Foam Course

7TH European Gas Well
Deliquification Conference
GAS WELL DELIQUIFICATION
USING FOAMERS
Public
Craig Kelly & Victoria Shearer
24.09.2012
CLARIANT OIL SERVICES

Innovation Assured.
Value Delivered.
Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers
Todays Session
Liquid Loading
Foam Theory
Foamer Properties and Factors
Affecting Performance
Candidate Well Selection

Foamer Chemistries
Testing of Foamers
Foamer Application
Summary
Liquid Loading
Liquid loading is the inability of a gas well to produce liquids to surface
All gas wells which produced formation or condensed fluids will suffer
from liquid loading at some point in the lifetime
The aim of successful gas well deliquification is to:

predict when this will occur, and
implement the most optimal technique(s) at the most appropriate
time, to allow the well to flow at its true potential and maximize
recoverable reserves
Liquid Loading
When upward drag force of gas

equals droplet weight, gas velocity is
said to be critical
Accumulated liquids cause a backpressure on the well, further reducing
gas production
Eventually the back pressure of the

liquid will equal the reservoir pressure
and the well will cease to flow
If no action is taken, the well will

ultimately require to be abandoned,
with the associated lost reserves
Liquid Loading
The Critical Velocity to lift a liquid can be calculated by the Turner equation (1969):
1.92
Liquid Loading Mitigation

A number of available deliquification techniques
- May utilise the wells energy or add energy from an external source
Velocity
String
Compression
Cycling
Downhole
Pump
Gas Lift
Plunger
Jet Pump
Foamer
Liquid Loading Mitigation with Foamers

Foam works in a fundamentally
different way to most mechanical
techniques
- Decreases critical velocity.
How?
- Critical Velocity is proportional
to liquid surface tension and
liquid density
- Decreasing either will reduce
the critical velocity

For mix of water and foamer,
surface tension reduction from 72
dynes/cm to ~ 30 dynes/cm
Density reduction from 1.0 g/cm3
to ~0.1 g/cm3(depending on gas
fraction)
Accordingly, density reduction has
largest impact on reducing critical
velocity
Recent discoveries recognise
mechanisms other than droplet
flow reversal

Simplified way to think about the effect of lifting with foamers:
- It takes a lot less energy to blow bubbles upwards than it does to blow raindrops
upwards
10
Todays Session
Liquid Loading
Foam Theory
Foamer Chemistries
Testing of Foamers
Foamer Application
Summary
11
What is Foam?
Foam is a collection of
bubbles....a collection of gas
bubbles separated by thin liquid
films
Several different types of foam
based on the interplay of the gas
and liquid phases:
- Gas dispersed in liquid foam
- Liquid dispersed in gas
aerosol
- Gas dispersed in solids solid
foam
- Solids dispersed in gas
smoke
12
Foam Applications
Governed by bubble
sizeandfoam stability
Foams are very common place in

every day life...
13
Detergents
14
Personal Care
15
Flotation
16
Oilfield
17
Fire Fighting
18
What Causes Foam?

Open a bottle of cola and pour it into a
glass the liquid will fizz and foam
Releasing the pressure on the liquid will
create many little gas bubbles
After a minute or two however the
bubbles disappear and the foam has
gone
The foam on a cola is unstable
19
What Causes Foam?

Beer is different!
The bubbles slowly rise to the top of the glass and then stay there
The head on a smooth, ice cold beer is a stable foam so why this
difference compared to cola?
20
What Causes Foam?

The foam bubbles are stabilized by the proteins in the beer
The proteins gather around the gas bubble and prevent them from
collapsing
21
What Causes Foam?

Surface Active Agents
(Surfactants) are foam stabilizers
just like the proteins in beer
Many types of surfactant are
found in oilfield environment
Components found naturally in
crude oil as well as many
chemical additives used in
drilling, production, Enhanced Oil
Recovery, etc
22
What Causes Foam?

