Saldanha, R. B. et al.

(2016)

Gotechnique Letters 6, 15, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jgele.15.00111

Salts accelerating strength increase of coal fly ashcarbide

lime compacted blends
R. B. SALDANHA*, J. E. C. MALLMANN* and N. C. CONSOLI*
Compacted coal fly ashcarbide lime (two industrial by-products) blends have great potential
application in geotechnical earthworks such as sub-base and base of pavements, beds of pipelines
and spread footings, embankments and in erosion control. Pozzolanic reactions occur between silica
and alumina in amorphous phases (found in the fly ash) and Ca2+ (existent in carbide lime) in an alkaline
environment. However, pozzolanic reactions are notoriously slow at ambient temperatures, requiring
long curing periods for certain applications. Therefore, this study aims to verify the influence of
application of distinct salts [sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium oxide and potassium permanganate]
in the acceleration of unconfined compressive strength (qu) increase of coal fly ashcarbide lime
blends. Results have shown that small amounts of certain salts allowed to accelerate qu increase of
coal fly ashcarbide lime blends. Among the studied salts, sodium chloride presented the best results
after 28 days of curing. Coincidently, sodium chloride is also relatively cheap and of great availability,
making it convenient for extensive use.
KEYWORDS: compaction; ground improvement; shear strength; soil stabilisation
ICE Publishing: all rights reserved

of parking lots, athletic fields and beds of pipelines. Rohde

et al. (2006) reported the use of CFA stabilised with lime in
the execution of highway embankments in southern Brazil,
due to the large volumes of coal ash available in the region.
In addition to the CFA, lime might be used to produce an
alkaline environment and to give rise to available Ca2+ to
react with silica and alumina in the amorphous phase.
Reactions occur with activators providing pozzolanic reactions. In this study, carbide lime, a by-product generated by
the production of acetylene gas, is used as the activator. The
pozzolanic reactions are notoriously slow at 23C; therefore
the use of salts, in minor proportions, provides reactions with
FAcarbide lime blends with the generation of secondary
products of cementing (which depend on the salt used) in the
mixture of FAcarbide lime (Narendra et al., 2003), thereby
increasing its mechanical strength within shorter curing
periods. In this sense, the objective of this research is to investigate the influence of different salts added to FAcarbide
lime mixtures in accelerating the increase of the unconfined
compressive strength in order to reduce the curing periods to
reach a certain strength at an ambient temperature of 23C.

NOTATION
L
qu
R2
t
w
d

carbide lime content (expressed in relation to mass of dry soil)

unconfined compressive strength
coefficient of determination
curing period
moisture content
dry unit weight

INTRODUCTION
Increasing demand for electricity that prevailed in recent
decades has meant that coal became an important source of
energy. Currently, generation of 335 Mt/year of coal fly ash
(CFA) is considered as the largest industrial by-product in
Brazil (Rohde and Machado, 2014, unpublished). Fly ashes
(FAs) generated in coal power plants might be used for the
manufacture of cementitious materials when activated under
alkaline conditions. Alkali activation is a chemical process
that allows turning vitreous structures in compacted cementitious composites (Palomo et al., 1999). The use of
alternative materials and binders is one of the strategies
that can decrease the environmental impact by reducing the
consumption of natural resources and usage of Portland
cement in the stabilisation of materials used in earthworks.
Compacted CFAcarbide lime blends might be used in the
construction of embankments and as sub-base/base of
pavements (Beeghly, 2003; Consoli et al., 2011, 2012, 2014,
2015; Singh & Pani, 2014). According to the Brazilian
practice (Tessari, 1998; Thom, 1999), in order to enhance
the bearing capacity of shallow spread footings lying on a
weakly bonded residual soil with a high void ratio, an upper
layer is built through mixing, compaction and curing of coal
ashlime blends. Other uses of such blends are as upper layer

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
The experimental programme was carried out in two parts.
First, the physical properties of the studied materials were
characterised. Then, unconfined compression tests were
carried out to establish the influence of the amounts of
distinct salts and curing time on the compressive strengths of
compacted CFAcarbide lime specimens.

