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Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
i.

Explain the quality improvement technique in quality control

ii.

Describe the reasons quality is needed and can be improve using certain
techniques

iii.

Determine the quality improvement techniques implemented

a. Brainstorming
b. Check Sheet
c. Pareto Analysis
d.

Matrix Analysis

e.

Cause-And-Effect Diagram

f. Scatter Diagram
iv.

Generalize the method to form and launch the Quality Control Circle
(QCC)

1.0

QC Tools/QC Improvement Techniques

The 7 Quality Tools are Problem Solving Tools which can:
i.

Help to identify and priorities problems quickly and more effectively.

ii.

Assist the decision making process.

iii.

Provide simple but powerful tools for use in continuous improvement activity.

iv.

Provide a vehicle for communicating problems and resolutions throughout the

business.

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1.1

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There are various techniques in the problem-solving process. The techniques generally
used include the following:
(a) Brainstorming;
(b) Cause and Effect Analysis;
(c) Check sheets;
(d) Pareto Analysis;
(e) Scatter Diagram
(f) Matrix Analysis

1.1.1 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a technique in which group of people share thoughts and ideas on
problems in a relaxed atmosphere that encourages unrestrained collective thinking. The
techniques/procedure of brainstorming :
i.

Identifying problems

ii.

finding causes

iii.

determine the possible solutions

iv.

Finding ways to implement solutions.

The principles/rules of brainstorming:

i.

criticism of other members idea are not allowed

ii.

no single member is allowed to dominate sessions

iii.

all ideas are welcome

iv.

informal environment is needed to encourages discussion

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1.1.2 Check Sheet

Check sheet is a simple tool frequently used for problem identification. Its provide a
format that enables users to record and organize data . It is designed on the basis of what
the users are attempting to learn by collecting data.

Many different formats can be used for a check sheet.

Example 7.1 : Check sheet for types of defects in airplane tickets

Types of defects
Day

Time

8-9

Smeared Loose or

Label

center

print

////

//

////

9-10
10-11

//

11-12

1-2

2-3

////

3-4

////

Other

Total

Missing Off-

folded

4
/

/(torn)

3
1

////

9
4

1.1.3 Pareto Chart

-

A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of the bars represent frequency or costs are
arranged with longest bars on the left and the shortest to the right. In this way the chart
visually depicts which situations are more significant.

When to use Pareto Chart?

i.

When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or causes in a process.

ii.

When there are many problems or causes and you want to focus on the most
significant.

iii.

When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific components.

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Pareto Chart Procedures

i.

Decide what categories you will use to group items.

ii.

Decide what measurement is appropriate. Common measurements are frequency,

quantity, cost and time.

iii.

Decide what period of time the Pareto chart will cover: One work cycle? One full day? A
week?

iv.

Collect the data, recording the category each time. (Or assemble data that already exist.)

v.

Subtotal the measurements for each category.

vi.

Determine the appropriate scale for the measurements you have collected.

vii.

Construct and label bars for each category. Place the tallest at the far left, then the next
tallest to its right and so on. If there are many categories with small measurements, they
can be grouped as other.

viii.

Calculate the percentage for each category: the subtotal for that category divided by the
total for all categories. Draw a right vertical axis and label it with percentages.

ix.

Calculate and draw cumulative sums: Add the subtotals for the first and second
categories, and place a dot above the second bar indicating that sum. To that sum add the
subtotal for the third category, and place a dot above the third bar for that new sum.
Continue the process for all the bars. Connect the dots, starting at the top of the first bar.
The last dot should reach 100 percent on the right scale.

Example 7.2 : Pareto Chart for Categories of document-related complaints, and shows
cumulative values.

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1.1.4 Cause and Effect Diagram

-

The cause and effect diagram identifies many possible causes for an effect or problem.
Also called fishbone diagram. It can be used to structure a brainstorming session. It
immediately sorts ideas into useful categories.

When to use Cause and Effect Diagram

i.

When identifying possible causes for a problem.

ii.

Especially when a teams thinking tends to fall into ruts.

Procedures
i.

Agree on a problem statement (effect). Write it at the center right of the flipchart
or whiteboard. Draw a box around it and draw a horizontal arrow running to it.

ii.

Brainstorm the major categories of causes of the problem. If this is difficult use
generic headings:
a. Methods
b. Machine
c. Manpower (People)
d. Materials
e. Measurement
f. Environment

iii.

Write the categories of causes as branches from the main arrow.

iv.

Brainstorm all the possible causes of the problem. Ask: Why does this happen?
As each idea is given, the facilitator writes it as a branch from the appropriate
category. Causes can be written in several places if they relate to several
categories.

v.