In order to generate a foam, generally three things
are required:
1. Reduction of surface tension
Addition of foaming agents (surfactants) which
decrease the amount of energy required to
mechanically form foam
2. Agitation of the liquid (e.g. introduction of
gas)
3. Lamellae must be able to form
23
Basic Foam Structure

Foam
- Liquid polyhedral cells
consisting of:
- Gas bubble
- Lamella
- Plateau border
- Liquid pressure in Plateau

border lower than in lamella
24
Basic Foam Structure

Foam Structure is stabilised by presence of surfactant molecules in the
lamella
25
Factors Affecting Foam Stability
Gravity
Drainage
Surface
Elasticity
Foam
Stability
Gas
Volume
Fraction
Bulk &
Surface
Viscosity
Electric
Double
Layer
26
Todays Session
Liquid Loading
Foam Theory
Foamer Chemistries
Testing of Foamers
Foamer Application
Summary
27
Foamer Requirements (1)

Lots of foam = Good Liquid Unloading?
Dry Foam
- Shaving cream carries very little
fluid
Wet Foam
- Semi-stable
- Carries fluids within structure
- Remove accumulated fluids from the
well-bore
Amount of liquid carried in the foam is
referred to as the Foam Quality
28
Foamer Requirements (2)

Ideally, an aqueous foamer should also:
Exhibit tolerance for hydrocarbon
condensate (acts as defoamer)
Have no/minimal adverse impact on
surface facilities
Exhibit stability at bottom-hole
temperatures
Environmentally acceptable
Be compatible with all wetted materials
Offer required secondary functions such
as scale inhibitor, corrosion inhibitor,
biocide
29
Factors Affecting Foamer Performance

A number of well-specific factors can
affect the performance of foamers
In addition, no two wells will exhibit
completely identical conditions and fluid
compositions
Brine Salinity
% Condensate
Condensate
Chemistry
% below Critical
Velocity
Temperature
30
Factors Affecting Foamer Performance
31
Todays Session
Liquid Loading
Foam Theory
Foamer Chemistries
Testing of Foamers
Foamer Application
Summary
32

When selecting candidate wells for deliquification, it is critical to gather as much data
as possible
- Production history
- Well bore schematics
- Fluid rates and compositions
- Downhole and surface pressures
- Temperatures
- Intervention history
- Other flow assurance issues
33

Understand if the well is loading, how severely and at which location(s) in the wellbore
Assessment to understand if well is within envelope which can feasibly be treated
with foamer
- Modelling
- Combination of mechanistic and empirical correlations from historical data
Also understand economic considerations
- Required foamer volume is proportional to liquid rate
- Foamer generally excellent ROI for low to medium liquid rate wells
34
Todays Session
Liquid Loading
Foam Theory
Foamer Chemistries
Testing of Foamers
Foamer Application
Summary
35
Foamer Chemistries
As discussed earlier, foamers are surfactants
Surfactants can be classed into 1 of 4 different groups
- Non-ionic
- Cationic
- Anionic
- Amphoteric
Classified based on charge and causes them to have differing properties
36
Foamer Chemistries
Non-Ionic Surfactants
Cationic Surfactants
Alcohol Ethoxylates, etc
Quats, Imidazolines, etc
Perform best in low salinity brines
Perform best in mid-high salinity

brines
Compatible with range of

surfactants
May be incompatible with anionics
Solubility decreases with

temperature
High emulsion tendency
Solubility at high salinity improves

by degree of ethoxylation
Poor biodegradability and toxicity
37
Foamer Chemistries
Anionic Surfactants
Amphoteric Surfactants
Ether sulfates, etc
Betaines, Sulfobetaines
Perform best in low-mid salinity

brines
Perform over range of brine

salinities
Incompatible with cationics
Stable at high temperature
Easy to winterise
Low emulsion tendency
Unstable at high temperature
Localised corrosion risk
38
Foamer Chemistries - Condensate

Aqueous foamers carry or emulsify
hydrocarbon
Above ~60% condensate, oil soluble
foamers should be used
Effectively foam condensate but
performance decreases in presence
of water
Chemistries
- Fluorocarbon, Silicone, Amine
Disadvantages
- Can be expensive and therefore
uneconomical
- Environmental profile
39
Todays Session
Liquid Loading
Foam Theory
Foamer Chemistries
Testing of Foamers
Foamer Application
Summary
40
Testing of Foamers in the Laboratory

Which foamer should I use and how much?
Number of different techniques available
No one technique is fully representative of field conditions
Possible to examine different aspects via different techniques
- Liquid unloaded
- Foam height / volume
- Foam build-up rate
- Foam quality and consistency
- Foam half life
41
What data is required before testing can begin?