Materials
The FA used in the present research [type F (ASTM, 1998)]
is a residue of coal burning in a thermal power plant, located
nearby Porto Alegre, in southern Brazil. Characterisation
results are presented in Table 1. Chemical analysis has shown
that the FA is composed of oxides [663% silicon dioxide +
225% aluminium oxide + 28% ferric oxide + 19% calcium

Manuscript received 26 July 2015; first decision 8 January 2016;

accepted 25 February 2016.
Published online at www.geotechniqueletters.com on 9 March
2016.
*Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Rio
Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.

1
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Saldanha, Mallmann and Consoli

Table 1. Physical properties of the CFA sample

Properties

Fly ash

Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Plastic index
Specific gravity
Medium sand (02 < < 06 mm)
Fine sand (006 < < 02 mm)
Silt (0002 < < 006 mm)
Clay ( < 0002 mm)
Mean particle diameter (D50)
Uniformity coefficient (Cu)
Curvature coefficient (Cc)

Non-plastic
216
5%
15%
78%
2%
0015 mm
5
1

Table 2. Dissolved ions in tap water

Ions

Results

Sulfate
Chloride
Chlorate
Potassium
Sodium
Magnesium
Calcium
Iron
Fluoride

319 mg/l
1566 mg/l
005 mg/l
298 mg/l
881 mg/l
338 mg/l
1317 mg/l
Not detected
071 mg/l

oxide (CaO)], which are considered as essential elements for

the occurrence of the pozzolanic reactions.
Carbide lime was used throughout this investigation as the
cementing agent. Such lime is a by-product from the manufacture of acetylene gas. Chemical analysis has shown that
the carbide lime is 951% calcium oxide. The specific gravity
of the carbide lime grains is 212.
Tap water was used for the characterisation tests as well as
for moulding specimens for compression tests. The dissolved
ions contained in the tap water are presented in Table 2.
The salts used for this research are provided by industrial
companies specialised in the production of these elements in
granular form with a purity of more than 95%. The products
added to the main blends were sodium chloride (NaCl),
magnesium oxide (MgO) and potassium permanganate
(KMnO4).
Methods
In the present research, compacted CFAcarbide lime specimens were moulded with a dry unit weight (d) of 12 kN/m3,
10% of carbide lime and a moisture content (w) of 18%. The
proportion of salts (sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and
potassium permanganate) was established as 05, 10 and
15% of the total mass. The curing time was set at 3, 7 and
28 days for the mixtures of CFAcarbide limesalts and 7,
28, 90 and 180 days for mixing only FA and carbide lime
(without salts).
Moulding and curing of specimens
For the unconfined compression tests, cylindrical specimens,
50 mm in diameter and 100 mm high, were used. After the
CFA, carbide lime and water were weighed; the CFA and the
carbide lime were mixed until the mixture acquired uniform
consistency (ASTM, 2008). Water was then added continuing the mixture process until a homogeneous paste was
created. In this step, the salts were added in water and mixed
for 10 min until its total dissolution. The amount of carbide

lime for each mixture was calculated based on the mass of

dry ash and the amount of salts was calculated over the total
mass (FAcarbide lime). The time used to prepare, mix and
compact was always < 20 min. Each specimen was compacted in three layers into a 50 mm dia. cylindrical split
mould to a target d, w, lime content (L) and salt content.
After the moulding process, the specimen was weighed; its
diameter and height were measured with accuracies of about
001 g and 01 mm. For each dosage point, three specimens
were moulded. Specimens were cured in a humid room at
23C 2C with a relative humidity of more than 95%.

