CHAPTER 3

FLUIDIZATION
3.1 Introduction

A fluidized bed is formed by passing a fluid usually a

gas upwards through a bed of particles supported on
a distributor.

As a fluid is passed upward through a bed of

particles, pressure loss due to frictional resistance
increases as fluid flow increases.

At a point, upward drag force exerted by the fluid on

the particle equal to apparent weight of particles in
the bed.

F = drag force
W = apparent weight

26

Disengagement
space

Dust separator
Gas
out

Solid
feed

Dust
out

Solid
discharge

Fluid
bed
Gas
in

Gas
distributor
Wind
box

Figure 3.1: Elements of a Fluidized Bed

27

3.2 Characteristics of Gas Fluidized Bed

These can be roughly divided into two categories;
3.2.1

Primary Characteristics

Bed behaves like liquid of the same bulk density

can add or remove particles, pressure-depth
relationship, wave motion, heavy objects sink, and
light ones float.

Rapid particle motion good solid mixing

Very large surface area available 1m3 of 100 m

particles has a surface area of about 30,000 m2, and
1 m3 of 50 m particles 60,000 m2.

3.2.2

Secondary Characteristics

Good heat transfer from surface to bed, and gas to

particles.

Isothermal conditions radially and axially.

Pressure drop through bed depends only on bed

depth and particle density does not increase with
gas velocity.

Particles motions usually streamline some erosion

of surface or attrition of particles where gas velocities
are high.

28

3.3 Advantages of Fluidized Bed

High mobility
o Gives superb heat transfer, which usually
always a problem to powders.
o Heavily used for drying eg: pharmaceutical
industry.
o Excellent reactors

Good temperature control

o A perfect gas/liquid mixing equipment.

Very flexible
o Can carry out many processes in a single
vessel.
o Mix, dry, granule, separate etc. in one vessel.

Less number of moving parts

o Easy to handle

3.4 Disadvantages of Fluidized Bed.

Costly
o Blowing air into the system.
o Trap air to make it fluidized.
o Cleaning process
o Some powders costly in operation than others.

Not all particles fluidized

o Cohesive and large particles are difficult to
fluidize.

Difficult distributor design

o Maldistribution of fluidizing gas
29

o P across distributor = 30% of bed P.

3.5 Pressure Drop Flow Relationship

The force balance;

Pressure =
drop

Weight of particles upthrust on particles

Bed cross-sectional area

For a bed of particle density, p, fluidized by a fluid

with f to form a bed of depth, H and voidage, in a
vessel of cross sectional area, A;

P =

HA(1 )( p f )g
(3.1)

A
or

P = H (1 )( p f )g

(3.2)

For a flow of fluid through a packed bed, two distinct

types of flow involved.
They are laminar and
turbulent flow.

The pressure drop across a fluidized bed is the only

parameter which can be accurately predicted:

PF =

Mg
A

N/m2
or
30

(3.3)

PF =

0.1M
(kg/m2)
A

(3.4)

where M in kg and A in m2.

PF
= (1 mf )( p g )g
H

(3.5)

mf is the bed voidage at Umf and a close

approximation to it can be obtained by measuring
the aerated or most loosely packed bulk density,
bLP.

Equations 3.3 to 3.5 usually are used to predict the

theoretical
pressure
drop
comparing
to
experimental one.

3.5.1

Laminar Flow

Through the work of Darcy and Poiseuille, it has

been known for more than 120 years that the
average velocity through a packed bed, or through
a pipe, is proportional to the pressure gradient.

Pressure gradient fluid velocity

or

( P ) U
H

31

(3.6)

Based on Carmen-Kozeny (1927, 1933 and 1937),

( P ) = 180U (1 )2

(3.7)

d p2 3

Carmen-Kozeny equation for laminar flow.

3.5.2

Turbulent Flow

( P ) = 1.75 gU 2 (1 )

(3.8)

d p 3

Burke Plumme equation for turbulent flow

through a randomly packed bed of monosized
spheres of diameter, dp.