Customer Desired Criteria
Water Salinity/Condensate Cut
Bottom-Hole Temperature
Viscosity Requirements
Fluid Handling
Environmental Restrictions
42
Importance of Field Fluids for Testing

Wherever possible, it is recommended that
field fluids are used for lab testing
Synthetic fluids can be used, but very
difficult to replicate, especially the
condensate
However, field fluids can age over time
Not the same as live fluids when taken
Minimize time between sampling and
testing
43
Laboratory Test Methods

Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Fast and portable
Unrepresentative
Good measure of foam stability
Limited condensate cut
Simple and fast
Only measures foam, not liquid
Gas used to generate foam
No temperature control
Foam Test
Most representative test method
No standard procedure
Rig
Liquid carry-over measured
Atmospheric pressure
Blender
Sparge
44
Foam Test Rig

Main technique for selection
Modified ASTM D-892
Video clip
Blank Test.MPG
Foamed Test.wmv
45
Defoamers
What is defoamer?
- Chemical chemical
- Causes rapid collapse of foam
- Injected at surface
- Mitigates downstream process upsets
Not always deployed but recommended if:

- First treatment (especially batch)
- All wells are being treated with foamer
46
Defoamers
Mechanism:
- Defoamer droplet enters lamella
Defoamer droplet enters lamella
- Lamella thins stretching droplet

- Bubble breaks
Defoamer droplet bridges lamella
Defoamer droplet stretches
Bubble bursts
47
Emulsion Tendency
Surfactants may hinder the effective separation of water and
hydrocarbon condensate
Need to understand any potential adverse effects
Especially important where environmental limitations exists on produced
water discharge
May require deployment of water clarification products
48
Thermal Stability
12 hrs 28 day tests
Pressurised vessel
Measure before/during/after
- Appearance
- Viscosity
- pH
- Performance
49
Thermal Stability
50
Material Compatibility
Confirm that foamer will not adversely affect any metals & elastomers which it
contacts
Exposure of materials in neat solution at system temperature
Examine metals for general and localized corrosion
Elastomers for swelling / hardness / degradation
Some foamers can be corrosive to low chrome stainless steels, which are
susceptible to pitting corrosion
51
Combination Foamer Products

Advantages:
- Treat multiple issues with a single product
- Salt / mineral scale deposits, corrosion, H2S
- Reduced chemical consumption costs
- Single chemical storage tank / injection pump
Disadvantages:
- Potential for adverse interactions between foamer and other
components
- Removal of corrosion inhibitor film
- Performance compromise
52
Todays Session
Liquid Loading
Foam Theory
Foamer Chemistries
Testing of Foamers
Foamer Application
Summary
53
Foamer Application Assessment

A number of different factors will determine
which application methods are most
favourable, including:
Well configuration
Labour intensiveness
Geographical constraints
CAPEX vs OPEX considerations
54
Batch Treatment Solid Products

Commonly referred to as soap
sticks
Applied into the top of the well
normally during a shut-in situation
Automated launcher for
intrinsically safe application
Density of soap stick ensure they
fall through the liquid/gas column
to the bottom of the well and
contact water
55
Batch Treatment Liquid Products

Excellent diagnostic approach
Batch application is a simple
method to evaluate a wells
response to the addition of a
foaming agent
Bullhead foamer directly into
production tubing
NB foamer does not enter the
formation
Advantages
Low cost to
implement
Simple set-up
Minimal
equipment
required
Disadvantages
Labour
intensive
Increased
chemical
consumption
compared to
other
techniques
Gas
production
declines
between
treatments
56
Example of Batch Deployment

Well Test
Baseline
production data
Shut-in
Foamer
1,000 10,000 ppm, based

on liquid volume in well
Overflush
Small volume of potable water /

KCl brine / Gas
Shut-in
1 hr/2000 ft MD + 2 hours
Monitor flow rate,
foam
Flow back FTHP,
volume, water
quality
57
Typical Batch Foamer Treatment Response
58
Continuous Injection - Annulus