Again ask why does this happen? about each cause. Write sub-causes branching
off the causes. Continue to ask Why? and generate deeper levels of causes.
Layers of branches indicate causal relationships.

vi.

When the group runs out of ideas, focus attention to places on the chart where
ideas are few.

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Example7.3 :
This fishbone diagram was drawn by a manufacturing team to try to understand the source of
iron contamination. The team used the six generic headings to prompt ideas. Layers of branches
show thorough thinking about the causes of the problem.

1.1.5 Scatter Diagram

-

The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each axis, to
look for a relationship between them. If the variables are correlated, the points will fall
along a line or curve. The better the correlation, the tighter the points will hug the line.

When to use Scatter Diagram?

i.

When you have paired numerical data.

ii.

When trying to determine whether the two variables are related, such as

iii.

When trying to identify potential root causes of problems.

iv.

After brainstorming causes and effects using a fishbone diagram, to determine

objectively whether a particular cause and effect are related etc.

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Procedures:
i.

Collect pairs of data where a relationship is suspected.

ii.

Draw a graph with the independent variable on the horizontal axis and the
dependent variable on the vertical axis. For each pair of data, put a dot or a
symbol where the x-axis value intersects the y-axis value. (If two dots fall
together, put them side by side, touching, so that you can see both.)

iii.

Look at the pattern of points to see if a relationship is obvious. If the data clearly
form a line or a curve, you may stop. The variables are correlated. You may wish
to use regression or correlation analysis now.

Example 7.4.1 Scatter Diagram which Variables are Correlated

Example 7.4.1 Scatter Diagram which Variables are Not Correlated

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1.1.6 Matrix Analysis

-

a decision-support tool allowing decision makers to solve their problem by evaluating,

rating, and comparing different alternatives on multiple criteria

Also called: Decision matrix, Pugh matrix, decision grid, selection matrix or grid,
problem matrix, problem selection matrix, opportunity analysis, solution matrix, criteria
rating form, criteria-based matrix.

When to use Matrix Analysis

i.

When a list of options must be narrowed to one choice.

ii.

When the decision must be made on the basis of several criteria.

iii.

After the list of options has been reduced to a manageable number by list
reduction.

i)

ii)

Typical situations are:

i.

When one improvement opportunity or problem must be selected to work on.

ii.

When only one solution or problem-solving approach can be implemented.

iii.

When only one new product can be developed.

Procedures
i.
Brainstorm the evaluation criteria appropriate to the situation.
ii.
Discuss and refine the list of criteria. Identify any criteria that must be included
and any that must not be included
iii.
Assign a relative weight to each criterion, based on how important that criterion is
to the situation. Do this by distributing 10 points among the criteria.
iv.
Draw an L-shaped matrix. Write the criteria and their weights as labels along one
edge and the list of options along the other edge.
v.
Evaluate each choice against the criteria. There are three ways to do this:
Steps:
Establish a rating scale for each criterion.
1, 2, 3:
1 = slight extent, 2 = some extent, 3 = great extent
1, 2, 3:

1 = low, 2 = medium, 3 = high

1, 2, 3, 4, 5:

1 = little to 5 = great

1, 4, 9:
1= low, 4 = moderate, 9 = high
Multiply each options rating by the weight. Add the points for each option. The option
with the highest score will not necessarily be the one to choose, but the relative scores
can generate meaningful discussion and lead the team toward consensus

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Example7.5: Matrix Analysis

Improve customer's dining experience

+
=
-

Increase Menu
Choices

Decrease
Menu Prices

Add Staff

Increase
Budget for
Decorations

Improve
Quality of
Service

OPTIONS

TOTAL

Improve
Quality of
Food

FACTORS
Food
Staff
Atmosphere

High (5)
Medium (3)
Low (1)

+
=
-

Increase
Budget for
Decorations

High (5)
Medium (3)
Low (1)

Increase Menu
Choices

Add Staff

+
-

Improve
Quality of
Service

OPTIONS

Improve
Quality of
Food

FACTORS
Food
Staff
Atmosphere

Decrease
Menu Prices

Improve customer's dining experience

TOTAL
7
8
4

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2.0

Quality Control Circle

2.1

Definition

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A Quality Control circle is a small group of workers (6-10 persons) from the same work
unit who meet regularly to identify, select and analyst work-related problems. The group
then put forwards suggested solutions to the Management for consideration and
decision.

2.2

Objective
The objective of QCC is to improve and upgrade quality of work through:
(a) The problem solving capability of the workers;
(b) Team work;
(c) The cultivation and assimilation of positive values and work ethics;
(d) Involvement and interest in work;
(e) High motivation for work; and
(f) Awareness of responsibility towards oneself, the group, the department/office and
the nation..