3.5.3

General equation for turbulent and laminar

flow.
Based on experimental data covering a wide range of
size and shape of particles, Ergun (1952) suggested
the following general equation for any flow
conditions;

( P ) = 150U (1 )2 + 1.75 gU 2 (1 )
H

d p2 3

d p 3

Turbulent
component

Laminar
component

32

(3.9)

d p gU
*
Re
=
Reynold number,
(1 )
For Re* < 10,

laminar flow

For Re* > 2000,

turbulent flow

(3.10)

Ergun also expressed flow through a packed bed in

terms of friction factor;
Friction factor,

( P )
f*=
H

3
g U 2 (1 )
dp

(3.11)

Compare this friction factor with Fanning friction

factor.

Equation (3.4) then becomes;

f*=

150
+ 1.75
Re*

(3.12)

150
Re* for Re* < 10

with

f*=

and

f * = 1.75

for Re* > 2000

33

For non-spherical particles; dp is replaced by dsv, then,

( P ) = 150 U (1 )2 + 1.75 gU 2 (1 )
H

d sv2 3

d sv 3

(3.13)

The surface/volume size, dsv is used: if only sieve

sizes are available, depending on the particle shape,
an approximation can be used for non-spherical
particles;
Recalling,

d sv 0.87 d p

where dp is the mean sieve size.

d v = 1.13d p

Note also that:

And for Carmen Kozeny equation for laminar flow;

( P ) = 180U (1 )2
H

(3.14)

d sv2 3

34

3.6 Minimum Fluidization Velocity, Umf.

A plot of pressure drop across the bed vs. fluid

velocity as below.

Bed pressure
drop, p

C
B

Umf

Gas velocity, U

Figure 3.2: Plot of P vs. Uo for fluidized bed system

Line OA packed bed region

Solid particles do not move relative to
one another and their separation is
constant.

P vs. Uo relationships in region OA: use CarmenKozeny equation for laminar flow and Ergun equation
in general.

35

Region BC: fluidized bed region. In here, equation

3.1, equation 3.2 and also Ergun equation in general
applies.

Point A: P higher than predicted value from

equation 3.1 and 3.2.

This is due to powders, which have been compacted

to some extent before the fluidization process takes
place.

Higher P is associated with the extra force required

to overcome inter particle attractive forces.

Minimum fluidization velocity, Umf: superficial fluid

velocity at packed bed becomes a fluidized bed (as
marked on graph above).

Also known as incipient fluidization velocity.

Umf increases with particle size and particle density

and affected by fluid properties.

Recalling Ergun (1952) for any flow condition;

( P ) = 150 U (1 )2 + 1.75 gU 2 (1 )
H

and

d sv2 3

d sv 3

P = H (1 )( p f )g

substituting (3.15) into (3.2),

36

(3.15)
(3.2)

(1 )( p f )g =

150 U mf (1 )
d sv2 3

1.75 gU mf2 (1 )
d sv 3

(3.16)

Rearranging,
2
150(1 ) 2 U mf d sv f
(1 )( p f )g =
.
.
d 3
3

f sv
2
2
2
1.75(1 ) 2 U mf d sv f
.
.
+
2
d3
3

f
sv

(3.17)

f d sv3 150(1 )2
(1 )( p f )g 2 =
.Re ,mf
3

1.75(1 ) 2
+
.Re ,mf
3

(3.18)

or
2

Ar =

150(1 )

.Re ,mf +

1.75(1 )

.Re2,mf

(3.19)

where,

f ( p f )gd sv3
Ar =
2

- Archimedes no.

f U mf d sv
Re =
- Reynolds no.

37

(3.20)

(3.21)

Wen and Yu (1966) correlation for Umf.

687
Ar = 1060Re,mf + 159Re1,.mf

(3.22)

or

[(

Re,mf = 33.7 1 + 3.59 10 5 Ar

0.5

(3.23)

- for spheres ranging 0.01 < Re,mf < 1000

- used for particles larger than 100 m
- use dv instead of dsv for Wen and Yu
NB: Please check the Wen & Yu correlation in determining
Umf from Data Booklet.

Baeyens and Geldart

- for particles, dp < 100 m;

U mf

0.934

1110 f

g 0.934 d 1p.8

0.87

0f.066

(3.24)

Example
A bed of angular sand of mean sieve size 778 m is
fluidized by air. The particle density is 2540 kg/m3, g
(air) = 18.4 10-6 kg/ms, g = 1.2 kg/m3 and 24.75 kg of
the sand are charged to the bed 0.216 m in diameter. The
bed height at incipient fluidization is 0.447 m. Find;
a) mf
b) The pressure drop across the bubbling bed in cm
water gauge.
c) The incipient fluidization velocity, Umf.
38

p - g (kg/m3)

10000

1000

A
C
100
10

100

1000

10000

Particle size, (
m)
Figure 3.3: Particles classification according to Geldart (1973)

43

3.7 Classification of Powders

Geldart (1973) (Figure 3.3) classified powders into four

groups according to their fluidization properties at ambient
condition.