Injection at surface into tubingcasing annulus
Only possible in wells without
production packers
Commonly used method in North
America
Advantages
Disadvantages
No well-head
modifications
required
Foamer
continuously
applied
Not possible in
wells with
packers
May be
challenging
penetrating
fluid column
Generally
higher
consumption
compared to
capillary string
59
60

Mobile test trailer to assess wells
response to foamer treatment
61
Continuous Injection Capillary String

Concentric, through-tubing
injection string
Can be installed down to
perforations
May require modifications to the
well-head and DHSV
Advantages
Disadvantages
Precise
injection at
required
location
Generally
gives best
response
compared to
other methods
Can also be
used to deploy
other products
if required
CAPEX
Retro-fit
challenge
(DHSV & wellhead)
May be prone
to blockage
Must be
retrieved
before well
intervention
62
Gas Lift Injection

Injection of foamer into tubingcasing annulus in flowing stream
for gas-lifted wells
Not a commonly-used method for
deploying foamers
Well-known method for corrosion
inhibitor deployment
Advantages
Disadvantages
Can work
synergistically
with gas lift
Allows DH
injection in
wells with
packers
without need
for cap string
Depending on
GL injection
valve, may not
reach bottom
of fluid column
Products must
be correctly
formulated to
prevent
gunking and
blockages
63
Foam Squeeze
Not a commonly-used method for
deploying foamers
Bullhead foamer into near

wellbore area
Foamer adsorbs to the formation

and releases slowly over time
Advantages
Disadvantages
Longer
treatment life
compared to
batch
May provide
stimulation
effects
Potential for
formation
damage
Limited
knowledge or
experiences of
correct
application
technique
64
Troubleshooting Foamer Applications

Foamer added and no / limited well response?
- Well wasnt liquid loaded! (well modelling)
- Incorrect concentration applied for well conditions
- Insufficient
- Overdosing (foam lock)
- Well too severely loaded for foamer treatment
- Insufficient agitation to generate foam
- Rocking, batch treatment, gas sticks
- Capillary string blockage
65
Troubleshooting Foamer Applications

Excessive foam at surface
- Optimise frequency of batch treatment
- Optimize injection rate
- Select a less persistent foamer (reduced foam half-life)
- Implement defoamer injection
- Not preferred option
- However, may provide best ROI
66
Horizontal Wells
Becoming more common with
shale gas in North America and
Europe
Liquid loading generally less of a
problem in lateral sections
May cause issues depending on
heel-toe profile
Challenges
- Delivery of foamer to horizontal
- Capillary injection
- Adequate agitation in horizontal
67
Challenges of Foamer Deployment Offshore

Environmental Regulations
(eg. OSPAR)
Effluent water restrictions (oil
in water)
Modifications required for
capillary retro-fit
Subsea wells
Limited space available
68
Foamer Application Summary

Number of different methods available
Flexible technique with solutions to match many different well
configurations
Foamers can be an effective, low cost method to maintain production
and increase recoverable reserves
69
Todays Session
Liquid Loading
Foam Theory
Foamer Chemistries
Testing of Foamers
Foamer Application
Summary

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7TH European Gas Well

CLARIANT OIL SERVICES

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Candidate Well Selection

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

The aim of successful gas well deliquification is to:

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

When upward drag force of gas

Eventually the back pressure of the

If no action is taken, the well will

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Liquid Loading Mitigation

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Liquid Loading Mitigation with Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Liquid Loading Mitigation with Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Liquid Loading Mitigation with Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Foams are very common place in

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

What Causes Foam?

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

What Causes Foam?

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

What Causes Foam?

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

What Causes Foam?

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

What Causes Foam?

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Basic Foam Structure

- Liquid pressure in Plateau

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Basic Foam Structure

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Factors Affecting Foam Stability

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Foamer Requirements (1)

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Foamer Requirements (2)

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Factors Affecting Foamer Performance

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Factors Affecting Foamer Performance

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Candidate Well Selection

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Candidate Well Selection

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers

Surfactants can be classed into 1 of 4 different groups

Classified based on charge and causes them to have differing properties

Public, Gas Well Deliquification Using Foamers