Unconfined compression tests

Tests followed ASTM (2010). The displacement rate adopted
was 114 mm/min. After curing in a humid room, the specimens were submerged in a water tank for 24 h for saturation
and to minimise matric suction. Then, the unconfined
compression test was carried out and the maximum load
reached by each specimen was recorded.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CFAcarbide lime: reference blends
To check the influence provided by salts added in small
proportions on qu of CFAcarbide lime blends, a benchmark
for the research was characterised by specimens moulded
with d = 12 kN/m3 and L = 10%. Such specimens were
cured for 3, 7, 28, 90 and 180 days. Specimens with 3 days
of curing did not resist the process of submersion into water
for 24 h (qu = 0). qu results are shown in Fig. 1.
It can be observed from Fig. 1 that due to slow pozzolanic
reactions, qu of CFAcarbide lime blends strongly varies
with the curing period. In the present study, qu increased
from 08 to 22, 89 and 153 MPa, respectively, for 7, 28, 90
and 180 days of curing. A linear variation (R 2 = 099) of qu
with curing period (t) is represented by equation (1) for
t ranging from 7 to 180 days
qu 0
085t 0
25

Using equation (1), the curing time necessary to reach a

required resistance can be estimated for the blends considered in the present research. For example, to obtain
qu = 12 MPa for specimens moulded with d = 12 kN/m3 and
L = 10%, 137 days of curing would be required. Therefore,
the need for long periods of curing to reach certain qu values
might become an obstacle for the use of FAcarbide lime
blends in some geo-engineering projects, requiring the search
for alternatives that can accelerate strength gains.

Influence of distinct salts in the strength of FAcarbide

lime blends
With a view to obtain higher resistance at reduced curing
periods, salts were added to FAcarbide lime mixtures with
the same parameters established in the reference mixtures
(d = 12 kN/m3 and L = 10%). The curing time period was
established as 28 days. Figure 2 shows qu results considering
the distinct additions of sodium chloride, magnesium oxide
and potassium permanganate: 0 (reference), 05, 10 and
15%.
The most promising result was obtained using sodium
chloride, which enabled increasing qu up to 103 MPa
with the addition of 10%. Potassium permanganate
and magnesium oxide also showed considerable gains in
qu. Therefore, in a direct comparison between the reference
mixture and the mixtures with salts it is possible to verify

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Salts accelerating strength increase fly ashcarbide lime blends

18
17

qu unconfined compressive strength: MPa

16
15
14
Reference FA and lime

13

Linear fit

12
11
10
9

qu = 0085(t) + 025 (R2 = 099)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

90
10
0
11
0
12
0
13
0
14
0
15
0
16
0
17
0
18
0
19
0
20
0

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Days

Fig. 1. Benchmark unconfined compressive strength (qu) of CFAcarbide lime blends considering the curing times (t) of 7, 28, 90
and 180 days

18

qu unconfined compressive strength: MPa

17

Additives and reference

16

FA lime sodium chloride

15

FA lime potassium permanganate

Reference FA and lime

14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

05

10

15

Salts: %

Fig. 2. Results for qu considering different salts, as well as reference mixture (zero additives) at 28 days of curing

that it was feasible to obtain higher strengths for the same

curing time with small portions of salts.
High qu resulting from addition of salts to CFAlime
blends, observed at 28 days of curing, was decisive for further
studies at smaller curing periods (3 and 7 days ). It can be
seen from Fig. 3 that after 3 days curing the addition of salts
have already produced results, once it was possible to obtain
a qu of up to 12 MPa for sodium chloride, 08 MPa for magnesium oxide and 11 MPa for potassium permanganate.

