.
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Applications, Vo1.27. No.1.
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dynamics and statics of electromechanical energy conversion,
2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill. 1961.
~