2.3

Basic Principles Of QCC

QCC is based on the following basic principles;
(a) Workers are recognized as the most valuable resource along with other
management resources;
(b) Development of workers as useful members of the department/officer;
(c) participation and support from all levels;
(d) Team-work;
(e) Constant encouragement of creativity; and
(f) The projects are related to daily work..

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Benefits of QCC
Numerous benefits can be obtained through the implementation of QCC. Among these
are:
(a) Closer relationship between the workers and Management;
(b) Cultivation of cooperation among workers;
(c) Job satisfaction;
(d) Increased motivation to work;
(e) Building of self-confidence;
(f) Development of leadership among workers;
(g) Encouragement of creativity among workers; and
(h) Improvement of systems and work procedures..

2.5

Implementation of QCC
The prerequisites necessary for implementing QCC are:
(a) Establishment of a QCC structure;
(b) Effective training; and
(c) Effective recognition system..

2.6

QCC Structure
The QCC structure as being practised currently consists ofcomponents as shown in
Diagram 1 namely:
(a) QCC Steering Committee;
(b) Facilitators;
(c) Quality Circle Leaders; and
(d) Quality Circle Members..

2.6.1 QCC Steering Committee

The Steering Committee is the committee that formulates policies for the
implementation of QCC. It also deliberates as well as decides on the suggestions
forwarded by QCC for solving problems.

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2.6.2 Facilitators
Facilitators are chosen from among Heads of Divisions or workers selected by the
Management. These facilitators are responsible for one or more QCC. The roles of the
facilitators are as follows:
i.

Communicating with all levels of management and obtaining their support

and assistance;
ii.

Providing training to QCC leaders and assisting in training of QCC members

where required;
iii.

Maintaining an open and supportive environment;

iv.

Ensuring QCC members direct their activities to work-related problems;

v.

As a mediator in problem-solving;

vi.

Evaluating the costs and benefits of the QCC program and reporting to the

Management..

2.6.3 Circle Leaders

Circle leaders may come from among Unit Heads or selected workers
and have the following roles;
i.

Training members on problems-solving techniques with the assistance of

the facilitator where required;

ii.

Responsible for the smooth operation of QCC activities and fostering the
spirit of management presentations;

iii.

Assisting the Circle members in record keeping and in the preparation of

management presentations;

iv.

Conducting meetings in an orderly and effective manner;

v.

Showing interest and support to the Circle;

vi.

Encouraging other workers to becomes members;

vii.

Assisting members in problem-solving; and

viii.

Enforcing team discipline..

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2.6.4 Members
The QCC members have the following roles;
i.

Attending meetings roles,

ii.

Directing their efforts towards solving work-related problems

iii.

Identifying problems, contributing ideas, undertaking research and

investigation and assisting the QCC in problem-solving and

iv.

Participating in management presentations..

DIAGRAM 1: QCC STRUCTURE

QCC Steering Committee

|
-----------------------------------------|

Facilitator

Facilitator

----------------------------------------------|

Circle

Circle

Leaders

Leaders

|
Circle

Circle

Leaders

Leaders

|
-------------------------------------------------------------|

|
Members

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2.7

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Work Improvement Process

The approach used by QCC in improving quality of work is the Plan, Do, Check, Action
(P.D.C.A) method.

Step 1 : Plan
At the planning stage, QCC members are required to identify and select
projects/problems which need to be attended to. For each project/problem identified
for action, an implementation schedule needs to be prepared to ensure that the
project/problem is completed within the scheduled time period.
Step 2 :Do
The activities involved in the step `Do' are:
(a) Problem analysis
(b) Alternative solutions:
(c) Presentation to the Management:
(d) Consideration of suggestions and decision by the Management:
(e) Project implementation by the QCC members.
Step 3: Check
At this stage, the activity to be undertaken is evaluation. QCC members should carry
out an evaluation of the purposes solution being undertaken. This will indicate whether
the objective of the project has been attained or otherwise. The evolution can be carried
out through data collection and analysis during the trial run. Once evaluation has been
completed, the QCC members can decide whether to implement the proposed solution.
Step : Action
This form the final stage of the P.D.C.A approach. the activity involved is the
standardization of the corrective action. As a result of the evolution undertaken, QCC
members will be able to identify the improvements arising out of the corrective action
taken. If there are improvements, then QCC members can standardize the action
implemented and make it a part of the procedure or operations of the
department/office. A Briefing on the new procedure should be given to other members
of the department/office. QCC members could also check on the possibility of the
causes of the problem recurring or other side effects which may arise.