There are 4 stages of particles: Aerated (A), Bubble (B),

Cohesive (C) and Dense (D).

3.7.1

Group B

Bubbling at Umf, thus Umb Umf

Bubbles continue to grow, never achieving a maximum

size.

This makes poor fluidization quality associated to large

pressure fluctuation.

However, lots of bubbles produced results in less P to

generate, thus less entrainment.

Example: construction sand.

3.7.2

Group D

Large particles able to produce deep spout bed.

Need very large Umf and P to fluidize.

It is a costly operation since lots of air is needed for

blowing.
44

Quite similar to group B particles, i.e. Umb Umf.

Fluidization of group D and larger group B particles: jet

circulation/spout bed technique used to get circulation.

Example of operation: paddy drying.

For B and D particles:

o No inter particle involve.
o Bed collapses instantly when gas supply interrupted.
o Short residence time in bed.

Example: paddy, beans, soy etc.

3.7.3

Group A

For smaller particles structures where cohesivity becomes

significant.

Lies between group C and free flowing particles (B).

Existence of forces that holds particles together when

gas is supplied, bed expands but does not bubble.

Non-bubbling fluidization at beginning of Umf, followed by

bubbling fluidization as Uo increases (a.k.a. aeratable
state).

Aeratable state = transformation from cohesive to freeflowing particles type.

The freeboard has to be increased to allow for bed

expansion.
45

Danger if the powder is left in a drum high voidage

and it could cause blow-up.

Umb > Umf, bubbles are constantly splitting and coalescing,

and maximum stale bubble size is achieved.

Take long time to de-aerate after gas supply is cut-off.

Inter particle forces?? yes, but significantly smaller than

hydrodynamic forces.

Good quality and smooth fluidization.

Gas bubbles are in limited size, break down at high

velocity and it gives good gas/solid contact

Example: Fluid bed catalytic cracking (FCC) catalyst.

3.7.4

Group C

Very cohesive particles and do not fluidized at all.

Inter particle forces are large compared with the inertial

forces on the particles.

Structures are so strong:

o At a given P, not expanding and resist aeration.
o Upon fluidization, cracks and rat hole form.
o Slugging blows powder out.
o Difficult to fluidize: inter particle forces >
hydrodynamic forces exerted on the particles by the
fluidizing gas.

46

Pressure loss across the bed is always less than apparent

weight of the bed cross sectional area due to the particles
not fully supported by fluidizing gas.

However, group C fluidization can be improved:

o Mechanical help: vibration, mixer
o Binary mixtures: act as flow conditioner

Many industrial processes use fine powders, e.g.

pharmaceutical, cosmetics, paint industries, food
industries etc.

Thus, many researches going on to improve and predict

the behaviour of group C particles.

Example: the application of vibrations to the fluidized bed

column.

With the aid of vibration, the bed is found to fluidize well

and the pressure drop across the bed is close to the
theoretical pressure drop during fluidization.

Theoretically, when vertical vibration is applied to a

fluidized bed column, the effect of forces between the bed
and the distributor cause the break-up of interparticle
forces and this cause the particles to fluidize well.

According to Janssen et al. (1998), at a specific vibration

frequency, the ratio between distributors plate and the
bed displacement increases with an increase in vibration
intensity.

This phenomenon caused the resultant force becomes

bigger and hence used to break the interparticle forces
between the particles.
47

Hence, these results in better fluidization quality and

smaller Umf values obtained compared to fluidization
without vibration.

Vibration also is predicted to be able to reduce the

distance between particles and this reduces the voidage in
the bed.

This is due to small compaction during negative

displacement or due to the downward movement during
half cycle of vibration.

However, equilibrium created between two mechanisms,

i.e. the effect of pressure on the bed during vibration and
downward movement which produced the compaction and
hence led to a stable fluidization.