For 7 and 28 days of curing it is possible to observe increasing gains of qu with increasing curing times for the different
salts. According to Miller & Nelson (2006), the presence of
salts in soil does not affect matric suction, but have a marked
effect on osmotic suction. Osmotic suction would have its
full effect immediately after mixing. Thereby, strength at 3
days of curing (when qu 10 MPa for all salts studied) is a
result that considers both osmotic suction and pozzolanic
reactions. As qu increases drastically after 3 days of curing, it

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Saldanha, Mallmann and Consoli

4
18

qu unconfined compressive strength: MPa

17
16

FA lime sodium chloride 1%

15

FA lime magnesium oxide 15%

14

FA lime potassium permanganate 1%

13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

10

11

12

13

15 17 19 21 23 25 27
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Days

18
16

10% of dispersion

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
da
ys

ys
18

28

FA

an

lim

e
ch
lo
rid
So

di
um

lim
an
d
FA

an
g
m

Po
ta

ss

iu
m

pe
r

da

ys
da
90
e

an
a

te

id
e
ox
siu
m
ag
ne

28

28

28

lim
e
d
an
FA

da
ys

da
ys

0
da
ys

qu unconfined compressive strength: MPa

Fig. 3. Results for unconfined compressive strength (qu) of CFAcarbide lime with salts considering the curing times for 3, 7 and
28 days

Fig. 4. qu results for FAcarbide lime blends with salts (sodium chloride = 10%, magnesium oxide = 15% potassium permanganate =
10%) for 28 days of curing and without any additives cured for 28, 90 and 180 days

can be said that such an increase in qu correlated with the

higher solubility of silica after the addition of salts, as well as
the formation of secondary bonds (such as sodium calcium
silicate hydrate which is more voluminous than calcium
silicate hydrate) arising from the interaction between ash,
lime and elements present in the salts (Na+, Mg2+ and K+)
(Shi & Day, 1995; Narendra et al., 2003).

Reduction of curing period with the use of salts

Figure 4 presents qu results for FAcarbide lime blends with
salts (sodium chloride = 10%, magnesium oxide = 15% and
potassium permanganate = 10%) for 28 days of curing and
without any additives cured for 28, 90 and 180 days.
The addition of 10% sodium chloride to the FAcarbide
lime blend, after 28 days of curing, provided higher qu value

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Salts accelerating strength increase fly ashcarbide lime blends

than that observed with FAcarbide lime with no additives
for 90 days of curing, but lower than that observed with
180 days of curing, whereas using 10% potassium permanganate generated qu values near the reference mixture
with 90 curing days. The addition of 15% of magnesium
oxide, after 28 days of curing, showed smaller resistance in
comparison with the reference mixture cured for 90 days.
To better define the reduction in curing time with the application of distinct salts to the CFAcarbide lime mixture, it
is possible to use equation (1) with the introduction of the
maximum strength obtained by the specific salt used after 28
days of curing, thus being able to estimate the time needed to
cure the reference mixture to obtain the same result. For
example, qu = 83 MPa was obtained inserting 10% potassium permanganate into the CFAcarbide lime blend after
28 days of curing. Such strength would be obtained after
93 days of curing of the reference blend. Looking at the other
salts added, it could be seen that the strength result using
10% of sodium chloride (qu = 103 MPa) would be reached
after 117 days of curing of the reference blend, and 15% of
magnesium oxide (qu = 50 MPa) after 47 days. In this sense,
it was found that with small proportions of these salts it
was possible to accelerate qu increase greatly to mixtures
of CFAcarbide lime blends, enabling higher strengths in
shorter periods of time.
Further studies are necessary in order to evaluate the
effect of salts on the durability of the CFAcarbide limesalt
blends, but initial results on strength show the potential of
this research issue.

CONCLUSIONS
From the data presented in this paper, the following
conclusions can be drawn.

Small portions of salts (sodium chloride, magnesium

oxide and potassium permanganate) allowed accelerating
strength increase of qu of CFAcarbide lime blends.
Among the salts studied (sodium chloride, potassium
permanganate and magnesium oxide), sodium chloride
generated the greatest strength after 28 days of curing.
Sodium chloride is also cheap and found everywhere,
making it convenient for use.

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