3.8 Bubbles

db
Bubble
volume, Vb

r
+

Cusp

The shape of bubble is a hemispherical capped bubble.

48

The upper surface of the bubble is approximately

spherical, and its radius of curvature is denoted by r.

Since r is not readily determinable, it is usually more

convenient to express the bubble size as its volumeequivalent diameter, i.e. the diameter of the sphere whose
volume is equal to the bubble.

d eq

6Vb
=

(3.25)

Bubbling fluidization also known as lean phase.

Condition at where the powder stops behaving like solids

but they behave like liquid two phase system.

Bubbles are extremely important in supplying circulation

as they are major circulating mechanism hence, lead to
mixing.

As bubbles rise, it grows and expand

If the bed is deep enough and diameter of the column is

small,
o Then slugging could occur
o This means problem because slugging will push the
powder up and possibly out of the vessel.

Through bubbles, particles are transported out of the bed.

Approximately, when Uo, superficial gas velocity equals to

particle terminal velocity, Vt, then carry over/entrainment
could occur.
49

3.9

Refer figure 7.3(pg 173), figure 7.5 (pg 175), figure 7.7
and 7.9 (pg 177 & 180) and figure 7.8 (pg 178) for
examples of bubbles formed for different groups.
Bubbling and Non-Bubbling Fluidization

At Uo above the Umf, fluidization may be generally either

bubbling or non-bubbling.

Most liquid fluidized bed system, except those involving

very dense particles, does not bubble.

Gas fluidized bed system give either only bubbling

fluidization or non-bubbling fluidization beginning at Umf,
followed by bubbling fluidization as Uo increases.

Non-bubbling fluidization is also known as particulate or

homogenous fluidization is often referred to as
aggregative or heterogeneous fluidization.

3.9 Expansion of non-bubbling bed

Richardson and Zaki (1954) found the function f() which

applied to both hindered settling and to non-bubbling
fluidization.

Thus, in general;

U o = VT n

(3.26)

Khan and Richardson (1989), suggested the correlation in

Equation (3.27) which permits the determination of the
exponent n at intermediate values of Re.
50


dp
4.8 n
0.57
= 0.043 Ar 1 2.4
n 2.4

0.27

(3.27)

If the packed bed depth (H1) and voidage (1) are known,
then if the mass remains constant, the depth at any
voidage can be determined:

H2 =

(1 1 )
H1
(1 2 )

(3.28)

3.10 Entrainment

Ejection of particles from the surface of bubbling bed.

Also term as carry over and elutriation.

Amongst the factors influencing rate of entrainment are:
o gas velocity
o particle density
o particle size
o fines fraction
o vessel diameter
o Increasing gas temperature
Increasing drag
o Increasing gas pressure
Discuss these factors

Ejection of particles from fluidized bed depends on the

characteristics of the bed: i.e. bubble size and velocity at
surface.

If terminal velocity, Vt > Uo entrained

51

If Vt < Uo particle will fall back to the bed.

Region above the fluidized bed surface:

o Freeboard
o Splash zone
o Disengagement zone
o Dilute-phase transport zone
(Refer to page 112 from text book)

Generally: fine particles entrained

Coarse particles stay in the bed.

Practically: fine particles could stay in the bed and coarse

particles being entrained.

TDH = Transport Disengagement height

o Height from bed surface to the top of the
disengagement height.
o Entrainment flux and concentration of particles are
constant.

Empirical estimation of entrainment rates from fluidized

bed:
Instantaneous
rate of loss of
solid of size dpi

Ri =

Bed
area

Fraction of bed
with size dpi at
time, t.

d
(M B x Bi ) = K ih* Ax Bi
dt

52

(3.29)

where

K ih* =
MB
A
xBi

=
=
=

Elutriation rate constant (kg/m2s)

Total mass of solids in the bed (kg)
Area of bed surface (m2)
Fraction of the bed mass with size
dpi at time, t.

K ih* = the entrainment flux at height, h above the bed

surface for the solid size, dpi when xBi = 1.

For continuous operation, xBi and MB are constant, and so,

Ri = K ih* AxBi

(3.30)

and total rate of entrainment,

RT = Ri = K ih* AxBi

(3.31)

Total solids loading leaving the freeboard,

T = i = Ri / U o A

(3.32)

K ih* : predicted value based

The elutriation rate constant,

on experiment.

Correlations are usually in terms of the carry over rate

above TDH,

K i*

53

Examples of some widely accepted correlations are as

below:

(i)

Geldart et al (1979); for particles > 100 m and Uo > 1.2

m/s.

K i*
V
= 23.7 exp 5.4 ti
Uo
gU o

(ii)

Zenz and Weil (1958) for particles < 100 m and Uo <
1.2 m/s.
1.88

U o2
K
7

= 1.26 10
gd 2
gU o
pi p
*
i

U o2
< 3 10 4
when
2
gd pi p

and

1.18

U o2
K i*
4

= 4.31 10
2

gU o
gd pi p

54

U o2
> 3 10 4
when
2
gd pi p

3.10.1

Calculation of carryover rate

For continuous operation

General case:
RT, xPi
F, xFi

RE, xEi

RC, xRi
RR, xRi
RR, xRi
xBi
Q, xQi

Assumption: RE = RR = 0 and F and Q 0.

Mass balance on the size fraction dpi gives:

x Fi F = xQi Q + x Pi RT

(3.33)

Overall mass balance:

F = RT + Q

(3.34)

Eih A = x Pi RT = K ih* Ax Bi

(3.35)

Recalling

RT = Ri = K ih* AxBi

In a well mixed bed; xQi = xBi

55

(3.36)

(3.37)

Substituting and rearranging from equation (3.33);

xFi F
K ih* A + F RT

xBi =

(3.38)

This equation cannot be solved directly because from

equation (3.36), RT depends on the value of xBi for each
size fraction.

In practice, a converging trial and error loop can be set up,

with RT = 0 for the first trial.

For batch operation

For batch operation, the rates of entrainment of each size

range, the total entrainment rate and the particle size
distribution of bed change with time.

Thus, the formula,

( x Bi M B ) = K ih* Ax Bi t

(3.39)

where x Bi M B is the mass of solids in size

range, i entrained in time increment, t.

By assuming that the mass of bed, MBi does not change

significantly with time, t thus:

K i* At
x Bi = x Bio exp

MB

56

(3.40)

3.10.2

Total entrainment flux (overall carryover flux), Eih.

Large, Martini and Bergougnau (1976) picture the total

entrainment flux, Eih, for a given size material, dpi consist of
two partial fluxes:
o Continuous flux flowing upwards from bed to outlet,
Ei.
o Flux of agglomerates ejected by bursting bubbles,
which decreases exponentially as a function of
freeboard height.

Expressed algebraically;

E ih = E i + E io e ai h

(3.41)

where Eio is the component ejection flux = EoxBi and

Ei = K i* xBi

(3.42)

and

Eih = K ih* xBi

(3.43)

The total solids carryover flux when gas offtake is at any

height, h above the bed surface:

E h = E + E o exp( ah )

57

(3.44)

Wen and Chen (1982) developed the idea further and

proposed:

Eh = E + (Eo E )exp( ah )
3.10.3

Terminal velocity, Vt determination

(i)

For spherical particles

Laminar region (Ret < 0.2)

Vt , ST =

CD =

(3.45)

g )gd v2
18

, dp < 33 m

24
Re t

(3.46)

(3.47)

Turbulent region, (Ret >1000)

Vt , N =

4 ( p g )gd v
.
, dp > 1500 m
3
0.43 g

(3.48)

CD 0.43

Transition region, 0.2 < Ret < 1000

C D Re t2 =

4
g ( p g )gd v3
3
or

58

(3.49)

CD 4 p g g g
=
Ret 3 g2
Vt 3

4 p g dv g
CD = .
3
g Vt2

Generally,

(ii)

Non-spherical particles:

For laminar region, Ret < 0.2

Vt ,ST =

where

(3.50)

(3.51)

K ST ( p g )gd v2
(3.52)

18

K ST = 0.843 log

0.065

(3.53)

Turbulent region, Ret > 1000

Vt ,N
where

4 ( p g )gdv
= .
3
K N g
K N = 5.31 4.88

59

(3.54)

(3.55)

Transition region, 0.2 < Ret < 1000

K TR

0.43 1000 Ret

0.43
.
K ST
+
KN

K N 1000 0.2
Vt = KTR.VT(Sphere)

60

(3.56)
(3.57)